Editing Lenition

{{short description|Consonant sound change}}
{{Sound change}}
{{IPA notice}}

In [[linguistics]], '''lenition''' is a [[sound change]] that alters [[consonant]]s, making them "weaker" in some way. The word ''lenition'' itself means "softening" or "weakening" (from [[Latin]] {{lang|la|lēnis}} 'weak'). Lenition can happen both [[synchronic analysis|synchronically]] (within a language at a particular point in time) and [[historical linguistics|diachronically]] (as a [[evolutionary linguistics|language changes over time]]). Lenition can involve such changes as [[Voice (phonetics)|voicing]] a voiceless consonant, causing a consonant to relax [[Occlusive|occlusion]], to lose its [[place of articulation]] (a phenomenon called ''[[debuccalization]]'', which turns a consonant into a [[glottal consonant]] like {{IPAblink|h}} or {{IPAblink|ʔ}}), or even causing a consonant to disappear entirely.

An example of synchronic lenition is found in most varieties of [[American English]], in the form of [[flapping|tapping]]: the {{IPAslink|t}} of a word like ''wait'' {{IPA|[weɪt]}} is pronounced as the more sonorous {{IPAblink|ɾ}} in the related form ''waiting'' {{IPA|[ˈweɪɾɪŋ]}}. Some varieties of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] show [[debuccalization]] of {{IPAslink|s}} to {{IPAblink|h}} at the end of a [[syllable]], so that a word like {{lang|es|estamos}} "we are" is pronounced {{IPA|[ehˈtamoh]}}. An example of diachronic lenition can be found in the [[Romance languages]], where the {{IPAslink|t}} of Latin {{lang|la|patrem}} ("father", [[accusative]]) has become {{IPAslink|d}} in [[Italian language|Italian]] (an irregular change; compare {{lang|la|saeta}} "silk" > {{lang|it|seta}}) and Spanish {{lang|mul|padre}} (the latter weakened synchronically {{IPAslink|d}} → {{IPAblink|ð̞}}), while in Catalan {{lang|ca|pare}}, French {{lang|fr|père}} and Portuguese {{lang|pt|pai}} historical {{IPAslink|t}} has disappeared completely.

In some languages, lenition has been grammaticalized into a [[consonant mutation]], which means it is no longer triggered by its [[phonological]] environment but is now governed by its [[syntactic]] or [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] environment. For example, in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], the word {{lang|cy|cath}} "cat" begins with the sound {{IPAslink|k}}, but after the [[definite article]] {{lang|cy|y}}, the {{IPAslink|k}} changes to {{IPAblink|ɡ}}: "the cat" in Welsh is {{lang|cy|y gath}}. This was historically due to intervocalic lenition, but in the plural, lenition does not happen, so "the cats" is {{lang|cy|y cathod}}, not *{{lang|cy|y gathod}}. The change of {{IPAslink|k}} to {{IPAblink|ɡ}} in {{lang|cy|y gath}} is thus caused by the syntax of the phrase, not by the modern phonological position of the consonant {{IPAslink|k}}.

The opposite of lenition, [[fortition]], a sound change that makes a consonant "stronger", is less common, but Breton and Cornish have "hard mutation" forms which represent fortition.

==Types==
Lenition involves changes in [[manner of articulation]], sometimes accompanied by small changes in [[place of articulation]]. There are two main lenition pathways: opening and sonorization. In both cases, a stronger sound becomes a weaker one. Lenition can be seen as a movement on the [[sonority hierarchy]] from less sonorous to more sonorous, or on a strength hierarchy from stronger to weaker.

In examples below, a [[greater-than sign]] indicates that one sound changes to another. The notation {{IPA|[t]}} > {{IPA|[ts]}} means that {{IPA|[t]}} changes to {{IPA|[ts]}}.

The [[Palatalization (sound change)|sound change of palatalization]] sometimes involves lenition.

Lenition includes the loss of a feature, such as [[glottalic consonant|deglottalization]], in which [[glottalization]] or [[ejective consonant|ejective articulation]] is lost: {{IPA|[kʼ]}} or {{IPA|[kˀ]}} > {{IPA|[k]}}.

The tables below show common sound changes involved in lenition. In some cases, lenition may skip one of the sound changes. The change voiceless stop > fricative is more common than the series of changes voiceless stop > affricate > fricative.

===Opening===
In the opening type of lenition, the articulation becomes more open with each step. Opening lenition involves several sound changes: shortening of double consonants, [[affrication]] of stops, [[Lenition#Spirantization|spirantization]] or [[assibilation]] of stops or affricates, [[debuccalization]], and finally [[elision]].
* {{IPA|[tt]}} or {{IPA|[tː]}} > {{IPA|[t]}} (shortening, example in [[Greek language|Greek]])
* {{IPA|[t]}} > {{IPA|[ts]}} (affrication, for example {{langx|la|terra}} to {{langx|rup|tsarã}})
* {{IPA|[t]}} or {{IPA|[ts]}} > {{IPA|[s]}} (spirantization, example in [[Gilbertese language]])
* {{IPA|[t̚]}} > {{IPA|[ʔ]}}; {{IPA|[s]}} > {{IPA|[h]}} (debuccalization, example in [[English language|English]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]])
* {{IPA|[t]}}, {{IPA|[ts]}}, {{IPA|[s]}}, {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, {{IPA|[h]}} > ∅ (elision, for example {{langx|fro|feste}} to {{langx|fr|fête}} (cf. {{langx|es|fiesta}}))

