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{{Short description|American scientist and activist (1901–1994)}} {{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023|cs1-dates=y}} {{Use American English|date=April 2022}} {{Infobox scientist | image = File:Linus Pauling in the 1940s.jpg | caption = Pauling in the 1940s | honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|ForMemRS}} | birth_name = Linus Carl Pauling | birth_date = {{birth date|1901|2|28}} | birth_place = [[Portland, Oregon]], U.S. | nationality = <!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] --> | death_date = {{nowrap|{{death date and age|1994|8|19|1901|2|28}}}} | death_place = [[Big Sur]], California, U.S. | spouse = {{marriage|[[Ava Helen Pauling|Ava Helen Miller]]|1923-06-17|1981-12-07|end=d.}} | children = 4 | field = {{ubl|[[Quantum chemistry]]|[[Biochemistry]]}} | education = {{ubl|[[Oregon State University]] ([[B. S.|BS]])|[[California Institute of Technology]] ([[PhD]])}} | work_institution = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''As faculty member''}} |[[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] (1927–1963) |[[University of California, San Diego|UC San Diego]] (1967–1969) |[[Stanford University|Stanford]] (1969–1975) }} {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''As fellow''}} |[[Cornell University]] (1937–1938) |[[University of Oxford]] (1948) |[[Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions]] (1963–1967) }} | doctoral_advisor = {{ubl|[[Roscoe G. Dickinson|Roscoe Dickinson]]|[[Richard C. Tolman|Richard Tolman]]<ref name="mathgene">{{MathGenealogy|id=113591}}</ref>}} | academic_advisors = {{ubl|[[Arnold Sommerfeld]]|[[Niels Bohr]]<ref name="Guggenheim">{{Cite web |title=A Guggenheim Fellow in Europe during the Golden Years of Physics (1926–1927) |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page9.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028235401/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page9.html |archive-date=October 28, 2021 |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en-US}}</ref>}} | doctoral_students = {{plainlist| *[[Jerry Donohue]] *[[Harvey Itano]] *[[Barclay Kamb]] *[[Martin Karplus]] *[[Leonard Lerman]] *[[William Lipscomb]]<ref name="mathgene" /> *[[Matthew Meselson]] *[[Kurt Mislow]] *[[Arthur Pardee]] *[[Robert E. Rundle]] *[[Edgar Bright Wilson]] }} | notable_students = ''Undergrads:'' {{plainlist | * [[Edwin McMillan]] }} ''Post-docs:'' {{plainlist | *[[Charles D. Coryell]] *[[Jack D. Dunitz]] *[[Sidney W. Fox]] *[[Walter Gordy]] *[[Edgar Heilbronner]] *[[Jan Ketelaar]] *[[Hans Kuhn (chemist)|Hans Kuhn]] *[[Leslie Orgel]] *[[Alexander Rich]] *[[Seymour Jonathan Singer]] }} | thesis_title = The Determination with X-Rays of the Structures of Crystals | thesis_year = 1925<ref name="paulingphd">{{Cite thesis |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=The determination with x-rays of the structures of crystals |date=1925 |degree=PhD |publisher=[[California Institute of Technology]] |url=https://thesis.library.caltech.edu/1791/ |doi=10.7907/F7V6-4P98 |language=en |author-mask=4 |access-date=April 13, 2022}}</ref> | thesis_url = https://thesis.library.caltech.edu/1791 | known_for = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}|{{ubl|item_style={{longitem}} |[[Alpha sheet]] |[[Ancestral sequence reconstruction]] |[[Pi backbonding|Backbonding]] |[[Beta sheet]] |[[Bond order]] |[[Breath gas analysis]] |[[Coiled coil]] |[[Corey-Pauling rules]] |[[CPK coloring]] |[[Crystal structure prediction]] |[[Electronegativity]] |Elucidating [[chemical bond]]s and [[molecular structure]]s |[[Geometrical frustration]] |[[Orbital hybridisation|Hybridisation theory]] |[[Hydrogen bond]]ing |[[Ice-type model]] |[[Linear combination of atomic orbitals]] |[[Molecular clock]] |[[Molecular medicine]] |[[Non-carbon nanotube]] |[[Orbital overlap]] |[[Cooperative binding#Pauling equation|Pauling equation]] |[[Pauling's rules]] |[[Pauling–Corey–Branson alpha helix]] |[[Pauling's principle of electroneutrality]] |[[Quantum chemistry]] |[[Quantum graph]] |[[Residual entropy]] |[[Resonance (chemistry)]] |[[Slater–Pauling rule]] |[[Space-filling model]] |[[Valence bond theory]] |[[Vitamin C megadosage]] |[[Xenic acid]] |Advocating [[nuclear disarmament]] }}}} | prizes = {{ubl|item_style={{longitem}} | [[ACS Award in Pure Chemistry]] (1931) | [[Irving Langmuir Award]] (1931) | [[Davy Medal]] (1947) | [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (1954) | [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (1962) | [[Roebling Medal]] (1967) | [[Lenin Peace Prize]] (1968–1969) | [[National Medal of Science]] (1974) | [[Lomonosov Gold Medal]] (1977) | [[NAS Award in Chemical Sciences]] (1979) | [[Priestley Medal]] (1984) | [[Vannevar Bush Award]] (1989) }} | signature = Linus Pauling signature.svg | footnotes = The only person to win two unshared Nobel Prizes. }} '''Linus Carl Pauling''' {{Post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɔː|l|ɪ|ŋ}} {{respell|PAW|ling}}; February 28, 1901{{snd}}August 19, 1994)<ref name="ChemNobel">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling: Facts |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/facts/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404140945/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/facts/ |archive-date=April 4, 2022 |access-date=April 13, 2022 |website=Nobel Prize |language=en}}</ref> was an American [[chemist]], [[biochemist]], [[chemical engineer]], [[peace activist]], author, and educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific topics.<ref name="VolumeI">{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=Selected papers of Linus Pauling |date=1997 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=978-981-02-2939-9 |editor-last=Pauling |editor-first=Linus Jr. |edition=Volume I |location=[[River Edge, New Jersey]] |page=xvii |author-mask=4}}</ref> ''[[New Scientist]]'' called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time.<ref name="Horgan">{{Cite magazine |last=Horgan |first=J |year=1993 |title=Profile: Linus C. Pauling – Stubbornly Ahead of His Time |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |volume=266 |issue=3 |pages=36–40 |bibcode=1993SciAm.266c..36H |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0393-36}}</ref> For his scientific work, Pauling was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1954. For his peace activism, he was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1962. He is one of five people to have [[Nobel Prize#Multiple laureates|won more than one Nobel Prize]] (the others being [[Marie Curie]], [[John Bardeen]], [[Frederick Sanger]], and [[Karl Barry Sharpless]]).<ref name="Nobel">{{Nobelprize|access-date=April 30, 2020}}</ref> Of these, he is the only person to have been awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes,<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 12, 2022 |orig-date=2009-10-05 |title=Nobel Prize Facts |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/facts/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111161907/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/facts/ |archive-date=January 11, 2017|access-date=April 13, 2022 |website=Nobel Prize |language=en }}</ref> and one of two people to be awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields, the other being [[Marie Curie]].<ref name="Nobel" /> Pauling was one of the founders of the fields of [[quantum chemistry]] and [[molecular biology]].<ref name="natureobit">{{Cite journal |last=Rich |first=Alexander |author-link=Alexander Rich |year=1994 |title=Linus Pauling (1901–1994) |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=371 |issue=6495 |pages=285 |bibcode=1994Natur.371..285R |doi=10.1038/371285a0 |pmid=8090196 |doi-access=free |s2cid=8923975}}</ref> His contributions to the theory of the chemical bond include the concept of [[orbital hybridisation]] and the first accurate scale of [[electronegativity|electronegativities]] of the elements. Pauling also worked on the structures of biological molecules, and showed the importance of the [[alpha helix]] and [[beta sheet]] in [[protein secondary structure]]. Pauling's approach combined methods and results from [[X-ray crystallography]], [[molecular model]] building, and quantum chemistry. His discoveries inspired the work of [[Rosalind Franklin]], [[James Watson]], [[Francis Crick]], and [[Maurice Wilkins]] on the structure of [[DNA]], which in turn made it possible for geneticists to crack the DNA code of all organisms.<ref name="Contributions to DNA double-helix discovery">{{Cite book |last=Gribbin |first=John |title=The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors |date=2004 |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-0-8129-6788-3 |location=New York City |pages=558–569 |language=en |ol=8020832M |author-link=John Gribbin}}</ref> In his later years, he promoted [[nuclear disarmament]], as well as [[orthomolecular medicine]], [[megavitamin therapy]],<ref name="isbn0-399-50764-7">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Irwin |author-link=Irwin Stone |url=https://archive.org/details/healingfactorvit0000ston |title=The healing factor: "vitamin C" against disease |date=1982 |publisher=Perigee Books |isbn=978-0-399-50764-9 |location=New York|language=en |oclc=10169988 |ol=9567597M |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> and [[dietary supplement]]s, especially [[ascorbic acid]] (commonly known as Vitamin C). None of his ideas concerning the medical usefulness of large doses of vitamins have gained much acceptance in the mainstream scientific community.