Editing Linear complex structure

{{Short description|Mathematics concept}}
In [[mathematics]], a [[Generalized complex structure|complex structure]] on a [[real vector space]] <math>V</math> is an [[automorphism]] of <math>V</math> that squares to the minus [[identity function|identity]], <math> - \text{id}_V </math>. Such a structure on <math>V</math> allows one to define multiplication by [[complex number|complex scalars]] in a canonical fashion so as to regard <math>V</math> as a [[complex vector space]].

Every complex vector space can be equipped with a compatible complex structure in a canonical way; however, there is in general no canonical complex structure. Complex structures have applications in [[representation theory]] as well as in [[complex geometry]] where they play an essential role in the definition of [[almost complex manifold]]s, by contrast to [[complex manifold]]s.  The term "complex structure" often refers to this structure on manifolds; when it refers instead to a structure on vector spaces, it may be called a '''linear complex structure'''.

==Definition and properties==

A '''complex structure''' on a [[real vector space]] <math>V</math> is a real [[linear transformation]]
<math display=block>J :V \to V</math>
such that
<math display=block>J^2 = -\text{id}_V.</math>
Here <math>J^2</math> means <math>J</math> [[function composition|composed]] with itself and <math>\text{id}_V</math> is the [[identity function|identity map]] on <math>V</math>. That is, the effect of applying <math>J</math> twice is the same as multiplication by <math>-1</math>. This is reminiscent of multiplication by the [[imaginary unit]], <math>i</math>. A complex structure allows one to endow <math>V</math> with the structure of a [[complex vector space]]. Complex scalar multiplication can be defined by
<math display=block>(x + iy)\vec{v} = x\vec{v} + yJ(\vec{v})</math>
for all real numbers <math>x,y</math> and all vectors <math>\vec{v}</math> in {{math|''V''}}. One can check that this does, in fact, give <math>V</math> the structure of a complex vector space which we denote <math>V_J</math>.

Going in the other direction, if one starts with a complex vector space <math>W</math> then one can define a complex structure on the underlying real space by defining <math>Jw = iw~~\forall w\in W</math>.

More formally, a linear complex structure on a real vector space is an [[algebra representation]] of the [[complex number]]s <math>\mathbb{C}</math>, thought of as an [[associative algebra]] over the [[real number]]s. This algebra is realized concretely as 
<math display=block>\Complex = \Reals[x]/(x^2+1),</math>
which corresponds to <math>i^2=-1</math>. Then a representation of <math>\mathbb{C}</math> is a real vector space <math>V</math>, together with an action of <math>\mathbb{C}</math> on <math>V</math> (a map <math>\mathbb{C}\rightarrow \text{End}(V)</math>). Concretely, this is just an action of <math>i</math>, as this generates the algebra, and the operator representing <math>i</math> (the image of <math>i</math> in <math>\text{End}(V)</math>) is exactly <math>J</math>.

If <math>V_J</math> has complex [[dimension (linear algebra)|dimension]] <math>n</math>, then <math>V</math> must have real dimension <math>2n</math>. That is, a finite-dimensional space <math>V</math> admits a complex structure only if it is even-dimensional. It is not hard to see that every even-dimensional vector space admits a complex structure. One can define <math>J</math> on pairs <math>e,f</math> of [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] vectors by <math>Je=f</math> and <math>Jf=-e</math> and then [[extend by linearity]] to all of <math>V</math>. If <math>(v_1, \dots,v_n)</math> is a basis for the complex vector space <math>V_J</math> then <math>(v_1,Jv_1,\dots ,v_n ,Jv_n)</math> is a basis for the underlying real space <math>V</math>.

A real linear transformation <math>A:V \rightarrow V</math> is a '''''complex''''' linear transformation of the corresponding complex space <math>V_J</math> [[if and only if]] <math>A</math> commutes with <math>J</math>, i.e. if and only if
<math display=block>AJ = JA.</math>
Likewise, a real [[Linear subspace|subspace]] <math>U</math> of <math>V</math> is a complex subspace of <math>V_J</math> if and only if <math>J</math> preserves <math>U</math>, i.e. if and only if
<math display=block>JU = U.</math>

==Examples==

===Elementary example===
The collection of <math>2\times2</math> real matrices <math>\mathbb{M}(2,\Reals)</math> over the real field is 4-dimensional. Any matrix
:<math>J = \begin{pmatrix}a & c \\ b & -a \end{pmatrix},~~a^2+bc=-1</math>
has square equal to the negative of the identity matrix. A complex structure may be formed in <math>\mathbb{M}(2,\Reals)</math>: with identity matrix <math>I</math>, elements <math>xI+yJ</math>, with [[matrix multiplication]] form complex numbers.