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! geminated stop !!→ !! stop!!→ !!affricate!!→ !!fricative!!→ !!placeless approximant!!→ !!no sound
|-
| original sound ||→ || degemination||→ ||affrication||→ ||spirantization<br/> (deaffrication)||→ ||debuccalization||→ ||elision
|-
|rowspan=2|{{IPA|[pp] or [ppʰ]}}||rowspan=2|→||rowspan=2|{{IPA|[p] or [pʰ]}}||→||{{IPA|[pɸ]}}||→||{{IPA|[ɸ]}}||→ ||rowspan=5|{{IPA|[h]}}||rowspan=5|→ ||rowspan=5|(zero)
|-
|→||{{IPA|[pf]}}||→||{{IPA|[f]}}||→
|-
|rowspan=2|{{IPA|[tt] or [ttʰ]}}||rowspan=2|→||rowspan=2|{{IPA|[t] or [tʰ]}}||→ ||{{IPA|[tθ]}}||→ ||{{IPA|[θ]}}||→
|-
|→||{{IPA|[ts]}}||→||{{IPA|[s]}}||→
|-
|{{IPA|[kk] or [kkʰ]}}||→||{{IPA|[k] or [kʰ]}}||→ ||{{IPA|[kx]}}||→|| {{IPA|[x]}}||→
|}

===Sonorization===
The sonorization type involves voicing. Sonorizing lenition involves several sound changes: voicing, approximation, and vocalization.{{clarify|reason=More sound changes are involved, and if there are specific names for the different changes, these should be listed.|date=February 2015}}
* {{IPA|[t]}} > {{IPA|[d]}} (voicing, example in [[Korean language|Korean]])
* {{IPA|[d]}} > {{IPA|[ð]}} (approximation, example in [[Spanish language|Spanish]])
* {{IPA|[d]}} > {{IPA|[i]}} (vocalization)

Sonorizing lenition occurs especially often intervocalically (between vowels).  In this position, lenition can be seen as a type of [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] of the consonant to the surrounding vowels, in which features of the consonant that are not present in the surrounding vowels (e.g. obstruction, voicelessness) are gradually eliminated.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! stop!!→
!voiced stop!!→
!colspan=3|continuant<br /> (fricative, trill, etc.)!!→
!colspan=3|approximant!!→
!no sound
|-
| original sound || →
|[[consonant voicing and devoicing|voicing]]<br /> (sonorization)||→
|colspan=3|spirantization, trilling||→
|colspan=3| approximation||→
|elision
|-
|rowspan=3|{{IPA|[p]}} ||rowspan=3|→
|rowspan=3|{{IPA|[b]}} ||→
|style="border-right: 0px;"| {{IPA|[β]}} ||colspan=2 style="border-left: 0px;" | ||→
|style="border-right: 0px;"| {{IPA|[β̞]}} ||style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"| ||style="border-left: 0px;"| ||→
|rowspan=8|(zero)
|-
|rowspan=2|→
|rowspan=2 style="border-right: 0px;"|  ||rowspan=2 style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"|  {{IPA|[v]}} ||rowspan=2 style="border-left: 0px;"| ||→
|style="border-right: 0px;"| ||style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"| {{IPA|[ʋ]}} ||style="border-left: 0px;"| ||→
|-
|→
|style="border-right: 0px;"| ||style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"| ||style="border-left: 0px;"| {{IPA|[w]}} ||→
|-
|rowspan=3|{{IPA|[t]}} ||rowspan=3|→
|rowspan=3|{{IPA|[d]}} ||→
|style="border-right: 0px;"| {{IPA|[ð]}} ||style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"| ||style="border-left: 0px;"| ||→
|colspan=3|{{IPA|[ð̞]}} ||→
|-
|→
|style="border-right: 0px;"|  ||style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"|  {{IPA|[z]}} ||style="border-left: 0px;"| ||→
|colspan=3 rowspan=2|{{IPA|[ɹ]}} ||rowspan=2|→
|-
|→
|style="border-right: 0px;"|  ||style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"| ||style="border-left: 0px;"| {{IPA|[r]}} ||→
|-
|rowspan=2|{{IPA|[k]}} ||rowspan=2|→
|rowspan=2|{{IPA|[ɡ]}} ||rowspan=2|→
|rowspan=2 colspan=3|{{IPA|[ɣ]}} ||→
|style="border-right: 0px;"| {{IPA|[ɰ]}} ||colspan=2 style="border-left: 0px;" | ||→
|-
|→
|style="border-right: 0px;"| ||colspan=2 style="border-left: 0px;" |{{IPA|[j], [w]}} ||→
|}

Some of the sounds generated by lenition are often subsequently "normalized" into related but cross-linguistically more common sounds.  An example would be the changes {{IPA|[b]}} → {{IPA|[β]}} → {{IPA|[v]}} and {{IPA|[d]}} → {{IPA|[ð]}} → {{IPA|[z]}}.  Such normalizations correspond to diagonal movements down and to the right in the above table.  In other cases, sounds are lenited and normalized at the same time; examples would be direct changes {{IPA|[b]}} → {{IPA|[v]}} or {{IPA|[d]}} → {{IPA|[z]}}.