<ref name="Horgan" /><ref name="Offit">{{Cite magazine |last=Offit |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Offit |date=July 19, 2013 |title=The Vitamin Myth: Why We Think We Need Supplements |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/07/the-vitamin-myth-why-we-think-we-need-supplements/277947/ |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en |issn=2151-9463 |oclc=936540106 |access-date=July 19, 2013 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> He was married to the American human rights activist [[Ava Helen Pauling]]. == Early life and education == [[File:Herman Henry William Pauling.jpg|thumb|left|Herman Henry William Pauling, Linus Pauling's father, {{circa|1900}}]] Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, in [[Portland, Oregon]],<ref name="frs">{{Cite journal |last=Dunitz |first=Jack D. |author-link=Jack D. Dunitz |date=1996 |title=Linus Carl Pauling. 28 February 1901–19 August 1994 |journal=[[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] |language=en-gb |volume=42 |issue=9 |pages=316–326 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1996.0020 |pmid=11619334 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="childhood">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling's Childhood (1901–1910) |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page3.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407144827/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page3.html |archive-date=April 7, 2022 |access-date=April 25, 2013 |website=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en-us}}</ref> the firstborn child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926).<ref name="Nature">{{Cite book |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |url=https://archive.org/details/forceofnaturelif00hage |title=Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling |date=1995 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-684-80909-0 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>{{rp|22}} He was named "Linus Carl", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.<ref name="MeadHager">{{Cite book |title=Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker |date=2001 |publisher=[[Oregon State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-87071-489-4 |editor-last=Mead |editor-first=Clifford |editor-last2=Hager |editor-first2=Thomas |editor-link2=Thomas Hager}}</ref>{{rp|8}} His ancestry included German and English.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling: Biographical |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/biographical/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318142845/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/biographical/ |archive-date=March 18, 2022 |access-date=September 27, 2021 |website=Nobel Prize |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dunitz |first=Jack D. |author-link=Jack D. Dunitz |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/5737/chapter/13 |title=Biographical Memoirs |date=1997 |publisher=[[National Academies Press]] |isbn=978-0-309-05738-7 |volume=71 |pages=221–261 |language=en |chapter=Linus Carl Pauling |doi=10.17226/5737 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028051456/https://www.nap.edu/read/5737/chapter/13 |archive-date=October 28, 2021 |url-status=live |access-date=September 27, 2021 }}</ref> In 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of Portland to find more affordable and spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment.<ref name="GoGo">{{Cite book |last1=Goertzel |first1=Ted |author1-link=Ted Goertzel |url=https://archive.org/details/linuspaulinglife0000goer_i4n1 |title=Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics |last2=Goertzel |first2=Ben |date=1995 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00672-4 |language=en |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>{{rp|4}} Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Oswego until Herman brought the family to [[Salem, Oregon|Salem]], where he worked briefly as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to [[Oswego, Oregon]] where he opened his own drugstore.{{r|GoGo|p=4}} He moved his family to [[Condon, Oregon]], in 1905.{{r|GoGo|p=5}} By 1906, Herman Pauling was suffering from recurrent [[abdominal pain]]. He died of a perforated [[Peptic ulcer|ulcer]] on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.{{r|MeadHager|p=9}} Pauling attributes his interest in becoming a chemist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, [[Lloyd A. Jeffress]], who had a small chemistry lab kit.{{r|GoGo|p=17}} He later wrote: "I was simply entranced by chemical phenomena, by the reactions in which substances, often with strikingly different properties, appear; and I hoped to learn more and more about this aspect of the world."<ref name="Abrams">{{Cite book |last=Abrams |first=Irwin |url={{GBurl|id=ny77bPwKxaUC|page=198}} |title=The Nobel Peace Prize and the laureates : an illustrated biographical history, 1901–1987 |date=1988 |publisher=G.K. Hall |isbn=978-0-8161-8609-9 |edition=2. print. |location=[[Boston]]}}</ref> In high school, Pauling conducted chemistry experiments by scavenging equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories in Simon's basement. They approached local dairies offering to perform butterfat samplings at cheap prices but dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and the business ended in failure.{{r|GoGo|p=21}} At age 15, the high school senior had enough credits to enter [[Oregon State University]] (OSU), known then as Oregon Agricultural College.{{r|GoGo|p=22}} Lacking two American history courses required for his [[high school diploma]], Pauling asked the school principal if he could take the courses concurrently during the spring semester. Denied, he left [[Washington High School (Portland, Oregon)|Washington High School]] in June without a diploma.{{r|Nature|p=48}} The school awarded him an honorary diploma 45 years later, after he was awarded two Nobel Prizes.<ref name="Nobel" /><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1998 |title=Pauling, Linus |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Biography |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |editor-last=Bourgoin |editor-first=Suzanne M. |volume=12 |page=150 |isbn=978-0-7876-2221-3 |oclc=498136139 |ol=24962233M |editor-first2=Paula K. |editor-last2=Byers}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pauling Finally Gets High School Diploma |url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1962-06-19/ed-1/seq-1/ |access-date=August 3, 2022 |work=[[The Washington Star|Evening Star]] |date=June 19, 1962 |at=p. 1 col 6}}</ref> Pauling held a number of jobs to earn money for his future college expenses, including working part-time at a grocery store for {{currency|8|USD}} per week (equivalent to {{currency|{{inflation|US|8|1916|r=-1}}|USD}} in {{inflation/year|US}}). His mother arranged an interview with the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland, Mr. Schwietzerhoff, who hired him as an apprentice machinist at a salary of {{currency|40|USD}} per month (equivalent to {{currency|{{inflation|US|40|1916|r=-1}}|USD}} in {{inflation/year|US}}). This was soon raised to {{currency|50|USD}} per month.{{r|GoGo|p=23}} Pauling also set up a photography laboratory with two friends.{{r|GoGo|p=24}} In September 1917, Pauling was finally admitted by Oregon State University. He immediately resigned from the machinist's job and informed his mother, who saw no point in a university education, of his plans.{{r|GoGo|p=25}} ===Higher education=== [[File:LinusPaulingGraduation1922.jpg|thumb|left|Pauling's graduation photo from [[Oregon State University]], 1922]] In his first semester, Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, introduction to mining and use of explosives, modern English prose, gymnastics and military drill.{{r|GoGo|p=26}} His roommate was childhood pal and lifelong best friend Lloyd Jeffress.<ref name=Linus>{{cite web|last1=Pauling|first1=Linus|title=Life with Lloyd Jeffress, June 5, 1986|url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/07/02/paulings-best-friend-lloyd-jeffress/|website=The Pauling Blog|publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections and Archives Research Center|access-date=1 June 2016|date=2009-07-02}}</ref> He was active in campus life and founded the school's chapter of the [[Delta Upsilon]] fraternity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Swanson |first=Stephen |date=October 3, 2000 |title=OSU fraternity to donate Pauling treasures to campus library |url=http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2000/oct/osu-fraternity-donate-pauling-treasures-campus-library |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202915/http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2000/oct/osu-fraternity-donate-pauling-treasures-campus-library |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |access-date=April 29, 2013 |website=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en}}</ref> After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother. The college offered him a position teaching [[Quantitative analysis (chemistry)|quantitative analysis]], a course he had just finished taking himself. He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned {{currency|100|USD}} a month (equivalent to {{currency|{{inflation|US|100|1920|r=-2}}|USD}} in {{inflation/year|US}}), enabling him to continue his studies.{{r|GoGo|p=29}} In his last two years at school, Pauling became aware of the work of [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] and [[Irving Langmuir]] on the [[electronic structure]] of atoms and their [[chemical bond|bonding]] to form [[molecule]]s.{{r|GoGo|p=29}} He decided to focus his research on how the [[physical property|physical]] and [[chemical property|chemical properties]] of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed, becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry.<ref name=":0" /> Engineering professor Samuel Graf (1887–1966)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://engineering.oregonstate.edu/alumni-partners/oregon-stater-awards/searchable-awards-database/samuel-graf-engineering-hall-fame |title=Samuel Graf : Engineering Hall of Fame - 1998 | College of Engineering | Oregon State University |date=3 October 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=25 July 1966 |title=Long-Time OSU Faculty Man, Sam Graf, Dies |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/corvallis-gazette-times/31584297/ |website= |publisher=[[Corvallis Gazette-Times]] |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref> selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a mechanics and materials course.{{r|GoGo|p=29}}<ref name="OSUArchives">{{Cite web |title=Pauling's Years as an Undergraduate at Oregon Agricultural College, Part 2 (1919–1922) |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page6.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031065844/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page6.html |archive-date=October 31, 2021 |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=[[Oregon State University]]}}</ref><ref name="Marinacci">{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |url=https://archive.org/details/linuspaulinginhi0000paul |title=Linus Pauling: in his own words : selected writings, speeches, and interviews |date=1995 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-684-81387-5 |editor-last=Marinacci |editor-first=Barbara |location=New York City |page=39 |language=en-us |author-mask=4 |access-date=May 27, 2015 |url-access=registration |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> During the winter of his senior year, Pauling taught a chemistry course for [[family and consumer science|home economics]] majors. It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife, [[Ava Helen Pauling|Ava Helen Miller]].{{r|GoGo|p=31}}{{r|Marinacci|p=41}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Biographical Timeline |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/lpbio/timeline.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302113523/https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/about/linus-pauling-biographical-timeline |archive-date=March 2, 2022 |access-date=November 10, 2011 |website=[[Linus Pauling Institute]] |publisher=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="AvaBook">{{Cite news |last=Richard |first=Terry |date=May 3, 2013 |title=Ava Helen Pauling, wife of Linus Pauling, subject of biography by Corvallis author Mina Carson |language=en |work=[[The Oregonian]] |url=http://www.oregonlive.com/books/index.ssf/2013/05/ava_helen_pauling_wife_of_linu.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=June 2, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513195013/https://www.oregonlive.com/books/2013/05/ava_helen_pauling_wife_of_linu.html |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |issn=8750-1317}}</ref> In 1922, Pauling graduated with a degree in [[chemical engineering]]. He went on to graduate school at the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech) in [[Pasadena, California]], under the guidance of [[Roscoe G. Dickinson|Roscoe Dickinson]] and [[Richard C. Tolman|Richard Tolman]].<ref name="mathgene" /> His graduate research involved the use of [[X-ray diffraction]] to determine the structure of [[crystal]]s. He published seven papers on the [[crystal structure]] of minerals while he was at Caltech. He received his PhD in [[physical chemistry]] and [[mathematical physics]],<ref name="paulingphd" /> [[summa cum laude]], in 1925.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 12, 1925 |title=Commencement 1925 California Institute of Technology Pasadena |url=http://caltechcampuspubs.library.caltech.edu/2537/1/1925.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101163715/http://caltechcampuspubs.library.caltech.edu/2537/1/1925.pdf |archive-date=November 1, 2020 |access-date=March 29, 2013 |publisher=[[California Institute of Technology]]}}</ref> == Career == {{external media |width=190px | float = right | headerimage= [[File:Sickle Cell Blood Smear.JPG|170px]] | video1 = [http://watch.opb.org/video/1954582651/ ''Linus Pauling''], Oregon Experience, [[Oregon Historical Society]]}}In 1926, Pauling was awarded a [[Guggenheim Fellowship]] to travel to Europe, to study under German physicist [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] in Munich, Danish physicist [[Niels Bohr]] in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist [[Erwin Schrödinger]] in [[Zürich]]. All three were experts in the new field of [[quantum mechanics]] and other branches of physics.<ref name="Guggenheim" /> Pauling became interested in how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest, the [[Electron configuration|electronic structure]] of atoms and molecules. In Zürich, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the [[hydrogen]] molecule, done by [[Walter Heitler]] and [[Fritz London]].<ref name="Realism">{{Cite conference |date=December 9, 2010 |orig-date=1996-10-31 |title=Realism and anti-realism in the philosophy of science |url={{GBurl|id=mvYIkgAACAAJ|page=161}} |conference=Beijing International Conference 1992 |location=[[Dordrecht]] |publisher=[[Springer Nature|Springer]] |page=161 |isbn=978-90-481-4493-8 |ol=28281917M |access-date=May 27, 2015 |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=Robert S. |editor2-last=Hilpinen |editor2-first=Risto |editor3-last=Qiu |editor3-first=Ren-Zong}}</ref> Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research. He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules.<ref name="PNNL">{{Cite web |title=About Linus Pauling |url=https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/linus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship/about |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302175453/https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/linus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship/about |archive-date=March 2, 2022 |access-date=April 13, 2022 |website=[[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]] |language=en}}</ref> In 1927, Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at [[Caltech]] in [[theoretical chemistry]].<ref name="OH">{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |url=https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/5h73px42w |title=Oral history interview with Linus C. Pauling |date=April 6, 1987 |publisher=[[Science History Institute]] |location=[[Denver]] |publication-place=[[Philadelphia]] |language=en |author-mask=4 |access-date=April 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816110527/https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/5h73px42w |archive-date=August 16, 2021 |url-status=live |interviewer-last=Sturchio |interviewer-first=Jeffrey L.}}</ref> He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years, continuing with his [[X-ray]] crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules. He published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created the five rules now known as [[Pauling's rules]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |author-mask=4 |date=April 1, 1929 |title=The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals |journal=[[Journal of the American Chemical Society]] |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=1010–1026 |doi=10.1021/ja01379a006|bibcode=1929JAChS..51.1010P }}</ref><ref name="Pauling1960">{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |url={{GBurl|id=L-1K9HmKmUUC}} |title=The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals; an introduction to modern structural chemistry |date=January 31, 1960 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8014-0333-0 |edition=3rd |location=[[Ithaca, New York]] |pages=543–562 |ol=26811428M |author-mask=4 |orig-date=1939}}</ref> By 1929, he was promoted to associate professor, and by 1930, to full professor.<ref name="OH" /> In 1931, the [[American Chemical Society]] awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=December 2004 |title=The Langmuir Prize |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page28.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212140745/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page28.html |archive-date=December 12, 2020 |access-date=February 29, 2008 |website=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en}}</ref> The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper, in which he first laid out the concept of [[Orbital hybridization|hybridization of atomic orbitals]] and analyzed the [[tetravalence|tetravalency]] of the [[carbon]] atom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |author-mask=4 |date=March 1, 1932 |title=The nature of the chemical bond. III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another |journal=[[Journal of the American Chemical Society]] |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=988–1003 |doi=10.1021/ja01342a022|bibcode=1932JAChS..54..988P }}</ref> At Caltech, Pauling struck up a close friendship with [[Theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] [[Robert Oppenheimer]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], who spent part of his research and teaching schedule as a visitor at Caltech each year.<ref name="Nature" /><ref name="Oppenheimer">{{Cite book |last=Monk |first=Ray |url={{GBurl|id=EkJ9aWTjWjUC|page=203}} |title=Robert Oppenheimer : a life inside the center |date=March 11, 2014 |publisher=[[Anchor Books]] |isbn=978-0-385-72204-9 |edition=First Anchor Books |page=203 |ol=32935915M |author-link=Ray Monk |orig-date=2012}}</ref> Pauling was also affiliated with Berkeley, serving as a visiting lecturer in physics and chemistry from 1929 to 1934.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Career at the California Institute of Technology (1927–1930) |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page10.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112063521/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page10.html |archive-date=November 12, 2021 |access-date=May 18, 2017 |website=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en}}</ref> Oppenheimer even gave Pauling a stunning personal collection of minerals.