=== Complex ''n''-dimensional space '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup> ===
The fundamental example of a linear complex structure is the structure on '''R'''<sup>2''n''</sup> coming from the complex structure on '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup>. That is, the complex ''n''-dimensional space '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup> is also a real 2''n''-dimensional space – using the same vector addition and real scalar multiplication – while multiplication by the complex number ''i'' is not only a ''complex'' linear transform of the space, thought of as a complex vector space, but also a ''real'' linear transform of the space, thought of as a real vector space. Concretely, this is because scalar multiplication by ''i'' commutes with scalar multiplication by real numbers  <math> i (\lambda v) = (i \lambda) v = (\lambda i) v = \lambda (i v) </math> – and distributes across vector addition. As a complex ''n''×''n'' matrix, this is simply the [[scalar matrix]] with ''i'' on the diagonal. The corresponding real 2''n''×2''n'' matrix is denoted ''J''.

Given a basis <math>\left\{e_1, e_2, \dots, e_n \right\}</math> for the complex space, this set, together with these vectors multiplied by ''i,'' namely <math>\left\{ie_1, ie_2, \dots, ie_n\right\},</math> form a basis for the real space. There are two natural ways to order this basis, corresponding abstractly to whether one writes the tensor product as <math>\Complex^n = \R^n \otimes_{\R} \Complex</math> or instead as <math>\Complex^n = \Complex \otimes_{\R} \R^n.</math>

If one orders the basis as <math>\left\{e_1, ie_1, e_2, ie_2, \dots, e_n, ie_n\right\},</math> then the matrix for ''J'' takes the [[block diagonal]] form (subscripts added to indicate dimension):
<math display="block">J_{2n} = \begin{bmatrix}
0 & -1 \\
1 &  0 \\
  &    & 0 & -1 \\
  &    & 1 &  0 \\
  &    &   &   & \ddots   \\
  &    &   &   & & \ddots \\
  &    &   &   & &       & 0 & -1 \\
  &    &   &   & &       & 1 &  0
\end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
J_2                     \\
   & J_2                \\
   &     & \ddots       \\
   &     &        & J_2
\end{bmatrix}.</math>
This ordering has the advantage that it respects direct sums of complex vector spaces, meaning here that the basis for <math>\Complex^m \oplus \Complex^n</math> is the same as that for <math>\Complex^{m+n}.</math>

On the other hand, if one orders the basis as <math>\left\{e_1,e_2,\dots,e_n, ie_1, ie_2, \dots, ie_n\right\}</math>, then the matrix for ''J'' is block-antidiagonal:
<math display="block">J_{2n} = \begin{bmatrix}0 & -I_n \\ I_n & 0\end{bmatrix}.</math>
This ordering is more natural if one thinks of the complex space as a [[#Direct sum|direct sum]] of real spaces, as discussed below.

The data of the real vector space and the ''J'' matrix is exactly the same as the data of the complex vector space, as the ''J'' matrix allows one to define complex multiplication. At the level of [[Lie algebra]]s and [[Lie group]]s, this corresponds to the inclusion of gl(''n'','''C''') in gl(2''n'','''R''') (Lie algebras – matrices, not necessarily invertible) and [[GL(n,C)|GL(''n'','''C''')]] in GL(2''n'','''R'''):
{{block indent | em = 1.5 | text = gl(''n'','''C''') <  gl(''2n'','''R''') and GL(''n'','''C''') <  GL(''2n'','''R''').}}
The inclusion corresponds to forgetting the complex structure (and keeping only the real), while the subgroup GL(''n'','''C''') can be characterized (given in equations) as the matrices that ''commute'' with ''J:''
<math display="block">\mathrm{GL}(n, \Complex) = \left\{ A \in \mathrm{GL}(2n,\R) \mid AJ = JA \right\}.</math>
The corresponding statement about Lie algebras is that the subalgebra gl(''n'','''C''') of complex matrices are those whose [[Lie bracket]] with ''J'' vanishes, meaning <math>[J,A] = 0;</math> in other words, as the kernel of the map of bracketing with ''J,'' <math>[J,-].</math>

Note that the defining equations for these statements are the same, as <math>AJ = JA</math> is the same as <math>AJ - JA = 0,</math> which is the same as <math>[A,J] = 0,</math> though the meaning of the Lie bracket vanishing is less immediate geometrically than the meaning of commuting.