====Vocalization====
[[L-vocalization|''L''-vocalization]] is a subtype of the sonorization type of lenition. It has two possible results: a velar approximant or back vowel, or a palatal approximant or front vowel. In [[French language|French]], ''l''-vocalization of the sequence {{IPA|/al/}} resulted in the [[diphthong]] {{IPA|/au/}}, which was [[monophthongized]], yielding the [[monophthong]] {{IPA|/o/}} in Modern French.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! lateral approximant !! → !!  semivowel !! → !! vowel
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[l]}} || → || {{IPA|[w]}}<br>{{IPA|[ɰ]}} || → || {{IPA|[u]}}<br>{{IPA|[o]}}
|-
| → || {{IPA|[j]}} || → || {{IPA|[i]}}
|}

===Mixed===
Sometimes a particular example of lenition mixes the opening and sonorization pathways. For example, {{IPA|[kʰ]}} may spirantize or open to {{IPA|[x]}}, then voice or sonorize to {{IPA|[ɣ]}}.

Lenition can be seen in [[Canadian English|Canadian]] and [[American English]], where {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} soften to a tap {{IPA|[ɾ]}} ([[flapping]]) when not in initial position and followed by an unstressed vowel. For example, both ''rate'' and ''raid'' plus the suffix ''-er'' are pronounced {{IPA|[ˈɹeɪ̯ɾɚ]}}.  The Italian of Central and Southern Italy has a number of lenitions, the most widespread of which is the deaffrication of {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} to {{IPA|[ʃ]}} between vowels: post-pausal {{lang|it|cena}} {{IPA|[ˈt͡ʃeːna]}} 'dinner' but post-vocalic {{lang|it|la cena}} {{IPA|[laˈʃeːna]}} 'the dinner'; the name {{lang|it|Luciano}}, although structurally {{IPA|/luˈt͡ʃano/}}, is normally pronounced {{IPA|[luˈʃaːno]}}. In Tuscany, {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} likewise is realized {{IPA|[ʒ]}} between vowels, and in typical speech of Central Tuscany, the voiceless stops {{IPA|/p t k/}} in the same position are pronounced respectively {{IPA|[ɸ θ x/h]}}, as in {{IPA|/la kasa/}} → {{IPA|[laˈhaːsa]}} 'the house', {{IPA|/buko/}} → {{IPA|[ˈbuːho]}} 'hole'.

==Effects==
===Diachronic===
[[Diachronic linguistics|Diachronic]] lenition is found, for example, in the change from [[Latin]] into [[Spanish language|Spanish]], in which the [[wikt:intervocalic|intervocalic]] voiceless stops {{IPA|[p t k]}} first changed into their voiced counterparts {{IPA|[b d ɡ]}}, and later into the approximants or fricatives {{IPA|[β̞ ð̞ ɣ̞]}}: {{lang|la|vita}} > {{lang|es|vida}}, {{lang|la|lupa}} > {{lang|es|loba}}, {{lang|la|caeca}} > {{lang|es|ciega}}, {{lang|la|apotheca}} > {{lang|es|bodega}}. One stage in these changes goes beyond phonetic to have become a [[phonological change|phonological restructuring]], e.g. {{IPA|/lupa/}} > {{IPA|/loba/}} (compare {{IPA|/lupa/}} in Italian, with no change in the phonological status of {{IPA|/p/}}). The subsequent further weakening of the series to phonetic {{IPA|[β̞ ð̞ ɣ̞]}}, as in {{IPA|[loβ̞a]}} is diachronic in the sense that the developments took place over time and displaced {{IPA|[b, d, g]}} as the normal pronunciations between vowels. It is also synchronic in an analysis of {{IPA|[β̞ ð̞ ɣ̞]}} as [[allophone|allophonic]] realizations of {{IPA|/b, d, g/}}: illustrating with {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/bino/}} 'wine' is pronounced {{IPA|[bino]}} after pause, but with {{IPA|[β̞]}} intervocalically, as in {{IPA|[de β̞ino]}} 'of wine'; likewise, {{IPA|/loba/}} → {{IPA|[loβ̞a]}}.

A similar development occurred in the Celtic languages, where non-geminate intervocalic consonants were converted into their corresponding weaker counterparts through lenition (usually stops into fricatives but also laterals and trills into weaker laterals and taps), and voiceless stops became voiced. For example, Indo-European intervocalic *{{PIE|-t-}} in ''*{{PIE|teu̯teh₂}}'' "people" resulted in [[Proto-Celtic]] {{wikt-lang|cel-x-proto|*toutā}}, [[Primitive Irish]] ''*{{lang|pgl|tōθā}}'', [[Old Irish]] {{wikt-lang|sga|túath}} {{IPA|/t̪ʰuaθ/}} and ultimately debuccalisation in most Irish and some Scottish dialects to {{IPA|/t̪ʰuəh/}}, shift in Central Southern Irish to {{IPA|/t̪ʰuəx/}}, and complete deletion in some Modern Irish and most Modern Scots Gaelic dialects, thus {{IPA|/t̪ʰuə/}}.<ref>{{cite book| last = Stifter| first = David| title = Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners| year = 2006| publisher = Syracuse University Press| isbn = 978-0-8156-3072-2 }}</ref>

An example of historical lenition in the [[Germanic language]]s is evidenced by Latin-English cognates such as {{lang|la|pater}}, {{lang|la|tenuis}}, {{lang|la|cornu}} vs. ''father'', ''thin'', ''horn''. The Latin words preserved the original stops, which became fricatives in old Germanic by [[Grimm's law]]. A few centuries later, the [[High German consonant shift]] led to a second series of lenitions in [[Old High German]], chiefly of post-vocalic stops, as evidenced in the English-German cognates ''ripe'', ''water'', ''make'' vs. {{lang|de|reif}}, {{lang|de|Wasser}}, {{lang|de|machen}}.

