Editing Lepontic language

{{Short description|Ancient Celtic language}}

{{Infobox language
| name             = Lepontic
| region           = [[Cisalpine Gaul]]
| ethnicity        = [[Lepontii]]
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
| fam3             = [[Nuclear Celtic languages|Nuclear Celtic]]
| script           = [[Lugano alphabet]] (a variant of [[Old Italic script|Old Italic]])
| era              = attested 550–100 BC
| iso3             = xlp
| glotto           = lepo1240
| glottorefname    = Lepontic
| linglist         = xlp
| image            = Inscription Lépontique de Prestino ( Côme ).png
| imagescale       = 1.45
| imagecaption     = Lepontic inscription from [[Prestino]] ([[Como]], Italy)
| map              = Römische Provinzen im Alpenraum ca 14 n Chr.png
| mapcaption       = Map showing the position of the [[Insubres]] and [[Lepontii]] in or near [[Gallia Transpadana]].
}}

'''Lepontic''' is an ancient [[Alps|Alpine]] [[Celtic language]]<ref name=LL>{{Cite web |url=http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=xlp |title=LinguistList: Lepontic |access-date=2010-06-06 |archive-date=2011-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222225335/http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=xlp |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Koch>John T. Koch (ed.)  ''Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia'' ABC-CLIO (2005) {{ISBN|978-1-85109-440-0}}</ref> that was spoken in parts of [[Rhaetia]] and [[Cisalpine Gaul]] (now [[Northern Italy]]) between 550 and 100 BC. Lepontic is attested in inscriptions found in an area centered on [[Lugano]], [[Switzerland]], and including the [[Lake Como]] and [[Lake Maggiore]] areas of [[Italy]]. Being a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] language, its name could derive from [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] *''leikʷontio-'' (which also was the basis of ''Lepontina'', which became the modern ''(Val) Leventina'').<ref>Markey, Thomas L. ; Mees, Bernard (2003) "Prestino, patrimony and the Plinys" ''Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie,'' Vol.53 (1), p.116</ref>

While some recent scholarship (e.g. Eska 1998) has tended to consider Lepontic simply as an early outlying form of [[Gaulish]] and closely akin to other, later attestations of Gaulish in Italy ([[Cisalpine Gaulish]]), some scholars (notably Lejeune 1971) continue to view it as a distinct [[Continental Celtic]] language.<ref name=LL/><ref>Koch 2006; 1142.</ref><ref name=Schumacher/> In this latter view, the earlier inscriptions found within a 50&nbsp;km radius of [[Lugano]] are considered Lepontic, while the later ones, to the immediate south of this area, are considered [[Cisalpine Gaulish]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|year=1991|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pages=55}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Stifter |first=David |title=Old Celtic Languages |date=2008 |page=12 |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710165504/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf |archive-date=2015-07-10|access-date=2023-07-22}}</ref>

Lepontic was assimilated first by Gaulish, with the settlement of Gallic tribes north of the [[River Po]], and then by [[Latin]], after the [[Roman Republic]] gained control over Gallia Cisalpina during the late 2nd and 1st century BC.

==Classification==
Some scholars view<ref name=Schumacher/> (e.g. Lejeune 1971, Koch 2008) Lepontic as a distinct Continental Celtic language.<ref name=LL/><ref name=Koch/> Other scholars (e.g. Evans 1992, Solinas 1995, Eska 1996, McCone 1996, Matasovic 2009)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0VNHHxyNt0C|title=Gaulois et celtique continental|last=Pinault|first=Georges-Jean|date=2007|publisher=Librairie Droz|isbn=978-2-600-01337-6|pages=375|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YN_YPQAACAAJ|title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic|last=Matasović|first=Ranko|date=2009|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-17336-1|pages=13 & 16|language=en}}</ref> consider it as an early form of Cisalpine Gaulish (or '''Cisalpine Celtic''') and thus a dialect of Gaulish. An earlier view, prevalent for most of the 20th century and until about 1970, regarded Lepontic as a "para-Celtic" western [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language, akin to but not part of Celtic, possibly related to [[Ligurian language (ancient)|Ligurian]] (Whatmough 1933 and Pisani 1964). However, Ligurian itself has been considered akin to, but not descended from, Common Celtic, see Kruta 1991 and Stifter 2008.<ref name=Kruta/><ref name=Stifter/>

