Editing Legislative Assembly (France)

{{Short description|Legislature from October 1791 to September 1792}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox legislature
|name=Legislative Assembly
|native_name=Assemblée législative
|coa_pic=Legislative Assembly Medal.png
|coa_res=
|coa_caption=Medal of the Legislative Assembly
|legislature=[[Kingdom of France (1791–1792)|Kingdom of France]]
|house_type=Unicameral
|members=745
|meeting_place=[[Salle du Manège]], [[Paris]]
|established=1 October 1791
|disbanded=20 September 1792
|preceded_by=[[National Constituent Assembly (France)|National Constituent Assembly]]
|succeeded_by=[[National Convention]]
}}
The '''Legislative Assembly''' ({{langx|fr|link=no|Assemblée législative}}) was the [[legislature]] of the [[Kingdom of France]] from 1 October 1791 to 20 September 1792 during the years of the [[French Revolution]]. It provided the focus of political debate and revolutionary law-making between the periods of the [[National Constituent Assembly (France)|National Constituent Assembly]] and of the [[National Convention]].<ref>Chris Jim Mitchell, ''The French legislative assembly of 1791'' (Brill, 1988).</ref> Legislative Assembly saw an unprecedented turnover of four [[List of ministers of justice of France|ministers of Justice]], four [[List of Naval Ministers of France|ministers of Navy]], [[List of Interior Ministers of France|six ministers of the interior]], [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (France)|seven ministers of foreign affairs]], and [[Minister of the Armed Forces (France)|eight ministers of war]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tcsUAAAAIAAJ&dq=13+juillet+1791+robespierre+jacobins&pg=PA239|title=The French Legislative Assembly of 1791|first=C. J.|last=Mitchell|date=1988|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=9004089616|via=Google Books|access-date=12 March 2023|archive-date=23 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423041206/https://books.google.com/books?id=tcsUAAAAIAAJ&dq=13+juillet+1791+robespierre+jacobins&pg=PA239|url-status=live}}</ref> 

== History ==
=== Background ===
The National Constituent Assembly dissolved itself on 30 September 1791. Upon [[Maximilien Robespierre]]'s [[Self-denying Ordinance (French Revolution)|motion]], it decreed that none of its members would be eligible for the next legislature. Its successor body, the Legislative Assembly, operating over the [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[French Constitution of 1791]], lasted until 20 September 1792 when the [[National Convention]] was established after the [[10 August (French Revolution)|insurrection of 10 August]] just the month before.

The Legislative Assembly entrenched the perceived [[left–right political spectrum]] that is still commonly used today. There were 745 members.

== Elections ==
The elections of 1791, held by [[Suffrage#Census suffrage|census suffrage]], brought in a legislature that desired to carry the Revolution further.
The [[Right-wing politics|rightists]] within the assembly consisted of 264 [[Feuillant (political group)|Feuillants]], whose chief leaders, [[Gilbert du Motier de La Fayette]] and [[Antoine Barnave]], remained outside the House because of their ineligibility for re-election. They were staunch constitutional monarchists, firm in their defence of the [[List of French monarchs|king]] against the popular agitation.

The [[Left-wing politics|leftists]] were of 136 [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobins]] (still including the party later known as the [[Girondin]]s or Girondists) and [[Cordeliers]]. Its most famous leaders were [[Jacques Pierre Brissot]], the philosopher [[Condorcet]] and [[Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud]]. The Left drew its inspiration from the more radical tendency of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], regarded the émigré nobles as traitors and espoused [[anticlericalism]]. They were suspicious of [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]], some of them favoring a general European war, both to spread the new ideals of [[liberty]] and [[Social equality|equality]] and to put the king's loyalty to the test.

The remainder of the House, 345 deputies, generally belonged to no definite party. They were called The Marsh (''Le Marais'') or [[The Plain]] (''La Plaine''). They were committed to the ideals of the Revolution, hence generally inclined to side with the Left, but would also occasionally back proposals from the Right.

The king's ministers, named by him and excluded from the Assembly, are described by the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']] as "mostly persons of little mark".