Although actually a much more profound change encompassing syllable restructuring, simplification of [[geminate consonant]]s as in the passage from Latin to Spanish such as cuppa > {{IPA|/ˈkopa/}} 'cup' is often viewed as a type of lenition (compare geminate-preserving Italian {{IPA|/ˈkɔppa/}}).

===Synchronic===

====Allophonic====
All varieties of [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], with the sole exception of [[Nuorese dialect|Nuorese]], offer an example of [[sandhi]] in which the rule of intervocalic lenition applying to the voiced series /b d g/ extends across word boundaries. Since it is a fully active synchronic rule, lenition is not normally indicated in the standard orthographies.<ref>Mensching, G. (1992). ''Einführung in die Sardische Sprache'', Romanistischer Verlag, Bonn</ref>
{|
|{{IPA|/b/}}||→ {{IPA|[β]}}: {{lang|sc|baca}} {{IPA|[ˈbaka]}} "cow" → {{lang|sc|sa baca}} {{IPA|[sa ˈβaka]}} "the cow"
|-
|{{IPA|/d/}}||→ {{IPA|[ð]}}: {{lang|sc|domu}} {{IPA|[ˈdɔmu]}} "house" → {{lang|sc|sa domu}} {{IPA|[sa ˈðɔmu]}} "the house"
|-
|{{IPA|/ɡ/}}||→ {{IPA|[ɣ]}}: {{lang|sc|gupu}} {{IPA|[ˈɡupu]}} "ladle" → {{lang|sc|su gupu}} {{IPA|[su ˈɣupu]}} "the ladle"
|-
|}
A [[Tuscan gorgia|series of synchronic lenitions]] involving opening, or loss of occlusion, rather than voicing is found for post-vocalic {{IPA|/p t k/}} in many [[Tuscan dialect]]s of [[Central Italy]]. Stereotypical [[Florentine dialect|Florentine]], for example, has the {{IPA|/k/}} of {{IPA|/kasa/}} as {{IPA|[ˈkaːsa]}} {{lang|it|casa}} 'house' in a post-pause realization, {{IPA|[iŋˈkaːsa]}} {{lang|it|in casa}} 'in (the) house' post-consonant, but {{IPA|[laˈhaːsa]}} {{lang|it|la casa}} 'the house' intervocalically. Word-internally, the normal realization is also {{IPA|[h]}}: {{IPA|/ˈbuko/}} {{lang|it|buco}} 'hole' → {{IPA|[ˈbuːho]}}.

====Grammatical====
In the [[Celtic languages]], the phenomenon of intervocalic lenition historically extended across word boundaries. This explains the rise of [[Grammaticalisation|grammaticalised]] initial [[consonant mutation]]s in modern Celtic languages through the loss of endings. A [[Scottish Gaelic]] example would be the lack of lenition in {{lang|gd|am fear}} {{IPA|/əm fɛr/}} ("the man") and lenition in {{lang|gd|a' bhean}} {{IPA|/ə vɛn/}} ("the woman"). The following examples show the development of a phrase consisting of a definite article plus a masculine noun (taking the ending {{lang|gd|-os}}) compared with a feminine noun taking the ending {{lang|gd|-a}}. The historic development of lenition in those two cases can be reconstructed as follows:

:[[Proto-Celtic]] {{lang|cel-x-proto|*(s)indo'''s w'''iros}} IPA: {{IPA|[wiɾos]}} → Old Irish {{lang|sga|ind fer}} {{IPA|[fʲeɾ]}} → Middle Irish {{lang|mga|in fer}} {{IPA|[fʲeɾ]}} → [[Classical Gaelic]] {{lang|ghc|an fear}} {{IPA|[fʲeɾ]}} → Modern Gaelic {{lang|gd|am fear}} {{IPA|[fɛɾ]}}

:Proto-Celtic {{lang|cel-x-proto|*(s)ind'''ā be'''nā}} IPA: {{IPA|[vʲenaː]}} → Old Irish {{lang|sga|ind ben}} {{IPA|[vʲen]}} → Middle Irish {{lang|mga|in ben}} {{IPA|[vʲen]}} → Classical Gaelic {{lang|ghc|an bhean}} {{IPA|[vʲen]}} → Modern Gaelic {{lang|gd|a' bhean}} {{IPA|[vɛn]}}

Synchronic lenition in Scottish Gaelic affects almost all consonants (except {{IPA|/l̪ˠ/}}, which has lost its lenited counterpart in most areas).<ref name="Oftedal">Oftedal, M. (1956) ''The Gaelic of Leurbost'' Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap, Oslo</ref> Changes such as {{IPA|/n̪ˠ/}} to {{IPA|/n/}} involve the loss of [[secondary articulation]]; in addition, {{IPA|/rˠ/}} → {{IPA|/ɾ/}} involves the reduction of a [[trill consonant|trill]] to a [[tap consonant|tap]]. The spirantization of Gaelic nasal {{IPA|/m/}} to {{IPA|/v/}} is unusual among forms of lenition, but it is triggered by the same environment as more prototypical lenition. (It may also leave a residue of [[nasalization]] in adjacent vowels.)<ref>Ternes, E. (1989) ''The Phonemic Analysis of Scottish Gaelic'' Helmut Buske Verkag, Hamburg</ref> The orthography shows that by inserting an {{lang|gd|h}} (except after {{lang|gd|l n r}}).