Referring to linguistic arguments as well as archaeological evidence, Schumacher even considers Lepontic a primary branch of Celtic, perhaps even the first language to diverge from Proto-Celtic.<ref name=Schumacher>{{cite book|last1=Schumacher|first1=Stefan|last2=Schulze-Thulin|first2=Britta|last3=aan de Wiel|first3=Caroline|title=Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon|year=2004|publisher=Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck|location=Innsbruck|isbn=3-85124-692-6|pages=84–85|language=de}}</ref> In any case, the Lepontic inscriptions are the earliest attestation of any form of Celtic, and given its very scanty attestation, it is unlikely that debates over how exactly it is to be classified within Celtic will be resolved any time soon to everyone's satisfaction unless further significant finds come to light.

==Language==
===The alphabet===
[[Image:Venetic Raetic Camunic Lepontic alphabets.png|thumb|upright 1.3|The alphabets of Este (Venetic), Magrè and Bolzano/Bozen-Sanzeno (Raetic), Sondrio (Camunic), Lugano (Lepontic)]]
The alphabet of [[Lugano]], based on inscriptions found in northern Italy and [[Canton Ticino]], was used to record Lepontic inscriptions, among the oldest testimonies of any [[Celtic language]], in use from the 7th to the 5th centuries BC. The alphabet has 18 letters, derived from the archaic Etruscan alphabet.

The alphabet does not distinguish [[voiced consonant|voiced]] and unvoiced [[occlusive]]s, i.e. P represents /b/ or /p/, T is for /t/ or /d/, and K for /g/ or /k/. Z is probably for /t<sup>s</sup>/. U /u/ and V /w/ are distinguished. Θ is probably for /t/ and X for /g/. There are claims of a related script discovered in [[Glozel]].

==Corpus==
Lepontic is known from around 140 inscriptions written in the alphabet of [[Lugano]], one of five main [[Old Italic alphabet|Northern Italic alphabets]] derived from the [[Etruscan alphabet]]. Similar scripts were used for writing the [[Raetic language|Rhaetic]] and [[Venetic]] languages and the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] [[runic alphabet]]s probably derive from a script belonging to this group.

The grouping of all inscriptions written in the alphabet of Lugano into a single language is disputed. Indeed, it was not uncommon in antiquity for a given alphabet to be used to write multiple languages. And, in fact, the alphabet of Lugano was used in the coinage of other Alpine tribes, such as the [[Salassi]], [[Salluvii]], and [[Cavares]] (Whatmough 1933, Lejeune 1971).

While many of the later inscriptions clearly appear to be written in Cisalpine Gaulish, some, including all of the older ones, are said to be in an indigenous language distinct from Gaulish and known as Lepontic. Until the publication of Lejeune 1971, this Lepontic language was regarded as a pre-Celtic language, possibly related to Ligurian (Whatmough 1933, Pisani 1964). Following Lejeune 1971, the consensus view became that Lepontic should be classified as a Celtic language, albeit possibly as divergent as [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], and in any case quite distinct from Cisalpine Gaulish (Lejeune 1971, Kruta 1991, Stifter 2008).<ref name=Kruta>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|year=1991|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pages=52–56}}</ref><ref name=Stifter>{{cite book|last=Stifter |first=David |title=Old Celtic Languages |date=2008 |pages=24–37 |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302015510/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf |archive-date=2011-03-02 |access-date=2023-07-22}}</ref> Some have gone further, considering Lepontic and Cisalpine Gaulish essentially one and the same (Eska 1998). However, an analysis of the geographic distribution of the inscriptions shows that the Cisalpine Gaulish inscriptions are later and from an area to the south of the earlier (Lepontic) inscriptions, with which they display significant differences as well as similarities.<ref name=Stifter/>

While the language is named after the tribe of the [[Lepontii]], which occupied portions of ancient [[Rhaetia]], specifically an [[Alps|Alpine]] area straddling modern [[Switzerland]] and [[Italy]] and bordering Cisalpine Gaul, the term is currently used by some Celticists (e.g. Eska 1998) to apply to all Celtic dialects of ancient Italy. This usage is disputed by those who continue to view the Lepontii as one of several indigenous pre-Roman tribes of the Alps, quite distinct from the [[Gauls]] who invaded the plains of Northern Italy in historical times.

