Editing Land reform

{{short description|Changing of laws, regulations, or customs regarding land ownership}}
{{redirect|Land Question|the "land question" in Ireland|Land Acts (Ireland)|the "land question" in Canada|Land Question (Prince Edward Island)}}
{{see also|Land reforms by country}}
[[File:Jakarta farmers protest23.jpg|300px|thumb|Farmers protesting for land reform in [[Indonesia]], 2004]]
'''Land reform''' (also known as '''agrarian reform''') involves the changing of laws, regulations, or customs regarding [[land ownership]], land use, and land transfers.<ref>Batty, Fodei Joseph. "Pressures from Above, Below and Both Directions: The Politics of Land Reform in South Africa, Brazil and Zimbabwe". Western Michigan University. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association. Chicago, Illinois. April 7–10, 2005. p. 3.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2016.03.004 |title=Food security, farmland access ethics, and land reform |date=2017 |last1=Lipton |first1=Michael |last2=Saghai |first2=Yashar |journal=Global Food Security |volume=12 |pages=59–66 }}</ref> The reforms may be initiated by governments, by interested groups, or by revolution.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-06 |title=land reform |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/land-reform |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Land reform is often considered a contentious process, as land is a key driver of a wide range of social, political and economic outcomes.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Albertus |first1=Michael |last2=Klaus |first2=Kathleen |title=Land and Politics |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |date=10 December 2024 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-040623-112955 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511510564 |title=Local Politics and the Dynamics of Property in Africa |date=2008 |last1=Lund |first1=Christian |isbn=978-0-521-88654-3 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref> The structure and distribution of land rights has been linked to state formation, economic growth, inequality, political violence, and identity politics, making land reform highly consequential for the long-term structures of society.<ref name=":0" />

== Overview ==
Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed [[property redistribution]], generally of agricultural land. Land reform can, therefore, refer to transfer of ownership from the more powerful to the less powerful, such as from a relatively small number of wealthy or noble owners with extensive land holdings (e.g., plantations, large ranches, or [[agribusiness]] plots) to individual ownership by those who work the land.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borras |first1=Saturnino M. |title=The Philippine Land Reform in Comparative Perspective: Some Conceptual and Methodological Implications |journal=Journal of Agrarian Change |date=January 2006 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=69–101 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-0366.2006.00115.x |url=https://pure.eur.nl/en/publications/93f2ba07-1f3e-42e9-b185-2be0306d32c5 }}</ref> Such transfers of ownership may be with or without compensation; compensation may vary from token amounts to the full value of the land.<ref>Adams, Martin and J. Howell. "Redistributive Land Reform in Southern Africa". Overseas Development Institute. DFID. Natural Resources Perspectives No. 64. January 2001. [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2078.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205024136/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2078.pdf|date=2009-12-05}}</ref>

Land reform may also entail the transfer of land from individual ownership—even [[peasant]] ownership in [[smallholding]]s—to government-owned collective farms; it has also, in other times and places, referred to the exact opposite: division of government-owned collective farms into smallholdings.<ref>Adams, Martin and J. Howell. [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2078.pdf "Redistributive Land Reform in Southern Africa"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205024136/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2078.pdf|date=2009-12-05}} Overseas Development Institute. DFID. ''Natural Resources Perspectives'' No. 64. January 2001.</ref> The common characteristic of all land reforms is modification or replacement of existing institutional arrangements governing possession and use of land. Thus, while land reform may be radical in nature, such as through large-scale transfers of land from one group to another, it can also be less dramatic, such as regulatory reforms aimed at improving land administration.<ref>[http://www.ghanalap.gov.gh/index1.php?linkid=47&sublinkid=94 Ghana's Land Administration Project] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030833/http://www.ghanalap.gov.gh/index1.php?linkid=47&sublinkid=94|date=2011-07-21}}</ref>
== Land usage and tenure ==
{{main|Land ownership and tenure}}
{{Social democracy sidebar}}
Land ownership and tenure can be perceived as controversial in part because ideas defining what it means to access or control land, such as through "land ownership" or "land tenure", can vary considerably across regions and even within countries.<ref>La Croix, Sumner. [http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/workingpapers/WP_02-13.pdf "Land Tenure: An Introduction"]. Working Paper no. 02-13. May 2002. University of Hawaii.</ref> Land reforms, which change what it means to control land, therefore create tensions and conflicts between those who lose and those who gain from these redefinitions (see next section).<ref name="Boone, Catherine 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Boone |first1=C. |title=Property and constitutional order: Land tenure reform and the future of the African state |journal=African Affairs |date=October 2007 |volume=106 |issue=425 |pages=557–586 |doi=10.1093/afraf/adm059 }}</ref>