{|
| colspan=3|

===== Spirantization =====
|-
|{{IPA|/p/}}||→ {{IPA|/v/}}||{{lang|gd|bog}} {{IPA|/pok/}} "soft" → {{lang|gd|glé bhog}} {{IPA|/kleː vok/}} "very soft"
|-
|{{IPA|/pj/}}||→ {{IPA|/vj/}} (before a [[back vowel]])|| {{lang|gd|beò}} {{IPA|/pjɔː/}} 'alive' → {{lang|gd|glé bheò}} {{IPA|/kleː vjɔː/}} 'very alive'
|-
|{{IPA|/kʰ/}}||→ {{IPA|/x/}}|| {{lang|gd|cas}} {{IPA|/kʰas̪/}} "steep" → {{lang|gd|glé chas}} {{IPA|/kleː xas̪/}} "very steep"
|-
|{{IPA|/kʰʲ/}}||→ {{IPA|/ç/}}|| {{lang|gd|ciùin}} {{IPA|/kʰʲuːɲ/}} "quiet" → {{lang|gd|glé chiùin}} {{IPA|/kleː çuːɲ/}} "very quiet"
|-
|{{IPA|/t̪/}}||→ {{IPA|/ɣ/}}|| {{lang|gd|dubh}} {{IPA|/t̪uh/}} "black" → {{lang|gd|glé dhubh}} {{IPA|/kleː ɣuh/}} "very black"
|-
|{{IPA|/tʲ/}}||→ {{IPA|/ʝ/}}|| {{lang|gd|deiseil}} {{IPA|/tʲeʃal/}} "ready" → {{lang|gd|glé dheiseil}} {{IPA|/kleː ʝeʃal/}} "very ready"
|-
|{{IPA|/k/}}||→ {{IPA|/ɣ/}}|| {{lang|gd|garbh}} {{IPA|/kaɾav/}} "rough" → {{lang|gd|glé gharbh}} {{IPA|/kleː ɣaɾav/}} "very rough"
|-
|{{IPA|/kʲ/}}||→ {{IPA|/ʝ/}}|| {{lang|gd|geur}} {{IPA|/kʲiaɾ/}} "sharp" → {{lang|gd|glé gheur}} {{IPA|/kleː ʝiaɾ/}} "very sharp"
|-
|{{IPA|/m/}}||→ {{IPA|/v/}}|| {{lang|gd|maol}} {{IPA|/mɯːl̪ˠ/}} "bald" → {{lang|gd|glé mhaol}} {{IPA|/kleː vɯːl̪ˠ/}} "very bald"
|-
|{{IPA|/mj/}}||→ {{IPA|/vj/}} (before a back vowel)|| {{lang|gd|meallta}} {{IPA|/mjaul̪ˠt̪ə/}} "deceitful" → {{lang|gd|glé mheallta}} {{IPA|/kleː vjaul̪ˠt̪ə/}} "very deceitful"
|-
|{{IPA|/pʰ/}}||→ {{IPA|/f/}}|| {{lang|gd|pongail}} {{IPA|/pʰɔŋɡal/}} "exact" → {{lang|gd|glé phongail}} {{IPA|/kleː fɔŋɡal/}} "very exact"
|-
|{{IPA|/pʰj/}}||→ {{IPA|/fj/}} (before a back vowel)|| {{lang|gd|peallagach}} {{IPA|/pʰjal̪ˠakəx/}} "shaggy" → {{lang|gd|glé pheallagach}} {{IPA|/kleː fjal̪ˠakəx/}} "very shaggy"
|-
| colspan=3|

===== Loss of secondary articulation =====
|-
|{{IPA|/n̪ˠ/}}||→ {{IPA|/n/}}|| {{lang|gd|nàdarra}} {{IPA|/n̪ˠaːt̪ərˠə/}} "natural" → {{lang|gd|glé nàdarra}} {{IPA|/kleː naːt̪ərˠə/}} "very natural"
|-
|{{IPA|/rˠ/}}||→ {{IPA|/ɾ/}}|| {{lang|gd|rag}} {{IPA|/rˠak/}} "stiff" → {{lang|gd|glé rag}} {{IPA|/kleː ɾak/}} "very stiff"
|-
|{{IPA|/l̪ˠ/}}||→ {{IPA|/lˠ/}}|| {{lang|gd|lag}} {{IPA|/l̪ˠak/}} "weak" → {{lang|gd|glé lag}} {{IPA|/kleː lˠak/}} "very weak" (in [[Harris, Scotland|Harris]] Gaelic only)
|-
| colspan=3|