<ref name="LostAlly">{{Cite web |title=A Lost Ally |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page20.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820230846/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page20.html |archive-date=August 20, 2021 |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en}}</ref> The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results. Their relationship soured when Oppenheimer tried to pursue Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. When Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer came to their home and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico. She flatly refused, and reported the incident to Pauling. He immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer.{{r|Nature|p=152}}<ref name="Oppenheimer" /> In the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about gas-phase electron [[diffraction]] from [[Herman Francis Mark]]. After returning, he built an [[electron diffraction]] instrument at Caltech with a student of his, [[Lawrence O. Brockway|Lawrence Olin Brockway]], and used it to study the [[molecular geometry|molecular structure]] of a large number of chemical substances.<ref name="Hargittai">{{Cite book |last1=Hargittai |first1=István |url={{GBurl|id=KPqac4Y551AC|page=134}} |title=In our own image: personal symmetry in discovery |last2=Hargittai |first2=Magdolna |date=February 29, 2000 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |isbn=978-0-306-46091-3 |location=New York City |language=en |lccn=99033173 |ol=9669915M |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> Pauling introduced the concept of [[electronegativity]] in 1932.<ref name="paulingJACS">{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=4 |date=September 1, 1932 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms |journal=[[Journal of the American Chemical Society]] |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=3570–3582 |doi=10.1021/ja01348a011 |bibcode=1932JAChS..54.3570P |issn=0002-7863 |lccn=16003159 |oclc=01226990}}</ref> Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the [[dipole]] [[Moment (physics)|moments]] of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements{{thinsp|—}}the [[Pauling scale of electronegativity|Pauling Electronegativity Scale]]{{thinsp|—}}which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules.<ref name="Scale2">{{Cite web |date=March 17, 2009 |title=The Pauling Electronegativity Scale: Part 2, Inspired by Biology |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/03/17/the-pauling-electronegativity-scale-part-2-inspired-by-biology/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117185840/https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/03/17/the-pauling-electronegativity-scale-part-2-inspired-by-biology/ |archive-date=November 17, 2021 |access-date=March 17, 2009 |website=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en}}</ref> In 1936, Pauling was promoted to chairman of the division of chemistry and chemical engineering at Caltech, and to the position of director of the Gates and Crellin Laboratories of Chemistry. He would hold both positions until 1958.<ref name="OH" /> Pauling also spent a year in 1948 at the [[University of Oxford]] as George Eastman Visiting Professor and Fellow of Balliol.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 21, 1994 |title=Obituary: Professor Linus Pauling |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-professor-linus-pauling-1377923.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616040502/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-professor-linus-pauling-1377923.html |archive-date=June 16, 2021 |access-date=January 25, 2018 |website=[[The Independent]] |language=en}}</ref> ===Nature of the chemical bond=== [[File:Linus Pauling 1955a.jpg|thumb|Linus Pauling with an inset of his Nobel Prize in 1955]] In the late 1920s, Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the [[chemical bond]]. Between 1937 and 1938, he took a position as George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at [[Cornell University]]. While at Cornell, he delivered a series of nineteen lectures<ref>{{Cite web |title=Outline of the George Fischer Baker Lectureship, Cornell University |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1937s.3-outline-01-large.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112063624/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1937s.3-outline-01-large.html |archive-date=November 12, 2021 |access-date=April 13, 2022 |website=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en}}</ref> and completed the bulk of his famous textbook ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond''.<ref name="The George Fischer Baker Lectureship and the Beginnings of the Manuscript">{{Cite web |date=July 30, 2014 |title=The George Fischer Baker Lectureship and the Beginnings of the Manuscript |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2014/07/30/the-george-fischer-baker-lectureship-and-the-beginnings-of-the-manuscript/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307085556/https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2014/07/30/the-george-fischer-baker-lectureship-and-the-beginnings-of-the-manuscript/ |archive-date=March 7, 2022 |access-date=June 3, 2015 |website=The Pauling Blog |publisher=[[Oregon State University]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Pauling1960" />{{rp|Preface}} It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1954 "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances".<ref name="Nobel" /> Pauling's book has been considered "chemistry's most influential book of this century and its effective bible".<ref name="Genes2001">{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=James D. |url=https://archive.org/details/passionfordnagen0000wats |title=A passion for DNA: genes, genomes, and society |date=2001 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-860428-0 |edition=2003 |location=[[Oxford]] |ol=7401431M |author-link=James Watson |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Even today, many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work, more than seventy years after the first publication.<ref name="Google">{{Cite web |title=The nature of the chemical bond (citations and estimated counts) |url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=b0B12YAAAAAJ&citation_for_view=b0B12YAAAAAJ:j5aT6aphRxQC |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Google Scholar}}</ref> Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of [[orbital hybridization]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |year=1928 |title=London's paper. General ideas on bonds |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci3.001.21.html |access-date=June 2, 2015 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by [[atomic orbital|orbital]]s of types such as ''s'' and ''p'', it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be (mathematically) 'mixed' or combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp<sup>3</sup> hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as [[methane]], or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp{{sup|2}} hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain [[alkene|unsaturated]] carbon compounds such as [[ethylene]].{{r|Pauling1960|pages=111–120}} Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules. Another area which he explored was the relationship between [[ionic bond]]ing, where electrons are transferred between atoms, and [[covalent bond]]ing, where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, and that for most actual cases of bonding, the [[Introduction to quantum mechanics|quantum-mechanical]] [[wave function]] for a polar molecule AB is a [[linear combination|combination]] of wave functions for covalent and ionic molecules.{{r|Pauling1960|page=66}} Here Pauling's ''[[electronegativity]]'' concept is particularly useful; the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=1930s |title=Notes and Calculations re: Electronegativity and the Electronegativity Scale |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci5.001.14.html |access-date=February 29, 2008 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> The third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of "the nature of the chemical bond" was the accounting of the structure of [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, particularly the prototype, [[benzene]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=January 6, 1934 |title=Benzene |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci2.004.6.html |access-date=February 29, 2008 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist [[Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz|Friedrich Kekulé]]. He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures, each with alternating single and [[double bond]]s, but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each. The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name "[[resonance (chemistry)|resonance]]" was later applied to this phenomenon.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=July 29, 1946 |title=Resonance |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1946a.3.html |access-date=February 29, 2008 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> In a sense, this phenomenon resembles those of hybridization and also polar bonding, both described above, because all three phenomena involve combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} ===Ionic crystal structures=== In 1929, Pauling published [[Pauling's rules|five rules]] which help to [[crystal structure prediction|predict]] and explain [[crystal structure]]s of [[ionic compound]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pauling, Linus |author-link=Pauling L |year=1929 |title=The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals |journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=1010–1026 |doi=10.1021/ja01379a006|bibcode=1929JAChS..51.1010P }}</ref><ref name=Pauling1960/> These rules concern (1) the ratio of cation radius to anion radius, (2) the electrostatic bond strength, (3) the sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces, (4) crystals containing different cations, and (5) the rule of parsimony.