=== Direct sum ===
If ''V'' is any real vector space there is a canonical complex structure on the [[direct sum of vector spaces|direct sum]] ''V'' ⊕ ''V'' given by
<math display="block">J(v,w) = (-w,v).</math>
The [[block matrix]] form of ''J'' is
<math display="block">J = \begin{bmatrix}0 & -I_V \\ I_V & 0\end{bmatrix}</math>
where <math>I_V</math> is the identity map on ''V''. This corresponds to the complex structure on the tensor product <math>\Complex \otimes_{\R} V.</math>

==Compatibility with other structures==

If {{math|''B''}} is a [[bilinear form]] on {{math|''V''}} then we say that {{math|''J''}} '''preserves''' {{math|''B''}} if
<math display="block">B(Ju, Jv) = B(u, v)</math>
for all {{math|''u'', ''v'' ∈ ''V''}}. An equivalent characterization is that {{math|''J''}} is [[skew-adjoint]] with respect to {{math|''B''}}:
<math display="block"> B(Ju,v) = -B(u,Jv). </math>

If {{math|''g''}} is an [[inner product]] on {{math|''V''}} then {{math|''J''}} preserves {{math|''g''}} if and only if {{math|''J''}} is an [[orthogonal transformation]]. Likewise, {{math|''J''}} preserves a [[nondegenerate]], [[skew-symmetric matrix|skew-symmetric]] form {{math|''ω''}} if and only if {{math|''J''}} is a [[symplectic transformation]] (that is, if <math display=inline> \omega(Ju,Jv) = \omega(u,v) </math>). For symplectic forms {{math|''ω''}} an interesting compatibility condition between {{math|''J''}} and {{math|''ω''}} is that
<math display=block> \omega(u, Ju) > 0 </math>
holds for all non-zero {{math|''u''}} in {{math|''V''}}. If this condition is satisfied, then we say that {{math|''J''}} '''tames''' {{math|''ω''}} (synonymously: that {{math|''ω''}} is '''tame''' with respect to {{math|''J''}}; that {{math|''J''}} is '''tame''' with respect to {{math|''ω''}}; or that the pair <math display="inline">(\omega,J)</math> is tame).

Given a symplectic form {{math|ω}} and a linear complex structure {{math|''J''}} on {{math|''V''}}, one may define an associated bilinear form {{math|''g''<sub>''J''</sub>}} on {{math|''V''}} by
<math display=block> g_J(u, v) = \omega(u, Jv). </math>
Because a [[symplectic form]] is nondegenerate, so is the associated bilinear form. The associated form is preserved by {{math|''J''}} if and only if the symplectic form is. Moreover, if the symplectic form is preserved by {{math|''J''}}, then the associated form is symmetric. If in addition {{math|''ω''}} is tamed by {{math|''J''}}, then the associated form is [[definite bilinear form|positive definite]]. Thus in this case {{math|''V''}} is an [[inner product space]] with respect to {{math|''g''<sub>''J''</sub>}}.

If the symplectic form {{math|ω}} is preserved (but not necessarily tamed) by {{math|''J''}}, then {{math|''g''<sub>''J''</sub>}} is the [[complex number|real part]] of the [[Hermitian form]] (by convention antilinear in the first argument) <math display=inline>h_J\colon V_J\times V_J\to\mathbb{C}</math> defined by
<math display=block> h_J(u,v) = g_J(u,v) + ig_J(Ju,v) = \omega(u,Jv) +i\omega(u,v). </math>

==Relation to complexifications==
Given any real vector space ''V'' we may define its [[complexification]] by [[extension of scalars]]:
:<math>V^{\mathbb C}=V\otimes_{\mathbb{R}}\mathbb{C}.</math>
This is a complex vector space whose complex dimension is equal to the real dimension of ''V''. It has a canonical [[complex conjugation]] defined by
:<math>\overline{v\otimes z} = v\otimes\bar z</math>

If ''J'' is a complex structure on ''V'', we may extend ''J'' by linearity to ''V''<sup>'''C'''</sup>:
:<math>J(v\otimes z) = J(v)\otimes z.</math>

Since '''C''' is [[algebraically closed]], ''J'' is guaranteed to have [[eigenvalue]]s which satisfy λ<sup>2</sup> = −1, namely λ = ±''i''.  Thus we may write
:<math>V^{\mathbb C}= V^{+}\oplus V^{-}</math>
where ''V''<sup>+</sup> and ''V''<sup>−</sup> are the [[eigenspace]]s of +''i'' and −''i'', respectively. Complex conjugation interchanges ''V''<sup>+</sup> and ''V''<sup>−</sup>. The projection maps onto the ''V''<sup>±</sup> eigenspaces are given by
:<math>\mathcal P^{\pm} = {1\over 2}(1\mp iJ).</math>
So that
:<math>V^{\pm} = \{v\otimes 1 \mp Jv\otimes i: v \in V\}.</math>

There is a natural complex linear isomorphism between ''V''<sub>''J''</sub> and ''V''<sup>+</sup>, so these vector spaces can be considered the same, while ''V''<sup>−</sup> may be regarded as the [[complex conjugate vector space|complex conjugate]] of ''V''<sub>''J''</sub>.