Western conceptions of land have evolved over the past several centuries to place greater emphasis on individual land ownership, formalized through documents such as land titles.<ref>Locke, John. ''Two Treatises of Government''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [1689] 1991. and Smith, Adam. ''The Wealth of Nations''. Books 1—III. London: Penguin Books. 1999.</ref> Control over land may also be perceived less in terms of individual ownership and more in terms of [[land use]], or through what is known as land tenure.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4307e/y4307e05.htm "What is land tenure?"] Food and Agriculture Organization.</ref> Historically, in many parts of Africa for example, land was not owned by an individual, but rather used by an extended family or a village community. Different people in a family or community had different rights to access this land for different purposes and at different times. Such rights were often conveyed through oral history and not formally documented.<ref>Dekker, Henri A.L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_9AuGJ5oXpYC&q=Dekker,+Henri+A.L.+The+Invisible+Line: ''The Invisible Line: Land Reform, Land Tenure Security and Land Registration'']. Ashgate: Burlington, 2003. p. 2.</ref>

These different ideas of land ownership and tenure are sometimes referred to using different terminology. For example, "formal" or "statutory" land systems refer to ideas of land control more closely affiliated with individual land ownership. "Informal" or "customary" land systems refer to ideas of land control more closely affiliated with land tenure.<ref>"Land Law." Law and Development. The [[World Bank]]. February 23, 2007. [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTLAWJUSTICE/0,,contentMDK:20372383~menuPK:1696138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:445634,00.html],</ref>

Terms dictating control over and use of land can therefore take many forms. Some specific examples of present-day or historic forms of formal and informal land ownership include:
* Traditional land tenure, as practiced by the indigenous tribes of [[Pre-Columbian era|Pre-Columbian]] North America.
* [[Feudalism|Feudal]] land ownership, through [[fiefdom]]s
* [[Life estate]], interest in real property that ends at death.
* [[Fee tail]], hereditary, non-transferable ownership of real property.
* [[Fee simple]]. Under [[common law]], this is the most complete ownership interest one can have in [[real property]].
* [[Leasehold]] or [[renting|rental]]
* Rights to use a [[common land|common]]
* [[Sharecropping]]
*[[Run rig]] and [[rundale]]
*[[Well-field system|Well-Field System]]
* [[Easement]]s
*[[Kibbutz]] and [[moshav]]
*[[Satoyama]]
* Agricultural labor – under which someone works the land in exchange for money, payment in kind, or some combination of the two
* Collective ownership
* Access to land through a membership in a [[cooperative]], or shares in a corporation, which owns the land (typically by fee simple or its equivalent, but possibly under other arrangements).
* Government [[collectives]], such as those that might be found in communist states, whereby government ownership of most agricultural land is combined in various ways with tenure for farming collectives.