The older Lepontic inscriptions date back to before the 5th century BC, the item from [[Castelletto Ticino]] being dated at the 6th century BC and that from [[Sesto Calende]] possibly being from the 7th century BC (Prosdocimi, 1991). The people who made these inscriptions are nowadays identified with the [[Golasecca culture]], a Celtic culture in northern Italy (De Marinis 1991, Kruta 1991 and Stifter 2008).<ref name=Kruta/><ref name=Stifter/> The extinction date for Lepontic is only inferred by the absence of later inscriptions.

===Funerary inscriptions===
These are the most common inscriptions in Lepontic, often including merely the name of the deceased, with or without the word ''pala'' "(tomb) stone." Two of the slightly longer ones are included below.

====[[Carcegna]] vase====

::''metelui maeśelalui uenia metelikna aśmina krasanikna''

Probably: "Uenia Metel-ikna [and] Aśmina Krasan-ikna [dedicate this vase] to Metelos Maeśelalos"<ref>Whatmough, J. (1933). ''The Prae-Italic Dialects of Italy'', vol. 2, "The Raetic, Lepontic, Gallic, East-Italic, Messapic and Sicel Inscriptions", Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. p. 321</ref><ref>Lejeune, M. "Documents gaulois et para-gaulois de Cisalpine" ''Études Celtiques'' 1970–71, volume 12, issue 2, pp. 73-74</ref><ref>Eds. Ball, M. J. and J. Ball (2002) ''The Celtic Language'' Routledge, p. 44</ref>

====[[Vergiate]] funeral stone====

::''pelkui pruiam teu karite iśos kalite palam''

Probably: "Iśos dedicated (? or sealed?) [this] sacred (? if ''teu'' is from *''deywo-'') ''pruiam'' (tomb?) [and] erected (?) [this] stone to/for ''Pelkos''."<ref>Whatmough, J. (1933). ''The Prae-Italic Dialects of Italy'', vol. 2, "The Raetic, Lepontic, Gallic, East-Italic, Messapic and Sicel Inscriptions", Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. p. 300</ref><ref>Lejeune, M. "Documents gaulois et para-gaulois de Cisalpine" ''Études Celtiques'' 1970–71, volume 12, issue 2, pp. 444-452</ref><ref>Eds. Ball, M. J. and J. Ball (2002) ''The Celtic Language'' Routledge, p. 44</ref>

The apparent verbal forms ''karite'' and ''kalite'' seem to show a -t- preterite, a development also seen in Gaulish. The forms may be two distinct verbs both meaning 'call (for); command, order' (Proto-Celtic *''kalyo-'' and *''galwo-'') in which case the meaning is more like, "Isos called for the sacred pruiam [to be dedicated] and ordered the stone [be erected]." On the other hand, ''karite'' may well be cognate with Gaulish ''karnite'' "erected, constructed" (further cognates in Celtic include Old Irish ''carn'' "tomb, heap of stones" whence through Scottish Gaelic the English word ''cairn'', and the Gaulish place name ''Carnuntum'').<ref>Ranko Matasovic (2006) ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Brill: Leiden, p. 191</ref>

===Dedicatory inscriptions===

====[[Ornavasso]] vase====

::''latumarui sapsutai-pe uinom naśom''

Probably: "[This] [[Naxos|Naxian]] wine [is dedicated] to Latumaros and Sapsuta"

This inscription is notable for containing the "P-Celtic" form of the Proto-Indo-European conjuctive clitic *''-k<sup>w</sup>e'' here -''pe''.<ref>Whatmough, J. (1933). ''The Prae-Italic Dialects of Italy'', vol. 2, "The Raetic, Lepontic, Gallic, East-Italic, Messapic and Sicel Inscriptions", Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. p. 304</ref><ref>Lejeune, M. "Documents gaulois et para-gaulois de Cisalpine" ''Études Celtiques'' 1970–71, volume 12, issue 2, pp. 430-432</ref><ref>Eds. Ball, M. J. and J. Fife (2002) ''The Celtic Language'' Routledge, p. 44</ref>

====[[Prestino]] stone====
On epigraphic and archaeological grounds, this inscription is datable to about 480–450 BC.
(See image above.)