== Formation ==
{{main|Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly}}
The 27 August 1791 [[Declaration of Pillnitz]] already threatened France with an attack by its neighbors. King Louis XVI favored war hoping to exploit a military defeat to restore his absolute power—the Assembly was leaning toward war and to spread the ideals of the Revolution.<ref>Thomas Lalevée, [http://www.h-france.net/rude/rudevolvi/LaleveeVol6.pdf "National Pride and Republican grandezza: Brissot's New Language for International Politics in the French Revolution"], ''French History and Civilisation'' (Vol. 6), 2015, pp. 66–82.</ref> This led in April 1792 to the first of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]].

The king vetoed many of the Assembly's bills throughout its existence such as these:
* Legislation declaring the ''émigrés'' guilty of conspiracy and prosecuted as such was passed on 8 November 1791, but vetoed by Louis.
* Enforcement of the [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]]: on 29 November 1791, the Assembly decreed that every nonjuring clergyman who did not take the civic oath within eight days would lose his pension and—if any troubles broke out—he would be deported. Louis vetoed the decree as a matter of conscience.

Louis XVI formed a series of cabinets, veering at times as far left as the Girondins. However, by the summer of 1792, amid war and insurrection, it had become clear that the monarchy and the now-dominant Jacobins could not reach any accommodation. On 11 July 1792, the Assembly formally declared the nation in danger because of the dire military situation.

On 9 August 1792, a new revolutionary [[Paris Commune (French Revolution)|Commune]] took possession of [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]] and early on the morning of 10 August the insurgents [[10 August (French Revolution)|assailed the Tuileries]], where the royal family resided. Louis and his family sought asylum with the Legislative Assembly.

The Assembly stripped Louis, suspected of intelligence with the enemy, of all his royal functions and prerogatives. The king and his family were subsequently imprisoned in the [[Temple (Paris)|Temple]]. On 10 August 1792, a resolution was adopted to summon a new National Convention, to be elected by [[universal suffrage]].

Many who had sat in the National Constituent Assembly and many more who had sat in the Legislative Assembly were re-elected. The Convention met on 20 September 1792 and became the new government of France.

== Reforms ==
There were numerous reforms passed by the Legislative Assembly that addressed various topics including [[divorce]], [[French emigration (1789–1815)|émigrés]], and the [[clergy]].

The Legislative Assembly implemented new reforms to help create a society of independent individuals with equal rights.<ref name=popkin>Popkin, Jeremy. A Short History of the French Revolution. 6th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education, INC, 2015. pp. 43–61.</ref> These reforms included new legislation about divorce, government control over registration, and inheritance rights for children. The registration of births, marriages, and deaths became a function under the government instead of the [[Catholic Church in France|Catholic Church]].<ref name=popkin/> The new laws introduced adoption and gave illegitimate children inheritance rights equal to those of legitimate children.<ref name=phillips>Phillips, Roderick. "Women and Family Breakdown in Eighteenth-Century France: Rouen 1780–1800." Social History 1, no. 2 (1976): 197–218. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284618 JSTOR]</ref><ref>Boring, Nicolas. "France: Inheritance Laws in the 19th and 20th Centuries." [https://www.loc.gov/law/help/inheritance-laws/france.php. Library of Congress]. Retrieved 16 May 2017.</ref> Before 1791, divorces could only be granted for adultery and other violations of the marriage contract,<ref name=popkin/> but under the new reform a couple could also get divorced if they met one or more of the following:
* If there was mutual consent of both spouses<ref name=phillips/>
* If there was a unilateral incompatibility of character<ref name=phillips/>
* If the couple had been formally separated before and needed a legalized divorce<ref name=phillips/>
* If there was dissolution of marriage due to "insanity, condemnation to an infamous punishment, violence or ill-treatment, notoriously dissolute morals, desertion for at least two years, absence without news for at least five years, and emigration"<ref name=phillips/>
The new divorce laws were not sexually discriminatory as both the man and woman had the right to file for a divorce—the women petitioned for the most divorce decrees.<ref name=phillips/>

The émigrés, mainly members of the [[French nobility|nobility]] and public office who fled France after the events of the Revolution turned violent, were a major focus of the Legislative Assembly. In their decree on 9 November 1791, the Legislative Assembly established a three-class hierarchy of émigrés as well as the punishments that would correspond with each class. The first class was composed of the princes and other people of high birth who "formed [emigration’s] rallying point and controlled both its recruiting in France and its organization abroad".<ref name=mitchell>Mitchell, C. J. "Emigrés and the Refractory Clergy." In The French Legislative Assembly of 1791, 43–60. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1988. Retrieved from [https://books.google.com/books?id=tcsUAAAAIAAJ&q=divorce Google Books]. pp. 45–46.</ref>