==Motivation==
{{see also|Property redistribution}}
Land reform is a deeply political process<ref name="Boone, Catherine 2007"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Manji |first1=Ambreena S. |title=The Politics of Land Reform in Africa: From Communal Tenure to Free Markets |date=2006 |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=978-1-84277-495-3 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref> and therefore many arguments for and against it have emerged. These arguments vary tremendously over time and place. In the twentieth century, many land reforms emerged from a particular political ideology, such as communism or socialism. In the 19th century in colonized states, a colonial government may have changed the laws dictating land ownership to better consolidate political power or to support its colonial economy.<ref>Berry, Sata. "Debating the land question in Africa." Johns Hopkins University. N.d. {{cite web |url=http://www.unc.edu/~wwolford/Geography160/saraberry.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2010-12-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113212159/http://www.unc.edu/~wwolford/Geography160/saraberry.pdf |archive-date=2012-01-13 }}</ref> In more recent times, electoral mobilization and the use of land as a patronage resource have been proposed as possible motivations for land reform efforts, such as the extensive redistributive land reforms of Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boone |first1=Catherine |last2=Kriger |first2=Norma |title=Multiparty elections and land patronage: Zimbabwe and Côte d'Ivoire |journal=Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |date=April 2010 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=173–202 |doi=10.1080/14662041003672502 }}</ref>

===Arguments for===
Arguments in support of land reform focus on its potential social and economic benefits, particularly in [[developing countries]], that may emerge from reforms focused on greater land formalization. Such benefits may include eradicating food insecurity and alleviating rural poverty.<ref>Meinzen-Dick, Ruth, Markelova, Helen and Moore, Kelsey. "The Role of Collective Action and Property Rights in Climate Change Strategies." International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2010. and Economic Commission for Africa. "Land Tenure Systems and their Impacts on [[Food security]] and Sustainable Development in Africa." 2009.</ref>

{{rquote|right|And the great owners, who must lose their land in an upheaval, the great owners with access to history, with eyes to read history and to know the great fact: when property accumulates in too few hands it is taken away. And that companion fact: when a majority of the people are hungry and cold they will take by force what they need. And the little screaming fact that sounds through all history: repression works only to strengthen and knit the repressed.| ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]''<ref>''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'', by [[John Steinbeck]], Penguin, 2006, 0143039431, pg 238</ref>}}

Arguments in support of such reforms gained particular momentum after the publication of ''The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else'' by Peruvian economist [[Hernando de Soto (economist)|Hernando de Soto]] in 2000. The poor, he argues, are often unable to secure formal property rights, such as land titles, to the land on which they live or farm because of poor governance, corruption and/or overly complex bureaucracies. Without land titles or other formal documentation of their land assets, they are less able to access formal credit. Political and legal reforms within countries, according to de Soto, will help to include the poor in formal legal and economic systems, increase the poor's ability to access credit and contribute to economic growth and poverty reduction.<ref>De Soto, Hernando. ''The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else''. New York: Basic Books. 2000.</ref>

Many international development organizations and bilateral and multilateral donors, such as the World Bank, have embraced de Soto's ideas, or similar ideas, about the benefits of greater formalized land rights.<ref>Deininger, Klaus W. ''Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction''. The World Bank. 2003. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-3HWZigoZDMC]</ref> This has translated into a number of development programs that work with governments and civil society organizations to initiate and implement land reforms.<ref>World Bank. "Regional Study on Land Administration, Land Markets, and Collateralized Lending." 2003. [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPRURDEV/Resources/573691-1141228934263/2280904-1153493824735/RegionalStudyonLand+Administration.pdf]</ref> Evidence to support the economic and pro-poor benefits of increased formalized land rights are still inconclusive according to some critics (see "Arguments against land reform" below).