===== Debuccalization =====
|-
|{{IPA|/s̪/}}||→ {{IPA|/h/}}|| {{lang|gd|sona}} {{IPA|/s̪ɔnə/}} "happy" → {{lang|gd|glé shona}} {{IPA|/kleː hɔnə/}} "very happy"
|-
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}||→ {{IPA|/h/}} || {{lang|gd|seasmhach}} {{IPA|/ʃes̪vəx/}} "constant" → {{lang|gd|glé sheasmhach}} {{IPA|/kleː hes̪vəx/}} "very constant"
|-
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}}||→ {{IPA|/hj/}} (before a back vowel)||{{lang|gd|seòlta}} {{IPA|/ʃɔːl̪ˠt̪ə/}} "sly" → {{lang|gd|glé sheòlta}} {{IPA|/kleː hjɔːl̪ˠt̪ə/}} "very sly"
|-
|{{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}}||→ {{IPA|/h/}}|| {{lang|gd|tana}} {{IPA|/t̪ʰanə/}} "thin" → {{lang|gd|glé thana}} {{IPA|/kleː hanə/}} "very thin"
|-
|{{IPA|/tʰʲ/}}||→ {{IPA|/h/}}||{{lang|gd|tinn}} {{IPA|/tʲiːɲ/}} "ill" → {{lang|gd|glé thinn}} {{IPA|/kleː hiːɲ/}} "very ill"
|-
|{{IPA|/tʰʲ/}}||→ {{IPA|/hj/}} (before a back vowel)||{{lang|gd|teann}} {{IPA|/tʰʲaun̪ˠ/}} "tight" → {{lang|gd|glé theann}} {{IPA|/kleː hjaun̪ˠ/}} "very tight"
|-
| colspan=3|

===== Elision =====
|-
|{{IPA|/f/}}||→ Ø|| {{lang|gd|fann}} {{IPA|/faun̪ˠ/}} "faint" → {{lang|gd|glé fhann}} {{IPA|/kleː aun̪ˠ/}} "very faint"
|-
|{{IPA|/fj/}}||→ {{IPA|/j/}} (before a back vowel)|| {{lang|gd|feòrachail}} {{IPA|/fjɔːɾəxal/}} "inquisitive" → {{lang|gd|glé fheòrachail}} {{IPA|/kleː jɔːɾəxal/}} "very inquisitive"
|-
| colspan=3|

===== Reduction of place markedness =====
|-
| colspan=3| In the modern [[Goidelic]] languages, grammatical lenition also triggers the reduction of [[markedness]] in the [[place of articulation]] of [[coronal consonant|coronal]] [[sonorant]]s ({{lang|gd|l}}, {{lang|gd|r}}, and {{lang|gd|n}} sounds). In Scottish Gaelic, {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/l/}} are the weak counterparts of palatal {{IPA|/ɲ/}} and {{IPA|/ʎ/}}.
|-
|{{IPA|/ɲ/}}|| → {{IPA|/n/}}|| {{lang|gd|neulach}} {{IPA|/ɲial̪ˠəx/}} "cloudy" → {{lang|gd|glé neulach}} {{IPA|/kleː nial̪ˠəx/}} "very cloudy"
|-
|{{IPA|/ʎ/}}|| → {{IPA|/l/}}|| {{lang|gd|leisg}} {{IPA|/ʎeʃkʲ/}} "lazy" → {{lang|gd|glé leisg}} {{IPA|/kleː leʃkʲ/}} "very lazy"
|}