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} ===Biological molecules=== [[File:Linus Pauling 1941.png|thumb|Pauling in 1941]] [[Image:Helix electron density myoglobin 2nrl 17-32.jpg|thumb|upright|An alpha helix in ultra-high-resolution electron density contours, with O atoms in red, N atoms in blue, and hydrogen bonds as green dotted lines (PDB file 2NRL, 17–32)]] In the mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by the biologically oriented funding priorities of the Rockefeller Foundation's [[Warren Weaver]], decided to strike out into new areas of interest.<ref name="Kay">{{Cite book |last=Kay |first=Lily E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vEHeNI2a8OEC&pg=PA148 |title=The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the rise of the new biology |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511143-9 |location=New York [u.a.] |pages=148–151 |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> Although Pauling's early interest had focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought about molecules of biological importance, in part because of Caltech's growing strength in biology. Pauling interacted with such great biologists as [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]], [[Theodosius Dobzhanski]], [[Calvin Bridges]] and [[Alfred Sturtevant]].<ref name="Califano">{{Cite book |last=Califano |first=Salvatore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s-sCt4RT0bMC&pg=PA198 |title=Pathways to modern chemical physics |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-28179-2 |location=Heidelberg [Germany] |page=198 |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> His early work in this area included studies of the structure of [[hemoglobin]] with his student [[Charles D. Coryell]]. He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an [[oxygen]] molecule.<ref name=Califano/> As a result of this observation, he decided to conduct a more thorough study of [[protein structure]] in general. He returned to his earlier use of X-ray diffraction analysis. But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The best X-ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer [[William Astbury]], but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not.<ref name="Livio">{{Cite book |last=Livio |first=Mario |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0XmmAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA285 |title=Brilliant blunders: from Darwin to Einstein: colossal mistakes by great scientists that changed our understanding of life and the universe |date=2014 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-4391-9237-5 |location=[S.l.]}}</ref> It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his [[mathematics|mathematical]] analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a [[helix|helical]] pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} In 1951, based on the structures of [[amino acid]]s and [[peptide]]s and the planar nature of the [[peptide bond]], Pauling, [[Robert Corey]] and [[Herman Branson]] correctly proposed the [[alpha helix]] and [[beta sheet]] as the primary [[structural motif]]s in protein [[secondary structure]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L |last2=Corey |first2=RB |year=1951 |title=Configurations of Polypeptide Chains With Favored Orientations Around Single Bonds: Two New Pleated Sheets |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=729–40 |bibcode=1951PNAS...37..729P |doi=10.1073/pnas.37.11.729 |pmc=1063460 |pmid=16578412 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 95-100">Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 95-100.</ref> This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non-[[integer]] number of amino acid residues; for the alpha helix it is 3.7 amino acid residues per turn.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} Pauling then proposed that [[deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) was a [[triple helix]];<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L |last2=Corey |first2=RB |date=February 1953 |title=A Proposed Structure For The Nucleic Acids |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=84–97 |bibcode=1953PNAS...39...84P |doi=10.1073/pnas.39.2.84 |pmc=1063734 |pmid=16578429 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling's DNA Model |url=http://www.farooqhussain.org/projects/paulingdnamodel |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204210701/http://www.farooqhussain.org/projects/paulingdnamodel |archive-date=February 4, 2012 |access-date=June 2, 2015}}</ref> his model contained several basic mistakes, including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups, an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA. [[William Lawrence Bragg|Sir Lawrence Bragg]] had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha [[Alpha helix|helix structure]] of proteins. Bragg's team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond. When it was learned at the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA, [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA. They later benefited from unpublished data from [[Maurice Wilkins]] and [[Rosalind Franklin]] at [[King's College London|King's College]] which showed evidence for a helix and planar base stacking along the helix axis. Early in 1953 Watson and Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix. Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA, among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X-ray diffraction photographs. Pauling described this situation as "the biggest disappointment in his life".<ref name="Dye-LATimes">{{Cite web |last=Dye |first=Lee |date=June 2, 1985 |title=The Deeply Personal War of Linus Pauling: Nobel Prize-Winning Chemist Still Battles for His Controversial Vitamin Theory |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-06-02-vw-15174-story.html |access-date=April 9, 2023 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |language=en-US}}</ref> During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world's best images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure, although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them, while taking Pauling's place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department on suspicion that he had Communist sympathies. This led to the legend that Pauling missed the structure of DNA because of the politics of the day (this was at the start of the [[McCarthyism|McCarthy]] period in the United States). Politics did not play a critical role. Not only did Corey see the images at the time, but Pauling himself regained his passport within a few weeks and toured English laboratories well before writing his DNA paper. He had ample opportunity to visit Franklin's lab and see her work, but chose not to.<ref name="Nature" />{{rp|414–415}} Despite these times, Pauling chose to move on from them and be thankful for the discoveries that he had already found.<ref name="Dye-LATimes"/> Pauling also studied [[enzyme]] reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the [[transition state]] of the reaction, a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metzler |first=David E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X194AYXInC8C&pg=PA330 |title=Biochemistry |date=2003 |publisher=Harcourt, Academic Pr. |isbn=978-0-12-492541-0 |edition=2nd |location=San Diego |ref=Metzler}}</ref> He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of [[antibodies]] to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures.<ref name="Lewis">{{Cite book |first1=Julius M. |last1=Cruse |first2=Robert E. |last2=Lewis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNI5Lk2z37sC&pg=PA21 |title=Atlas of immunology |date=2010 |publisher=CRC Press/Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-4398-0268-7 |edition=3rd |location=Boca Raton, FL |page=21 |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> Along the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist [[Max Delbrück]], he wrote an early paper arguing that [[DNA replication]] was likely to be due to [[Complementarity (molecular biology)|complementarity]], rather than similarity, as suggested by a few researchers. This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered.<ref name="Tudge">{{Cite book |last=Tudge |author-link=Colin Tudge |first=Colin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wprqex2OGY4C&pg=PT74 |title=The engineer in the garden: Genes and genetics: from the idea of heredity to the creation of life |date=1995 |publisher=Hill and Wang |isbn=978-0-8090-4259-3 |edition=1st American |location=New York |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> ===Molecular genetics=== [[File:Linus Pauling 1948.png|thumb|Pauling in 1948]] In November 1949, Pauling, [[Harvey Itano]], [[Seymour Jonathan Singer|S. J. Singer]] and Ibert Wells published "[[Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease]]"<ref name="Itano">{{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Itano |first2=H. A. |last3=Singer |first3=S. J. |author3-link=Seymour Jonathan Singer |last4=Wells |first4=I. C. |date=November 25, 1949 |title=Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/papers/1949p.15.htmlfddsf |journal=Science |volume=110 |issue=2865 |pages=543–548 |bibcode=1949Sci...110..543P |doi=10.1126/science.110.2865.543 |pmid=15395398 |s2cid=31674765 |access-date=June 2, 2015 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> in the journal ''Science''. It was the first proof of a human disease being caused by an abnormal protein, and [[sickle cell anemia]] became the first disease understood at the molecular level. (It was not, however, the first demonstration that variant forms of hemoglobin could be distinguished by electrophoresis, which had been shown several years earlier by [[Maud Menten]] and collaborators).