Other arguments in support of land reform point to the need to alleviate conflicting land laws, particularly in former colonies, where formal and informal land systems may exist in tension with each other.<ref>Moore, Jina. "Africa's continental divide: land disputes." ''Christian Science Monitor''. January 30, 2010. [http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2010/0130/Africa-s-continental-divide-land-disputes]</ref> Such conflicts can make marginalized groups vulnerable to further exploitation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kafumbe |first1=Anthony Luyirika |title=Access to justice: Widows and the institutions regulating succession to property in Uganda |journal=Human Rights Review |date=July 2006 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=100–113 |doi=10.1007/s12142-006-1005-8 }}</ref> For example, in many countries in Africa with conflicting land laws, AIDS stigmatization has led to an increasing number of AIDS widows being kicked off marital land by in-laws.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ambasa-Shisanya |first1=Constance |title=Widowhood in the era of HIV/AIDS: A case study of Slaya District, Kenya |journal=SAHARA-J: Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS |date=August 2007 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=606–615 |doi=10.1080/17290376.2007.9724882 |doi-access=free |pmid=18071612 }}</ref> While the woman may have both customary and statutory rights to the land, confusion over which set of laws has primacy, or even a lack of knowledge of relevant laws, leave many AIDS widows at a significant disadvantage. Also, conflicting formal and informal land laws can also clog a country's legal system, making it prone to corruption.<ref>Tettey, Wisdom, B. Gebe and K. Ansah-Koi. "The Politics of Land and Land-related Conflicts in Ghana: A Summary." Land Policy Reform Project. Institute for Statistical, Social and Economic Research at the University of Ghana. 2008. [http://www.isser.org/images/stories/landproject/Summary%20POLITICS_OF_LAND_AND_LAND-RELATED_CONFLICTS%20-%20summary.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307003730/http://www.isser.org/images/stories/landproject/Summary%20POLITICS_OF_LAND_AND_LAND-RELATED_CONFLICTS%20-%20summary.pdf|date=2020-03-07}}</ref>

Additional arguments for land reform focus on the potential [[environmental quality|environmental benefits]] of reform. For example, if reform leads to greater security of [[land owner]]ship, through either formal or informal means, then those that use the land will be better stewards of it.<ref>World Resources Institute. "The Wealth of the Poor: Managing Ecosystems to Fight Poverty." 2005. {{cite web |title=World Resources 2005 -- the Wealth of the Poor: Managing ecosystems to fight poverty &#124; World Resources Institute |url=http://archive.wri.org/publication_detail.cfm?pubid=4073 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807172600/http://archive.wri.org/publication_detail.cfm?pubid=4073 |archive-date=2011-08-07 |access-date=2010-12-02}} and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). "Land Tenure and Rural Development." FAO Land Tenure Studies No. 3. 2002. Accessed August 21, 2010. Available: [http://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/y4307E/y4307E00.pdf]{{dead link|date=December 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

Land reforms carried out in Japan, Taiwan and South Korea are credited with contributing to the industrial development. The equitable distribution of land led to increasing agricultural outputs, high rural purchasing power and social mobility.<ref>{{cite book |title=How Asia Works: Success and Failure in the World's Most Dynamic Region |date=2014 |publisher=Grove Press |isbn=9780802121325 |chapter=Land: The Triumph of Gardening}}</ref>

===Arguments against===
Many of the arguments in support of land reform speak to its potentially positive social and economic outcomes. Yet, as mentioned previously, land reform is an intensely political process.<ref name="Boone, Catherine 2007" /> Thus, many of those opposed to land reform are nervous as to the underlying motivations of those initiating the reform. For example, some may fear that they will be disadvantaged or victimized as a result of the reforms. Others may fear that they will lose out in the economic and political power struggles (especially in under developed countries) that underlie many land reforms.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/16703331 "A chance to improve how Kenya is run." ''The Economist''. July 29, 2010]</ref>

Other groups and individuals express concerns about land reforms focused on formalization of property rights. While the economic and social benefits of formalized land rights are often touted, some research suggests that such reforms are either ineffective or may cause further hardship or conflict.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deagle |first1=Joanna Emily |title=Land Regularisation in Vidigal, Rio de Janeiro - Was de Soto right? |journal=Brasiliana: Journal for Brazilian Studies |date=23 March 2015 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=264–296 |doi=10.25160/bjbs.v3i2.19857 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Musembi |first1=Celestine Nyamu |title=De Soto and Land Relations in Rural Africa: Breathing Life into Dead Theories about Property Rights |journal=Third World Quarterly |date=2007 |volume=28 |issue=8 |pages=1457–1478 |doi=10.1080/01436590701637334 |jstor=20455012 }}</ref>