The second class was composed of officials in public office, [[French Army|soldiers]] and other members of society with less organizational clout than members of the nobility yet more influence than the common people. The third and final class of recognized émigrés encompassed the average French citizens who left France yet commanded little to no direct influence over emigration proceedings.<ref name=mitchell/>

In twelve articles, the decree outlined the economic and political punishments of the first and second classes—particularly assigning deadlines by which time emigration would be classified as an act of treason. Article 3 dictated that first class émigrés still abroad after 1 January would be "impeached for treason and punished with death" and articles 6 through 10 imposed a loss of position, salary, and even citizenship for second class émigrés still abroad after 14 September.<ref name=mitchell/> Along with the declaration that emigration could result in the loss of active citizenship, article 6 established the Assembly's right to sequester first class émigrés' revenues and article 11 classified émigré soldiers as deserters.<ref name=mitchell/>

As the Legislative Assembly considered third class émigrés to be faultless victims of trickery and seduction by the other two classes, the legislators' decree explicitly avoided issuing punitive measures against third class émigrés—whereas the other classes were to be financially and socially punished, third class émigrés were to be treated with "sympathy and understanding".<ref name=mitchell/> The émigrés decree was vetoed by the king three days later.<ref name=mitchell/>

The laws regarding the clergy were mostly made in response to a reform passed by the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in July 1790, known as the [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]].<ref name=popkin/> In this decree, the National Assembly took the power to appoint bishops and curés away from the king. Many members of the Catholic clergy objected to this ruling.<ref name=popkin/> In response, the National Assembly required a public oath of fidelity from the clergy if they wanted to retain their positions in the Catholic Church.<ref name=popkin/>

This decision was not well received by a substantial portion of the clergy, which is why the Legislative Assembly felt it was necessary to address the issue. Those unwilling to take the oath were known as non-juring members.<ref name=popkin/> On 29 November 1791, the Legislative Assembly decreed that any who refused to take the oath were committing a political crime and were liable to punishments including loss of pension and expulsion from their homes in the event of religious disturbances.<ref>MacLehose, Sophia. From the Monarchy to the Republic in France: 1788–1792. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 1904. Retrieved from [http://heinonline.org/HOL/Contents?handle=hein.cow/mrepfrn0001&id=1&size=2&index=cowbooks&collection=cow heinonline.org]. p. 366.</ref>

== Political groups ==
The Legislative Assembly was driven by two opposing groups. The members of the first group were conservative members of the bourgeoisie (wealthy middle class in the Third Estate) that favored a [[constitutional monarchy]], represented by the [[Feuillant (political group)|Feuillants]], who felt that the revolution had already achieved its goal.<ref>[[Albert Mathiez]], ''La Révolution française'', Librairie Armand Colin 1922, p. 170.</ref> The other group was the democratic faction, for whom the king could no longer be trusted, represented by the new members of the Jacobin Club<ref>Bernardine Melchior-Bonnet, ''Les Girondins'', Tallandier 1989, p. 52.</ref> that claimed that more revolutionary measures were necessary.<ref>Jean-Paul Bertaud, ''La Révolution française'', Perrin 1989 « rééd. coll. Tempus », 2004, pp. 81–133.</ref>{{#tag:ref|Immediately there was a great deal of dissension between the [[Feuillant (political group)|Feuillants]] and the democratic faction from changes made to the [[French constitution of 1791|Constitution]] and the [[Flight to Varennes]]. The democrats felt that the influence of the majority of the populace was minimised because of [[Suffrage#Census suffrage|census suffrage]].<ref name="Bertaud81">Jean-Paul Bertaud, ''La Révolutions française'', p. 81.</ref>|group="note"}}