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Andersch |first1=MA |last2=Wilson |first2=DA |last3=Menten |first3=ML. |year=1944 |title=Sedimentation constants and electrophoretic mobilities of adult and fetal carbonylhemoglobin |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=153 |pages=301–305 |doi=10.1016/S0021-9258(18)51237-0 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Using [[electrophoresis]], they demonstrated that individuals with [[sickle cell disease]] have a modified form of hemoglobin in their [[red blood cell]]s, and that individuals with [[sickle cell trait]] have both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. This was the first demonstration causally linking an abnormal protein to a disease, and also the first demonstration that [[Mendelian inheritance]] determines the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence – the dawn of [[molecular genetics]].<ref name="Strasser">{{Cite journal |last=Strasser |first=Bruno J. |date=August 30, 2002 |title=Linus Pauling's "molecular diseases": Between history and memory |url=http://biologie.unige.ch/assets/brunostrasser/Strasser_AJMG_2002.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://biologie.unige.ch/assets/brunostrasser/Strasser_AJMG_2002.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=83–93 |citeseerx=10.1.1.613.5672 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.10542 |pmid=12400054 |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> His success with sickle cell anemia led Pauling to speculate that a number of other diseases, including mental illnesses such as [[schizophrenia]], might result from flawed genetics. As chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and director of the Gates and Crellin Chemical Laboratories, he encouraged the hiring of researchers with a chemical-biomedical approach to mental illness, a direction not always popular with established [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] chemists.<ref name="LATimes1994">{{Cite news |date=August 21, 1994 |title=A Flamboyant Scientist's Legacy : Scholar: Linus C. Pauling's supporters and detractors join in calling the two-time Nobel winner one of the most significant figures of this century |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-08-21-mn-29601-story.html |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref>{{rp|2}} In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled "Molecular Medicine".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=October 1951 |title=Molecular Medicine |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/pictures/1951s.17.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers}}</ref> In the late 1950s, he studied the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction. In the 1960s, as part of his interest in the effects of nuclear weapons, he investigated the role of mutations in evolution, proposing with his student Emile Zuckerkandl, the molecular evolutionary clock, the idea that mutations in proteins and DNA accumulate at a constant rate over time .<ref name="Morgan">{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Gregory J. |date=1998 |title=Emile Zuckerkandl, Linus Pauling, and the molecular evolutionary clock, 1959–1965 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4331476|journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=155–78| doi=10.1023/A:1004394418084|jstor=4331476 |pmid=11620303 |s2cid=5660841 |access-date=June 11, 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ===Structure of the atomic nucleus=== [[File:Linus Pauling 1962.jpg|thumb|Pauling in 1962]] On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened a new research notebook with the words "I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei." On October 15, 1965, Pauling published his Close-Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals, ''Science'' and the ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]''.<ref name="SpheronPNAS">{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=1965 |title=The Close-Packed Spheron Model of atomic nuclei and its relation to the shell model |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=989–994 |bibcode=1965PNAS...54..989P |doi=10.1073/pnas.54.4.989 |pmc=219778 |pmid=16578621 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="SpheronScience">{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L |date=October 15, 1965 |title=The close-packed-spheron theory and nuclear fission |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-026.html |journal=Science |volume=150 |issue=3694 |pages=297–305 |bibcode=1965Sci...150..297P |doi=10.1126/science.150.3694.297 |pmid=17742357|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For nearly three decades, until his death in 1994, Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model.<ref name=SpheronPNAS/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=July 1966 |title=The close-packed-spheron theory of nuclear structure and the neutron excess for stable nuclei (Dedicated to the seventieth anniversary of Professor Horia Hulubei) |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-048.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Revue Roumain de Physique}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=December 1967 |title=Magnetic-moment evidence for the polyspheron structure of the lighter atomic nuclei |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-068.html |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=2175–2178 |bibcode=1967PNAS...58.2175P |doi=10.1073/pnas.58.6.2175 |pmc=223816 |pmid=16591577 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=November 1969 |title=Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-075.html |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=807–9 |bibcode=1969PNAS...64..807P |doi=10.1073/pnas.64.3.807 |pmc=223305 |pmid=16591799 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Pauling |first1=Linus |last2=Arthur B. Robinson |year=1975 |title=Rotating clusters in nuclei |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-084.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Canadian Journal of Physics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=February 1991 |title=Transition from one revolving cluster to two revolving clusters in the ground-state rotational bands of nuclei in the lanthanon region |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-125.html |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.]] |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=820–823 |bibcode=1991PNAS...88..820P |doi=10.1073/pnas.88.3.820 |pmc=50905 |pmid=11607150 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The basic idea behind Pauling's spheron model is that a nucleus can be viewed as a set of "clusters of nucleons". The basic nucleon clusters include the [[deuteron]] [np], [[helion (chemistry)|helion]] [pnp], and [[tritium|triton]] [npn]. [[Even-even nucleus|Even–even nuclei]] are described as being composed of clusters of [[alpha particle]]s, as has often been done for light nuclei.<ref name="Clusters">{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=November 15, 1969 |title=Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=807–809 |bibcode=1969PNAS...64..807P |doi=10.1073/pnas.64.3.807 |pmc=223305 |pmid=16591799 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure of nuclei from pure geometrical considerations related to [[Platonic solids]] rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual [[Nuclear shell model|shell model]]. In an interview given in 1990 Pauling commented on his model:<ref name="AOA">{{Cite web |title=Linus C. Pauling, Ph.D. Biography and Interview |url=https://www.achievement.org/achiever/linus-pauling/#interview/ |website=www.achievement.org |publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]}}</ref> {{blockquote|Now recently, I have been trying to determine detailed structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited state vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. From reading the physics literature, Physical Review Letters and other journals, I know that many physicists are interested in atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have been able to discover, has been attacking the problem in the same way that I attack it. So I just move along at my own speed, making calculations ...}} ==Activism== ===Wartime work=== [[File:Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer 2012 002 5132 cn69m4659.tiff|thumb|right|Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer, ca. 1950]] Pauling had been practically apolitical until [[World War II]]. At the beginning of the [[Manhattan Project]], Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project. He declined, not wanting to uproot his family.<ref name="Hiroshima">{{Cite web |title=Hiroshima |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page4.html |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement |publisher=Special Collections & Archives Research Center, Oregon State University}}</ref> [[File:Beckman Model 735 Dissolved O2 Analyzer 2012 002 3598 jm214p459 crop.tiff|thumb|right| Beckman Model 735 Dissolved {{O2|nolink=no}} Analyzer, later model based on Pauling's design, 1968]] [[File:Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter with infant incubator 73666474j.tiff|thumb|right|Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter, based on Pauling's design, with infant incubator, 1959]] Pauling did, however, work on research for the military. He was a principal investigator on 14 [[Office of Scientific Research and Development|OSRD contracts]].