Additional arguments against land reform focus on concerns over equity issues and potential [[elite capture]] of land, particularly in regards to reforms focused on greater land formalization. If improperly or inadequately implemented, critics worry that such reforms may further disadvantage marginalized groups such as indigenous communities or women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Drimie |first1=S. |title=The impact of HIV/AIDS on land: case studies from Kenya, Lesotho and South Africa |journal=HSRC Review |date=18 May 2016 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=3 |hdl=20.500.11910/9657 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varley |first1=Ann |title=Gender and Property Formalization: Conventional and Alternative Approaches |journal=World Development |date=October 2007 |volume=35 |issue=10 |pages=1739–1753 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.06.005 }}</ref> These concerns also lead to questions about the institutional capacity of governments to implement land reforms as they are designed. Even if a country does have this capacity, critics worry that corruption and patrimonialism will lead to further [[elite capture]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook |date=2008 |publisher=World Bank Publications |isbn=978-0-8213-7588-4 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>

In looking at more radical reforms, such as large-scale land redistribution, arguments against reform include concerns that redistributed land will not be used productively and that owners of expropriated land will not be compensated adequately or compensated at all. Zimbabwe, again, is a commonly cited example of the perils of such large-scale reforms, whereby land redistribution contributed to economic decline and increased food insecurity in the country.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/1201137?story_id=1201137 "From breadbasket to basket case." ''The Economist''. June 27, 2002]</ref> In cases where land reform has been enacted as part of [[socialism|socialist]] [[collectivization]], many of the arguments against collectivization more generally apply.