Note that if ''V''<sub>''J''</sub> has complex dimension ''n'' then both ''V''<sup>+</sup> and ''V''<sup>−</sup> have complex dimension ''n'' while ''V''<sup>'''C'''</sup> has complex dimension 2''n''.

Abstractly, if one starts with a complex vector space ''W'' and takes the complexification of the underlying real space, one obtains a space isomorphic to the direct sum of ''W'' and its conjugate:
:<math>W^{\mathbb C} \cong W\oplus \overline{W}.</math>

== Extension to related vector spaces ==

Let ''V'' be a real vector space with a complex structure ''J''. The [[dual space]] ''V''* has a natural complex structure ''J''* given by the dual (or [[transpose]]) of ''J''. The complexification of the dual space (''V''*)<sup>'''C'''</sup> therefore has a natural decomposition

:<math>(V^*)^\mathbb{C} = (V^*)^{+}\oplus (V^*)^-</math>

into the ±''i'' eigenspaces of ''J''*. Under the natural identification of (''V''*)<sup>'''C'''</sup> with (''V''<sup>'''C'''</sup>)* one can characterize (''V''*)<sup>+</sup> as those complex linear functionals which vanish on ''V''<sup>−</sup>. Likewise (''V''*)<sup>−</sup> consists of those complex linear functionals which vanish on ''V''<sup>+</sup>.

The (complex) [[tensor algebra|tensor]], [[symmetric algebra|symmetric]], and [[exterior algebra]]s over ''V''<sup>'''C'''</sup> also admit decompositions. The exterior algebra is perhaps the most important application of this decomposition. In general, if a vector space ''U'' admits a decomposition ''U'' = ''S'' ⊕ ''T'', then the exterior powers of ''U'' can be decomposed as follows:
:<math>\Lambda^r U = \bigoplus_{p+q=r}(\Lambda^p S)\otimes(\Lambda^q T).</math>

A complex structure ''J'' on ''V'' therefore induces a decomposition
:<math>\Lambda^r\,V^\mathbb{C} = \bigoplus_{p+q=r} \Lambda^{p,q}\,V_J</math>
where
:<math>\Lambda^{p,q}\,V_J\;\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\, (\Lambda^p\,V^+)\otimes(\Lambda^q\,V^-).</math>
All exterior powers are taken over the complex numbers. So if ''V''<sub>''J''</sub> has complex dimension ''n'' (real dimension 2''n'') then

:<math>\dim_{\mathbb C}\Lambda^{r}\,V^{\mathbb C} = {2n\choose r}\qquad \dim_{\mathbb C}\Lambda^{p,q}\,V_J = {n \choose p}{n \choose q}.</math>
The dimensions add up correctly as a consequence of [[Vandermonde's identity]].

The space of (''p'',''q'')-forms Λ<sup>''p'',''q''</sup> ''V''<sub>''J''</sub>*  is the space of (complex) [[multilinear form]]s on ''V''<sup>'''C'''</sup> which vanish on homogeneous elements unless ''p'' are from ''V''<sup>+</sup> and ''q'' are from ''V''<sup>−</sup>. It is also possible to regard Λ<sup>''p'',''q''</sup> ''V''<sub>''J''</sub>* as the space of real [[multilinear map]]s from ''V''<sub>''J''</sub> to '''C''' which are complex linear in ''p'' terms and [[conjugate-linear]] in ''q'' terms.

See [[complex differential form]] and [[almost complex manifold]] for applications of these ideas.

==See also==
* [[Almost complex manifold]]
* [[Complex manifold]]
* [[Complex differential form]]
* [[Complex conjugate vector space]]
* [[Hermitian structure]]
* [[Real structure]]

==References==
* Kobayashi S. and Nomizu K., [[Foundations of Differential Geometry]], John Wiley & Sons, 1969. {{isbn|0-470-49648-7}}. (complex structures are discussed in Volume II, Chapter IX, section 1).
* Budinich, P. and Trautman, A. ''The Spinorial Chessboard'', Springer-Verlag, 1988. {{isbn|0-387-19078-3}}. (complex structures are discussed in section 3.1).
* Goldberg S.I., ''Curvature and Homology'', Dover Publications, 1982. {{isbn|0-486-64314-X}}. (complex structures and almost complex manifolds are discussed in section 5.2).

[[Category:Structures on manifolds]]