<ref name="Kay2">{{Cite book |last=Kay |first=Lily E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVtMCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT161 |title=The molecular vision of life : Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the rise of the new biology |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511143-9 |location=New York |page=179 |access-date=December 27, 2015}}</ref> The [[National Defense Research Committee]] called a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes. In response Pauling designed the Pauling oxygen meter, which was developed and manufactured by [[Arnold O. Beckman|Arnold O. Beckman, Inc.]] After the war, Beckman adapted the oxygen analyzers for use in incubators for premature babies.<ref name="hundred">{{Cite book |last1=Thackray |first1=Arnold |author1-link=Arnold Thackray |title=Arnold O. Beckman : one hundred years of excellence |last2=Minor Myers, Jr. |publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation |others=foreword by James D. Watson |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-941901-23-9 |location=Philadelphia, Pa. |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>{{rp|180–186}}<ref name="D2OxygenAnalyzer">{{Cite web |title=Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer |url=http://www.woodlibrarymuseum.org/museum/item/525/beckman-d2-oxygen-analyzer |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Wood Library-Museum of Anesthesiology}}</ref> In 1942, Pauling successfully submitted a proposal on "The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions in the Attempt to Find a Substitute for Human Serum for Transfusions". His project group, which included Joseph B. Koepfli and Dan H. Campbell, developed a possible replacement for [[Blood plasma|human blood plasma]] in [[Blood transfusion|transfusions]]: [[polyoxy gelatin]] (Oxypolygelatin).<ref name="Oxypolygelatin">{{Cite web |date=January 27, 2009 |title=Blood and War: The Development of Oxypolygelatin, Part 1 |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/01/27/blood-and-war-the-development-of-oxypolygelatin-part-1/ |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=The Pauling Blog}}</ref><ref name="Chadarevian">{{Cite book |last=Chadarevian |first=Soraya de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2B4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |title=Molecularizing biology and medicine new practices and alliances, 1910s–1970s |date=1998 |publisher=Harwood Academic |isbn=978-90-5702-293-7 |location=Amsterdam |page=109 |access-date=May 28, 2015}}</ref> Other wartime projects with more direct military applications included work on explosives, rocket propellants and the patent for an armor-piercing shell. In October 1948, Pauling, along with [[Lee Alvin DuBridge|Lee A. DuBridge]], [[William Alfred Fowler|William A. Fowler]], [[Max Mason]], and [[Bruce Hornbrook Sage|Bruce H. Sage]], was awarded a [[Presidential Medal for Merit]] by President [[Harry S. Truman]]. The citation credits him for his "imaginative mind", "brilliant success", and "exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services".<ref name="PMFM">{{Cite web |title=Presidential Medal for Merit |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/1948h.1.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling Awards Honors and Medals}}</ref><ref name="NLM">{{Cite web |title=The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/Views/Exhibit/narrative/biographical.html |access-date=February 11, 2008 |publisher=United States National Library of Medicine}}</ref><ref name="Paulus">{{Cite news |last=Paulus |first=John Allen |date=November 5, 1995 |title=Pauling's Prizes |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D05E3DE1739F936A35752C1A963958260& |access-date=December 9, 2007}}</ref> In 1949, he served as president of the [[American Chemical Society]].<ref name="ACS1949">{{Cite web |title=ACS President: Linus Pauling (1901–1994) |url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/about/president/acspresidents/linus-pauling.html |access-date=June 1, 2015 |website=ACS Chemistry for Life}}</ref> ===Nuclear activism=== The aftermath of the [[Manhattan Project]] and his wife Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life profoundly, and he became a peace activist.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} In June 1945, a "May-Johnson Bill" began<ref>{{Citation |title=Part VI: The Manhattan District in Peacetime: The May-Johnson Bill |date=1998 |url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/mp/p6s6.shtml |publisher=Atomic Archive |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Atomic Energy Commission |date=November 18, 2016 |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/atomic-energy-commission |publisher=Atomic Heritage Foundation |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Roy Glauber & Priscilla McMillan on Oppenheimer – Atomic Energy Commission |date=June 6, 2013 |url=https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/roy-glauber-priscilla-mcmillan-oppenheimer |publisher=Voices of the Manhattan Project |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref> that would become the [[Atomic Energy Act of 1946]] (signed August 1, 1946). In November 1945, Pauling spoke to the [[Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions]] (ICCASP) on [[atomic weapons]]; shortly after, wife Ava and he accepted membership.<ref name="PaulingICCASP">{{Citation |title=The Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions |date=2009 |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2010/07/15/the-independent-citizens-committee-for-the-arts-sciences-and-professions/ |publisher=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref> On January 21, 1946, the group met to discuss [[academic freedom]], during which Pauling said, "There is, of course, always a threat to academic freedom – as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual, in the continued attacks which are made on this freedom, these rights, by the selfish, the overly ambitious, the misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek to oppress the great body of mankind in order that they themselves may profit – and we must always be on the alert against this threat, and must fight it with vigor when it becomes dangerous."<ref name=PaulingICCASP/> In 1946, he joined the [[Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists]], chaired by [[Albert Einstein]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Einstein |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page9.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons. [[File:Letter from Ruth B. Shipley, Chief Passport Division, Department of State (United States) to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952.jpg|thumb|Denial letter from [[Ruth B. Shipley]], Chief Passport Division, Department of State to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952]] His political activism prompted the [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling |url=http://usstampgallery.com/view.php?id=3228fbec24ea876e8035f61b5fcd643af29a611c |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=U.S. Stamp Gallery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=May 1952 |title=The Department of State and the Structure of Proteins |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/notes/1952a.18.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> In a speech before the [[US Senate]] on June 6 of the same year, Senator [[Wayne Morse]] publicly denounced the action of the State Department, and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a "limited passport" to attend the conference.<ref>Robert Paradowski (2011), Oregon State University, Special Collections p.18, [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page18.html Proteins, Passports, and the Prize (1950–1954)], retrieved February 1, 2013</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sg0AAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA255 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Vol. VIII, Nr. 7] (Okt. 1952) p. 254, Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.</ref> His full passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in [[Stockholm]] where he received his first Nobel Prize.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} Joining Einstein, [[Bertrand Russell]] and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the [[Russell-Einstein Manifesto]] issued July 9, 1955.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Russell/Einstein |author-link=Thomas Hager |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page25.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> He also supported the [[Mainau Declaration]] of July 15, 1955, signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.<ref name="Snow">{{Cite book |last=Hermann |first=Armin |title=The new physics: the route into the atomic age: in memory of Albert Einstein, Max von Laue, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner |date=1979 |publisher=Inter Nationes |location=Bonn-Bad Godesberg |page=130}}</ref> In May 1957, working with [[Washington University in St. Louis]] professor [[Barry Commoner]], Pauling began to circulate a petition among scientists to stop nuclear testing.<ref name="Tooth">{{Cite web |title=The Baby Tooth Survey |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/committee-for-nuclear-information/ |access-date=June 1, 2011 |website=The Pauling Blog}}</ref> On January 15, 1958, Pauling and his wife presented a petition to United Nations Secretary General [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] calling for an end to [[nuclear testing|the testing of nuclear weapons]]. It was signed by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.