==National efforts==
{{main|Land reforms by country}}
An early example of land reform was the [[Land Acts (Ireland)|Irish Land Acts]] of 1870–1909. Most all newly independent countries of Eastern and Central Europe implemented land reforms in the aftermath of [[World War I]]. In most countries, the land in excess of certain limits ({{Convert|20|-|500|ha|acre|abbr=on}}, depending on the region and type of land) was expropriated; in [[Finland]], it was redeemed and placed into a special fund.<ref>Gediminas Vaskela. [http://gevask.dtiltas.lt/GeVask/html/agreforma01e.htm The Land Reform of 1919–1940: Lithuania and the Countries of East and Central Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322093409/http://gevask.dtiltas.lt/GeVask/html/agreforma01e.htm |date=2012-03-22 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Adverse possession]]
* ''[[Agrarian Justice]]''
* [[Agrarian reform]]
* [[Certificate of occupancy (land tenure)|Certificate of occupancy]]
* [[Chinese Land Reform]]
* [[Citizen's Dividend]]
* [[Concentration of land ownership]]
* [[Economic rent#Classical rent (land rent)|Classical rent]]
* [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Common land]]
* [[Dekulakization]]
* [[Differential and absolute ground rent]]
* [[Eminent domain]]
* [[Enclosure]]
* {{lang|de|[[Fachhochschule]]}}
* [[Freiwirtschaft]]
* [[Frente Unido de Reforma Agraria]]
* [[Gentrification]]
* [[Georgism]]
* [[Homestead principle]]
* [[Land (economics)]]
* [[Land Acts (Ireland)]]
* [[Land banking]]
* [[Land claim]]
* [[Land consumption]]
* [[Land grabbing]]
* [[Land law]]
* [[Landlessness]]
* [[Landless Workers' Movement]]
* [[Land consolidation]]
* ''[[Land Reform in Developing Countries]]''
* [[Land reforms by country]]
* [[Land tenure]]
* [[Land titling]]
* [[Land value tax]]
* [[Manorialism]]
* [[México Indígena]]
* [[Mutualism (economic theory)|Mutualism]]
* [[Natural capital]]
* [[Nonpossessory interest in land]]
* [[Profit (real property)]]
* [[Real estate appraisal]]
* [[Restitution]]
* [[Serfdom]]
* [[Settler]]
* [[Speculation]]
* [[Squatting]]
* [[Stolypin reform]]
* [[Usufruct]]
* [[Water scarcity]]
* [[Zapatismo]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal |doi=10.1111/1471-0366.00042 |title=Land Reform: Taking a Long(er) View |journal=Journal of Agrarian Change |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=433–463 |year=2002 |last1=Bernstein |first1=H.|bibcode=2002JAgrC...2..433B }}
* Caralee McLiesh and Richard E. Messick, Moderators. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609143810/http://rru.worldbank.org/Discussions/Topics/Topic45.aspx "Can Formal Property Titling Programs Ensure Increased Business Investments and Growth?"]. [[World Bank]].
* Ciparisse, Gérard. (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20050729153028/http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=%2FDOCREP%2F005%2FX2038E%2FX2038E00.HTM Multilingual Thesaurus on Land Tenure]. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the UN. {{ISBN|9251042837}}.
* [[Michael Lipton]], [[Land Reform in Developing Countries: Property rights and property wrongs]], Routledge, 2009
* [[R. H. Tawney]], ''Land and Labour in China'' London: Allen & Unwin: 1932; rpr. New York, Harcourt Brace & Company (1979). 3rd Edition. {{ISBN|9780374977719}}. {{OCLC|709358069}}. Online Internet Archive [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.83942/page/n7/mode/2up?view=theater here]
* Fu Chen, Liming Wang and John Davis, [https://web.archive.org/web/20101223213916/http://www.fao.org/sd/LTdirect/LTan0031.htm "Land reform in rural China since the mid-1980s"], [https://web.archive.org/web/20041209060121/http://www.fao.org/sd/LTdirect/LR98_2/landrf.htm Land Reform 1998/2], a publication of the Sustainable Development Department of the United Nations' [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO).
* [[William H. Hinton]]. ''[[Fanshen: A Documentary of Revolution in a Chinese Village]]''. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1966. {{ISBN|9780520210400}}. {{OCLC|258568918}}.
* {{cite journal |last1=Ho |first1=Peter |title=Who Owns China's Land? Policies, Property Rights and Deliberate Institutional Ambiguity |journal=The China Quarterly |date=June 2001 |volume=166 |issue=166 |pages=394–421 |doi=10.1017/S0009443901000195 |doi-broken-date=4 February 2025 |id={{ProQuest|229488874}} |ssrn=2168740 |jstor=3451163 }}
* Ho, Peter. (2006). "Institutions In Transition: Land Ownership, Property Rights and Social Conflict in China''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780199280698}}. {{OCLC|1292686440}}.''
* Mark Moyar. [https://archive.today/20090311004735/http://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/vietnamcenter/events/1996_Symposium/96papers/moyar.htm "Villager attitudes during the final decade of the Vietnam War"]. Presented at 1996 Vietnam Symposium [https://archive.today/20090309174927/http://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/vietnamcenter/events/1996_Symposium/96papers/papers.htm "After the Cold War: Reassessing Vietnam"].
* Levi, Margaret; Russell, Emily (2025). "[[doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-033123-021046|Property Righting: The Politics of Rights Over Land and Labor]]". ''Annual Review of Political Science''.
* Henry George, "[[Progress and Poverty]]: An inquiry into the cause of industrial depressions and of increase of want with increase of wealth: the remedy", 1879.
* Groppo, Paolo. (1998). [https://web.archive.org/web/20041209060121/http://www.fao.org/sd/LTdirect/LR98_2/landrf.htm Land Reform: Land Settlement and Cooperatives Bulletin]. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the UN.
* Krogh, Peter Frederic. (1986). [http://hdl.handle.net/10822/552663 U.S. and Third World Land Reform]. American Interests. [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]. School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University.
* Goodman, Amy. (2010). [http://www.democracynow.org/2010/8/24/report_global_food_security_and_sovereignty Global Food Security and Sovereignty Threatened by Corporate and Government “Land Grabs” in Poor Countries]. ''[[Democracy Now!]]''.
* [[Alfred Russel Wallace|Wallace, Alfred Russel]]. (1882). [https://archive.org/details/landnationalisat00walluoft Land Nationalisation: Its necessity and its aims: Being a comparison of the system of landlord and tenant with that of occupying ownership in their influence on the well-being of the people].

==External links==
{{commons category|Land reform}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161130121504/http://www.landaction.org/ Land Research Action Network: News, Analysis, and Research on Land Reform].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071225190436/http://www.tierraydignidad.org/ Land, Territory and Dignity Forum]
* [https://www.landesa.org/ Landesa] - Securing land rights for the world's poorest.

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