::''uvamakozis plialeθu uvltiauiopos ariuonepos sitis tetu''

Probably: "Uvamakozis dedicated (literally 'gave') to Plialethos [these] ''uvltiaviop-s'', ''arivonep-s'' [and] ''sits'' ("sacred mounds"? see note below)."<ref>Lejeune, M. "Documents gaulois et para-gaulois de Cisalpine" ''Études Celtiques'' 1970–71, volume 12, issue 2, pp. 452-462</ref><ref>Eds. Ball, M. J. and J. Fife (2002) ''The Celtic Language'' Routledge, p. 44-45</ref>

Notes:
The name ''Uvamokozis'' probably is from Proto-Indo-European *''up-mmo-g<sup>h</sup>ostis'' "having most esteemed guests", the last element developing through Proto-Celtic ''*gostis'' with further cognates in Old Church Slavonic ''gostъ'' and Gothic ''gasts''.<ref>Ranko Matasovic (2006) ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Brill: Leiden, p. 155</ref> The apparent development of PIE *''p'' to -v- here is of particular interest for understanding the development of this sound in Celtic (lost in most other branches). 

The form ''sitis'' is probably from PIE *''sēdns'' "seats" an accusative plural; compare Old Irish ''sid'' "sacred mound" from "seat (of the gods), and Latin ''sēdēs'').<ref>Ranko Matasovic (2006) ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Brill: Leiden, p. 326</ref><ref>de Hoz, Javier (1992) "Lepontic, Celtiberian, Gaulish, and the Archeological Evidence" Études celtiques vol. 29 pp. 223-240</ref><ref>Prosdocimi, Aldo L. (1986) "L'iscrizione leponzia di Prestino: Vent'anni dopo" Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie Vol.41, p.225</ref><ref>Markey, Thomas L. ; Mees, Bernard (2003) "Prestino, patrimony and the Plinys" ''Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie,'' Vol.53 (1), p.116</ref><ref>*Mees, Bernard (2008) "Early Celtic metre at Vergiate and Prestino" ''Historische Sprachforschung,'' Vol.121 (1), p.188-208</ref><ref>Roberti, Mario Mirabella "Un'iscrizione leponzio-ligure a Prestino di Como"''Arte Lombarda'', Vol. 11, No. 1 (Primo Semestre 1966), pp. 114-115</ref>

The final form ''tetu'' probably from PIE *''deh<sub>3</sub>-'' "give", seen also in Old Irish ''dorat'' "has given", Gaulish ''dede'' and Celt-Iberian ''tatuz'' on the first [[Botorrita plaque]].<ref>Marinis de, R. (1981) "Il periodo del Golasseca III A Lombardia" ''Studi archeologici'' (Inst. Univer. de Bergamo) 1. pp. 41-284</ref><ref>Ranko Matasovic (2006) ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Brill: Leiden, p. 61</ref>