=== Blocked lenition ===
Some languages which have lenition have in addition complex rules affecting situations where lenition might be expected to occur but does not, often those involving [[homorganic consonants]]. This is colloquially known as 'blocked lenition', or more technically as 'homorganic inhibition' or 'homorganic blocking'. In Scottish Gaelic, for example, there are three homorganic groups:<ref name="Blas">{{cite book| last = Bauer| first = Michael| title = Blas Na Gāidhlig: The Practical Guide to Scottish Gaelic Pronunciation| year = 2011| publisher = Akerbeltz| isbn = 978-1-907165-00-9 }}</ref>
* d n t l s (usually called the [[Dental consonant|dental]] group in spite of the non-dental nature of the palatals)
* c g (usually called the [[Velar consonant|velar]] group)
* b f m p (usually called the [[Labial consonant|labial]] group)
In a position where lenition is expected due to the grammatical environment, lenition tends to be blocked if there are two adjacent homorganic consonants across the word boundary. For example:<ref name=Blas/>
* {{lang|gd|aon}} 'one' (which causes lenition) → {{lang|gd|aon chas}} 'one leg' vs {{lang|gd|ao'''n t'''aigh}} 'one house' (not {{lang|gd|aon *thaigh}})
* {{lang|gd|air an}} 'on the' (which causes lenition) → {{lang|gd|air a' chas mhòr}} 'on the big leg' vs {{lang|gd|air a'''n t'''aigh '''d'''onn}} "on the brown house" (not {{lang|gd|air an *thaigh *dhonn}})
In modern Scottish Gaelic this rule is only [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] in the case of dentals but not the other two groups for the vast majority of speakers. It also does not affect all environments any more. For example, while {{lang|gd|aon}} still invokes the rules of blocked lenition, a noun followed by an adjective generally no longer does so. Hence:<ref name=Blas/>
* {{lang|gd|ad}} "hat" (a feminine noun causing lenition) → {{lang|gd|ad dhonn}} "a brown hat" (although some highly conservative speakers retain {{lang|gd|ad donn}})
* {{lang|gd|caileag}} "girl" (a feminine noun causing lenition) → {{lang|gd|caileag ghlic}} "a smart girl" (not {{lang|gd|caileag *glic}})
There is a significant number of frozen forms involving the other two groups (labials and velars) and environments as well, especially in surnames and place names:<ref name=Blas/>
* {{lang|gd|Ma'''cG'''umaraid}} 'Montgomery' ({{lang|gd|mac}} + {{lang|gd|Gumaraid}}) vs {{lang|gd|Ma'''cDh'''òmhnaill}} 'MacDonald ({{lang|gd|mac}} + {{lang|gd|Dòmhnall}})
* {{lang|gd|Cai'''mb'''eul}} 'Campbell' ({{lang|gd|cam}} 'crooked' + {{lang|gd|beul}} 'mouth') vs {{lang|gd|Ca'''msh'''ron}} 'Cameron' ({{lang|gd|cam}} + {{lang|gd|sròn}} 'nose')
* {{lang|gd|sgia'''n-d'''ubh}} '[[Sgian-dubh]]' ({{lang|gd|sgian}} 'knife' + {{lang|gd|dubh}} '1 black 2 hidden'; {{lang|gd|sgian}} as a feminine noun today would normally cause lenition on a following adjective) vs {{lang|gd|sgian dhubh}} "a black knife" (i.e., a common knife which just happens to be black)
Though rare, in some instances the rules of blocked lenition can be invoked by lost historical consonants, for example, in the case of the past-tense [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] {{lang|gd|bu}}, which in [[Common Celtic]] had a final -t. In terms of blocked lenition, it continues to behave as a dental-final particle invoking blocked lenition rules:<ref name=Blas/>
* {{lang|gd|bu '''d'''ona am biadh}} "bad was the food" versus {{lang|gd|bu '''mh'''òr am beud}} 'great was the pity

In Brythonic languages, only fossilized vestiges of lenition blocking occur, for example in Welsh {{lang|cy|no'''s d'''a}} 'good night' lenition is blocked<ref>{{cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/151480254.pdf |title=Celtic initial consonant mutations – nghath and bhfuil? |last=Conroy |first=Kevin M  |date=2008 |website= |publisher=Boston College University Libraries |access-date=16 September 2021 |quote=}}</ref> ({{lang|cy|nos}} as a feminine noun normally causes lenition of a following modifier, for example {{lang|cy|Gwener}} 'Friday' yields {{lang|cy|nos Wener}} 'Friday night'). Within Celtic, blocked lenition phenomena also occur in Irish (for example {{lang|ga|ao'''n d'''oras}} 'one door', {{lang|ga|an chéa'''d d'''uine}} 'the first person') and [[Manx Gaelic|Manx]] (for example {{lang|gv|u'''n d'''orrys}} 'one door', {{lang|gv|yn chie'''d d'''ooinney}} 'the first man') however.

Outside Celtic, in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] orthographic b d g are retained as {{IPA|[b, d, ɡ]}} following nasals rather than their normal lenited forms {{IPA|[β, ð, ɣ]}}.

==Orthography==
{{see also|Welsh morphology|Irish initial mutations}}
In the modern Celtic languages, lenition of the "fricating" type is usually denoted by adding an ''h'' to the lenited letter. In Welsh, for example, {{lang|cy|c}}, {{lang|cy|p}}, and {{lang|cy|t}} change into {{lang|cy|ch}}, {{lang|cy|ph}}, {{lang|cy|th}} as a result of the so-called "aspirate mutation" ({{lang|cy|carreg}}, "stone" → {{lang|cy|ei charreg}} "her stone"). An exception is [[Manx orthography]], which tends to be more phonetic, but in some cases, etymological principles are applied. In the [[Gaelic type|Gaelic script]], fricating lenition (usually called simply ''lenition'') is indicated by a [[dot above]] the affected consonant, and in the Roman script, the convention is to suffix the letter {{lang|gv|h}} to the consonant, to signify that it is lenited. Thus, {{lang|gv|a ṁáṫair}} is equivalent to {{lang|gv|a mháthair}}. In [[Middle Irish]] manuscripts, lenition of {{lang|mga|s}} and {{lang|mga|f}} was indicated by the dot above, and lenition of {{lang|mga|p}}, {{lang|mga|t}}, and {{lang|mga|c}} was indicated by the postposed {{lang|mga|h}}; lenition of other letters was not indicated consistently in the orthography.

Voicing lenition is represented by a simple letter switch in the [[Brythonic languages]], for instance {{lang|cy|carreg}}, "stone" → {{lang|cy|y garreg}}, "the stone" in Welsh. In [[Irish orthography]], it is shown by writing the "weak" consonant alongside the (silent) "strong" one: {{lang|ga|peann}}, "pen" → {{lang|ga|ár bpeann}} "our pen", {{lang|ga|ceann}}, "head" → {{lang|ga|ár gceann}} "our head" (sonorization is traditionally called "eclipsis" in Irish grammar).