== Presidents ==
; Political parties
{{legend2|{{party color|Independent (politician)}}|[[Independent politician|Independent]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}<br />
{{legend2|{{party color|Feuillants Club}}|[[Feuillants Club]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}<br />
{{legend2|{{party color|Jacobin Club}}|[[Jacobin Club]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{|class="wikitable" style="width:80%; text-align:center;"
|-
!colspan="2" width=20|N°
!width=70|Portrait
!width=25%|Name<br />(Birth–death)
!colspan="2" width=40%|Term of office
!width=25%|Political party
!width=15%|[[Departments of France|Department]]
!width=7%|Legislature<br />(election)
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!1
|[[File:Hippolyte Delaroche - Marquis de Pastoret - Google Art Project.jpg|80px]]
|[[Claude-Emmanuel de Pastoret]]<br />(1755–1840)
|3 October 1791
|30 October 1791
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Seine (department)|Seine]]
|rowspan=23|I<br /><small>([[1791 French legislative election|1791]])</small>
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!2
|[[File:AduC 132 Vergniaud (P.V., 1758-1793).JPG|80px]]
|[[Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud]]<br />(1753–1793)
|30 October 1791
|15 November 1791
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Gironde]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!3
|[[File:No image.svg|80px]]
|[[Vincent-Marie Viénot, Count of Vaublanc|Vincent-Marie Viénot]]<br />(1756–1845)
|15 November 1791
|28 November 1791
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Seine-et-Marne]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!4
|[[File:AduC 196 Lacépède (B.G,E. de Laville, comte de, 1756-1825).JPG|80px]]
|[[Bernard Germain de Lacépède]]<br />(1756–1825)
|28 November 1791
|10 December 1791
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Seine (department)|Seine]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!5
|[[File:Pierre-Édouard Lémontey.jpg|80px]]
|[[Pierre-Édouard Lémontey]]<br />(1762–1826)
|10 December 1791
|26 December 1791
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Rhône (department)|Rhône]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!6
|[[File:AduC 227 François de Neufchateau (N.L., 1750-1828).JPG|80px]]
|[[François de Neufchâteau]]<br />(1750–1828)
|26 December 1791
|22 January 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Vosges (department)|Vosges]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!7
|[[File:AduC 051 Guadet (M.E., 1758-1794).JPG|80px]]
|[[Marguerite-Élie Guadet]]<br />(1758–1794)
|22 January 1792
|7 February 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Gironde]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!8
|[[File:AduC 018 Condorcet (J.A.N., 1743-1794).JPG|80px]]
|[[Marquis de Condorcet|Nicolas de Condorcet]]<br />(1743–1794)
|7 February 1792
|19 February 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Seine (department)|Seine]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!9
|[[File:No image.svg|80px]]
|[[Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas]]<br />(1753–1837)
|19 February 1792
|4 March 1792
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Seine-et-Oise]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!10
|[[File:AduC 182 Guyton de Morveau (L.B., baron, 1737-1816).JPG|80px]]
|[[Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau]]<br />(1737–1816)
|4 March 1792
|19 March 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Côte-d'Or]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!11
|[[File:AduC 049 Gensonné (A., 1758-1793).JPG|80px]]
|[[Armand Gensonné]]<br />(1758–1793)
|19 March 1792
|15 April 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Gironde]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!12
|[[File:AduC 273 Bigot de Préameneu (F.J.J., 1747-1825).JPG|80px]]
|[[Félix-Julien-Jean Bigot de Préameneu]]<br />(1747–1825)
|15 April 1792
|29 April 1792
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Ille-et-Vilaine]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!13
|[[File:No image.svg|80px]]
|[[Jean-Gérard Lacuée, count of Cessac|Jean-Gérard Lacuée]]<br />(1752–1841)
|29 April 1792
|13 May 1792
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Lot-et-Garonne]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!14
|[[File:No image.svg|80px]]
|[[Honoré Muraire]]<br />(1750–1837)
|13 May 1792
|27 May 1792
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Var (department)|Var]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!15
|[[File:No image.svg|80px]]
|[[François-Alexandre Tardiveau]]<br />(1761–1833)
|27 May 1792
|10 June 1792
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Ille-et-Vilaine]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Independent (politician)}};"|
!16
|[[File:No image.svg|80px]]
|[[François-Alexandre Tardiveau]]<br />(1756–1836)
|10 June 1792
|24 June 1792
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|[[Loire-Atlantique]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!17
|[[File:Girardin, Stanislas.jpg|80px]]
|[[Louis Stanislas de Girardin]]<br />(1762–1827)
|24 June 1792
|8 July 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Oise]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!18
|[[File:AduC 140 Aubert de Bayet (J.B.A., 1759-1797).JPG|80px]]
|[[Jean-Baptiste Annibal Aubert du Bayet]]<br />(1759–1797)
|8 July 1792
|22 July 1792
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Isère]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Feuillants Club}};"|
!19
|[[File:No image.svg|80px]]
|[[André-Daniel Laffon de Ladebat]]<br />(1746–1829)
|22 July 1792
|7 August 1792
|[[Feuillants Club]]
|[[Gironde]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!20
|[[File:No image.svg|80px]]
|[[Jean-François Honoré, baron Merlet|Jean-François Honoré Merlet]]<br />(1761–1830)
|7 August 1792
|20 August 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Maine-et-Loire]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!21
|[[File:AduC 139 Lacroix (J.F. de, 1754-1794).JPG|80px]]
|[[Jean-François Delacroix]]<br />(1753–1794)
|20 August 1792
|2 September 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Eure-et-Loir]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!22
|[[File:AduC 156 Hérault de Séchelles (M.J., 1760-1794).JPG|80px]]
|[[Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles]]<br />(1759–1794)
|2 September 1792
|16 September 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Seine (department)|Seine]]
|-
!style="background:{{party color|Jacobin Club}};"|
!23
|[[File:Pierre-joseph-cambon-estampe.jpg|80px]]
|[[Pierre-Joseph Cambon]]<br />(1756–1820)
|16 September 1792
|16 September 1792
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|[[Hérault]]
|}