==See also==
* [[Cisalpine Celtic]]
* [[Glozel#Glozel tablets|Glozel tablets]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|last=De Marinis |first=R.C. |date=1991 |chapter=I Celti Golasecchiani |title=I Celti |editor-first=Sabatino |editor-last=Moscati |publisher=Bompiani |publication-place=Milan |isbn=88-452-1753-1 |language=it}}
* Eska, J. F. (1998). [http://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/view/1254 "The linguistic position of Lepontic"]. In ''Proceedings of the twenty-fourth annual meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society'' vol. 2, Special session on Indo-European subgrouping and internal relations (February 14, 1998), ed. B. K. Bergin, M. C. Plauché, and A. C. Bailey, 2–11. [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]: Berkeley Linguistics Society.
* Eska, J. F., and D. E. Evans. (1993). "Continental Celtic". In ''The Celtic Languages'', ed. M. J. Ball, 26–63. [[London]]: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-01035-7}}.
* {{cite journal|last1=Gambari |first1=F. M. |last2=Colonna |first2=G. |title=Il bicchiere con iscrizione arcaica de Castelletto Ticino e l'adozione della scrittura nell'Italia nord-occidentale |journal=Studi Etruschi |date=1988 |volume=54 |pages=119–64}}
* {{cite book|last=Koch |first=John T. |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2006}}
* {{cite journal|last=Lejeune |first=M. |title=Documents gaulois et para-gaulois de Cisalpine | journal=Études Celtiques | year=1970–71 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=357–500| doi=10.3406/ecelt.1970.1433 }}
* {{cite book|last=Lejeune |first=M. |title=Lepontica | location=[[Paris]] | publisher=Société d'Éditions 'Les Belles Lettres' | year=1971 }}
* {{cite journal|last=Lejeune |first=M. |title=Vues présentes sur le celtique ancien | journal=Académie Royale de Belgique, Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres et des Sciences morales et politiques | year=1978 | volume=64 | pages=108–21}}
* {{cite book|last=Lejeune |first=M. |title=[[Recueil des inscriptions gauloises]]: II.1 Textes gallo-étrusques. Textes gallo-latins sur pierre |publication-place=[[Paris]] |publisher=CNRS |date=1988}}
* {{cite book|last=Pisani |first=V. |title=Le lingue dell'Italia antica oltre il latino |edition=2nd |publication-place=[[Turin]] |publisher=Rosenberg & Sellier |date=1964}}
* Prosdocimi, Aldo L. (1986) "L'iscrizione leponzia di Prestino: Vent'anni dopo" Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie Vol.41, p.225
* Prosdocimi, A.L. (1991). "Lingua e scrittura dei primi Celti". In Multiple Authors, ''I Celti'', pp.&nbsp;50–60, Bompiani.
* Tibiletti Bruno, M. G. (1978). "Ligure, leponzio e gallico". In ''Popoli e civiltà dell'Italia antica'' vi, ''Lingue e dialetti'', ed. A. L. Prosdocimi, 129–208. [[Rome]]: Biblioteca di Storia Patria.
* Tibiletti Bruno, M. G. (1981). "Le iscrizioni celtiche d'Italia". In ''I Celti d'Italia'', ed. E. Campanile, 157–207. [[Pisa]]: Giardini.
* Whatmough, J. (1933). ''The Prae-Italic Dialects of Italy'', vol. 2, "The Raetic, Lepontic, Gallic, East-Italic, Messapic and Sicel Inscriptions", Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press
* Stifter, D. 2020. ''Cisalpine Celtic. Language, Writing, Epigraphy''. Aelaw Booklet 8. Zaragoza: Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza.
* Stifter, D. 2020. «[https://ifc.dpz.es/ojs/index.php/palaeohispanica/article/view/375 Cisalpine Celtic]», Palaeohispanica 20: 335-365.

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://www.univie.ac.at/lexlep/wiki/Main_Page''Lexicon Leponticum''], by David Stifter, Martin Braun, Corinna Salomon, Michela Vignoli et al., [[University of Vienna]] – free online lexicon and corpus
* "[https://www.prin-italia-antica.unifi.it/index.html?newlang=eng Languages and Cultures of Ancient Italy. Historical Linguistics and Digital Models]", Project fund by the Italian Ministry of University and Research (P.R.I.N. 2017)
* {{cite web|url=http://mnamon.sns.it/index.php?page=Lingua&id=41&lang=en |title=Celtic, Lepontic - About 7th – 6th century B.C|author= Francesca Ciurli (translation revised by Melanie Rockenhaus) |date= 2008–2017 |website=Mnamon - Ancient Writing Systems in the Mediterranean|publisher=[[Scuola Normale Superiore]]|access-date=15 October 2018 }}

{{Celtic languages}}
{{Celts}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lepontic Language}}
[[Category:Languages attested from the 6th century BC]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 1st century BC]]
[[Category:Continental Celtic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of ancient Italy]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Europe]]
[[Category:Extinct Celtic languages]]
[[Category:Golasecca culture]]