Although nasalization as a feature also occurs in most Scottish Gaelic dialects, it is not shown in the orthography on the whole, as it is synchronic (the result of certain types of nasals affecting a following sound), rather than the diachronic Irish type sonorization (after historic nasals). For example {{lang|ga|taigh}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰɤj]}} "house" → {{lang|ga|an taigh}} {{IPA|[ən̪ˠˈd̪ʱɤj]}} "the house".<ref name=Oftedal/><ref>{{cite book| author = Roibeard O. Maolalaigh|author2=Iain MacAonghuis | title = Scottish Gaelic in 3 Months| year = 1997| publisher = Hunter Pub Incorporated| isbn = 978-0-85285-234-7 }}</ref>

==Consonant gradation==
{{main|Consonant gradation}}
The phenomenon of consonant gradation in [[Finnic languages]] is also a form of lenition.

An example with [[geminate]] consonants comes from [[Finnish language|Finnish]], where geminates become simple consonants while retaining voicing or voicelessness (e.g. {{lang|fi|katto}} → {{lang|fi|katon}}, {{lang|fi|dubbaan}} → {{lang|fi|dubata}}). It is also possible for entire consonant clusters to undergo lenition, as in [[Votic language|Votic]], where voiceless clusters become voiced, e.g. {{lang|vot|itke-}} "to cry" → {{lang|vot|idgön}}.

If a language has no obstruents other than voiceless stops, other sounds are encountered, as in Finnish, where the lenited grade is represented by [[chroneme]]s, [[approximant]]s, [[flap consonant|tap]]s or even [[trill consonant|trills]]. For example, Finnish used to have a complete set of spirantization reflexes for {{IPA|/p t k/}}, though these have been lost in favour of similar-sounding phonemes. In the [[South Ostrobothnian dialect|Southern Ostrobothnian]], [[Tavastian dialects|Tavastian]] and [[Southwest Finnish dialects|southwestern]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sokl.uef.fi/aineistot/aidinkieli/murteet/d-vastin.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008052514/sokl.uef.fi/aineistot/aidinkieli/murteet/d-vastin.html |archive-date=2021-10-08  | title=Yleiskielen d:n murrevastineet }}</ref> dialects of Finnish, {{IPA|/ð/}} mostly changed into {{IPA|/r/}}, thus the dialects have a synchronic lenition of an alveolar stop into an alveolar trill {{IPA|/t/ → /r/}}. Furthermore, the same phoneme {{IPA|/t/}} undergoes [[assibilation]] {{IPA|/t/}} → {{IPA|/s/}} before the vowel {{IPA|/i/}}, e.g. root {{lang|fi|vete-}} "water" → {{lang|fi|vesi}} and {{lang|fi|vere-}}. Here, {{lang|fi|vete-}} is the stem, {{lang|fi|vesi}} is its nominative, and {{lang|fi|vere-}} is the same stem under consonant gradation.

==Fortition==
{{main|Fortition}}
Fortition is the opposite of lenition: a consonant mutation in which a consonant changes from one considered weak to one considered strong. Fortition is less frequent than lenition in the languages of the world, but word-initial and word-final fortition is fairly frequent.

Italian, for example, presents numerous regular examples of word-initial fortition both historically (Lat. {{lang|la|Januarius}} with initial {{IPA|/j/}} > {{lang|it|gennaio}}, with {{IPA|[dʒ]}}) and synchronically (e.g., {{IPA|/ˈkaza/}} "house, home" → {{IPA|[ˈkaːza]}} but {{IPA|/a ˈkaza/}} "at home" → {{IPA|[aˈkːaːza]}}).

Catalan is among numerous Romance languages with diachronic [[Final-obstruent devoicing|word-final devoicing]] ({{lang|la|frigidus}} > {{IPA|*/ˈfɾɛd/}} > {{lang|ca|fred}} {{IPA|[ˈfɾɛt]}}. Fortition also occurs in Catalan for {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}} in consonant clusters with a lateral consonant (Lat. {{lang|la|populus}} > {{lang|ca|poble}} {{IPA|[ˈpɔbːɫə]}} or {{IPA|[ˈpɔpːɫə]}}.

Word-medially, {{IPA|/lː/}} is subject to fortition in numerous Romance languages, ranging from {{IPA|[ɖː]}} or {{IPA|[dː]}} in many [[languages of Italy|speech types on Italian soil]] to {{IPA|[dʒ]}} in some varieties of Spanish.

==See also==
* [[Apophony]]
* [[Begadkefat]]
* [[Chain shift]]
* [[Consonant mutation]]
* [[Germanic spirant law]]
* [[Grimm's Law]]
* [[High German consonant shift]]
* [[Historical linguistics]]
* [[Rendaku]] – a similar phenomenon in the [[Japanese language]]
* [[Tuscan gorgia]] – a specific form of lenition found in the [[Tuscan dialect]] of [[Italian language|Italian]]

==References==

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== General references ===
* Crowley, Terry (1997). ''An Introduction to Historical Linguistics''. 3rd edition. Oxford University Press.
* {{cite book| last = Oftedal| first = Magne| year = 1985| title = Lenition in Celtic and in Insular Spanish: The Secondary Voicing of Stops in Gran Canaria| publisher = Oxford University Press, USA| isbn = 8200072827 }}

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[Category:Celtic languages]]