== Journal of Debates ==
{{see also|Journal des débats}}
*  {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EzlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXII|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (October 1791)
*  {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GTlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXIII|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (November 1791)
*  {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IjlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXIV|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (December 1791)
*  {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KzlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXV|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (January 1792)
*  {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OjlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXVI|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (February 1792)
*  {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXVII|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (March 1792)
*  {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XTlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXVIII|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (April 1792)
* {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXIX|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (May 1792)
* {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXX|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (June 1792)
* {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gjlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXXI|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (July 1792)
* {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXXII|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (August 1792)
* {{cite book|title=Journal des débats et des décrets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTlEAAAAcAAJ|volume=XXXIII|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} (September 1792)

== References ==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist}}
{{EB1911|wstitle=French Revolution, The|volume=11|first=Francis Charles|last=Montague}}

== Further reading ==
* Boring, Nicolas. ''France: Inheritance Laws in the 19th and 20th Centuries.'' Library of Congress. Retrieved from [https://www.loc.gov/law/help/inheritance-laws/france.php. Library of Congress].
* MacLehose, Sophia. ''From the Monarchy to the Republic in France: 1788–1792.'' Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 1904. Retrieved from [http://heinonline.org/HOL/Contents?handle=hein.cow/mrepfrn0001&id=1&size=2&index=cowbooks&collection=cow heinonline.org].
* Mitchell, C. J. "Emigrés and the Refractory Clergy." Chap. 4, In ''The French Legislative Assembly of 1791'', 43–60. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1988. Retrieved from [https://books.google.com/books?id=tcsUAAAAIAAJ&q=divorce Google Books].
* Phillips, Roderick. "Women and Family Breakdown in Eighteenth-Century France: Rouen 1780–1800." ''Social History'' 1, no. 2 (1976): 197–218. Retrieved from [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284618 JSTOR].
* Popkin, Jeremy. ''A Short History of the French Revolution.'' 6th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2015.
* Potofsky, Allan. "The 'Non-Aligned Status' of French Emigres and Refugees in Philadelphia, 1793–1798." ''Transatlantica American Studies Journal'' 2, no. 1 (2006). Retrieved from [https://transatlantica.revues.org/1147 Transatlantica].
* Proctor, Candice E. ''Women, Equality, and the French Revolution.'' Greenwood Press, 1990. Retrieved from [https://www.questia.com/read/14219316/women-equality-and-the-french-revolution Archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706115607/https://www.questia.com/read/14219316/women-equality-and-the-french-revolution |date=6 July 2017 }}
* Schroeder, Paul. ''The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848.'' 1996. Retrieved from [https://www.questia.com/library/3696068/the-transformation-of-european-politics-1763-1848 Archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705225235/https://www.questia.com/library/3696068/the-transformation-of-european-politics-1763-1848 |date=5 July 2017 }}

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