<ref name="NobelLecture">{{Cite web |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1962 Linus Pauling: Nobel Lecture |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1962/pauling-lecture.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Nobel Prize.org}}</ref><ref name="NobelBlog">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Receives the Nobel Peace Prize |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/united-nations-bomb-test-petition/ |access-date=December 10, 2013 |website=The Pauling Blog}}</ref> In February 1958, Pauling participated in a publicly televised debate with the atomic physicist [[Edward Teller]] about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations.<ref name="Moore">{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Kelly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlBCTlVq_0EC&pg=PA113 |title=Disrupting science : social movements, American scientists, and the politics of the military, 1945–1975 |date=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11352-4 |location=Princeton |page=113 |access-date=May 28, 2015}}</ref> Later in 1958, Pauling published ''No more war!'', in which he not only called for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons but also an end to war itself. He proposed that a World Peace Research Organization be set up as part of the United Nations to "attack the problem of preserving the peace".<ref name="Nobel" /> Pauling also supported the work of the St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information (CNI).<ref name=Tooth/> This group, headed by [[Barry Commoner]], Eric Reiss, M. W. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized a longitudinal study to measure radioactive [[strontium]]-90 in the [[baby teeth]] of children across North America. The "[[Baby Tooth Survey]]", published by [[Louise Reiss]], demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of [[nuclear fallout|radioactive fallout]] spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reiss |first=Louise Zibold |author-link=Louise Reiss |date=November 24, 1961 |title=Strontium-90 Absorption by Deciduous Teeth: Analysis of teeth provides a practicable method of monitoring strontium-90 uptake by human populations |journal=Science |volume=134 |issue=3491 |pages=1669–1673 |doi=10.1126/science.134.3491.1669 |pmid=14491339}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Strontium-90 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page26.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=The Right to Petition |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page27.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> The Committee for Nuclear Information is frequently credited for its significant contribution to supporting the test ban,<ref name="McCormick">{{Cite book |last=McCormick |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xC16yGp9-HUC&pg=PA70 |title=Reclaiming paradise : the global environmental movement |date=1991 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20660-2 |edition=1st Midland |location=Bloomington |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> as is the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the "Baby Tooth Survey".<ref name="activism">{{Cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Garland E. |author1-link=Garland E. Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7axYHFEomgMC&pg=PA302 |title=Science, history and social activism : a tribute to Everett Mendelsohn |last2=MacLeod |first2=Roy M. |date=2001 |publisher=Kluwer Academic |isbn=978-1-4020-0495-7 |location=Dordrecht |page=302 |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> Public pressure and the frightening results of the CNI research led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], signed in 1963 by [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. On the day that the treaty went into force, October 10, 1963, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for 1962. (No prize had previously been awarded for that year.)<ref name="PaloAlto">{{Cite news |date=October 10, 1963 |title=Nobel Peace Prize Awarded to Pauling |work=Palo Alto Times |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1963n.30.html |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> They described him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=October 10, 1963 |title=Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/notes/rnb23-100.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> Pauling himself acknowledged his wife Ava's deep involvement in peace work, and regretted that she was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with him.<ref name="LPIBio">{{Cite web |date=May 9, 2014 |title=Linus Pauling Biography |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/linus-pauling-biography |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling Institute}}</ref> ===Political criticism=== [[File:Linus Pauling's beret at the Nobel Museum (51969).jpg|thumb|Pauling's beret on display at the [[Nobel Prize Museum]]]] Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naïve spokesman for [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet communism]]. In 1960, he was ordered to appear before the [[United States Senate Subcommittee on Internal Security|Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]],<ref name="Senate">{{Cite web |title=issued to Linus Pauling by the Internal Security Subcommittee of the United States Senate. June 20, 1960 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/papers/bio2.021.3.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement}}</ref> which termed him "the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country".<ref name=Humanism/> A headline in ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'' magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as "A Weird Insult from Norway".<ref name="Kovac">{{Cite journal |last=Kovac |first=Jeffrey |date=1999 |title=A weird insult from Norway: Linus Pauling as public intellectual |journal=Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal |volume=82 |issue=1/2 |pages=91–106 |jstor=41178914}}</ref><ref name="Life">{{Cite magazine |date=October 25, 1963 |title=A Weird Insult From Norway |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UlIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA6 |magazine=Life |volume=5 |page=4 |number=17}}</ref> Pauling was a frequent target of the ''[[National Review]]'' magazine. In an article entitled "The Collaborators" in the magazine's July 17, 1962, issue, Pauling was referred to not only as a collaborator, but as a "fellow traveler" of proponents of Soviet-style communism. In 1963, Pauling sued the magazine, its publisher [[William Rusher]], and its editor [[William F. Buckley, Jr]] for $1 million. He lost both his libel suits and the 1968 appeal (unlike his earlier 1963 libel case against the [[Hearst Corporation]]), because in the meantime the landmark case ''[[New York Times Co. v. Sullivan]]'' had established the [[actual malice]] standard for libel lawsuits by public figures, requiring that not only falsehood but deliberate lying should be proved by the plaintiff in such cases.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 30, 2013 |title=The National Review Lawsuit |url=http://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2013/01/30/the-national-review-lawsuit/ |access-date=December 20, 2013 |publisher=Paulingblog}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Tough Conclusion to the National Review Lawsuit |url=http://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/william-f-buckley/ |access-date=December 20, 2013 |publisher=Paulingblog}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pauling v. Nat'l Review, Inc |url=http://law.justia.com/cases/new-york/court-of-appeals/1968/22-n-y-2d-818-0.html |access-date=December 20, 2013 |website=Justia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saxon |first=Wolfgang |date=August 30, 1998 |title=C. Dickerman Williams, 97, Free-Speech Lawyer, Is Dead |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/08/30/nyregion/c-dickerman-williams-97-free-speech-lawyer-is-dead.html |access-date=December 20, 2013}}</ref> His peace activism, his frequent travels, and his enthusiastic expansion into chemical-biomedical research all aroused opposition at Caltech. In 1958, the Caltech Board of Trustees demanded that Pauling step down as chairman of the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division.<ref name=LATimes1994/>{{rp|2}} Although he had retained tenure as a full professor, Pauling chose to resign from Caltech after he received the Nobel peace prize money. He spent the next three years at the [[Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions]] (1963–1967).<ref name="Abrams" /> In 1967, he moved to the University of California at San Diego, but remained there only briefly, leaving in 1969 in part because of political tensions with the Reagan-era board of regents.<ref name=LATimes1994/>{{rp|3}} From 1969 to 1974, he accepted a position as professor of chemistry at Stanford University.<ref name="OH" /> ===Vietnam war activism=== During the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of increasing America's involvement in the Vietnam War caused an [[anti-war movement]] that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional. He made speeches, signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson. His efforts were ignored by the American government.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement: Vietnam |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page49.html |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries}}</ref> [[File:27. Tagung 1977 Chemiker; Linus C. Pauling Porträt - W134Nr.108890d - Willy Pragher.jpg|thumb|Pauling in 1977]] Pauling was awarded the [[Lenin Peace Prize|International Lenin Peace Prize]] by the USSR in 1970.<ref name="Humanism">{{Cite journal |last=Mason |first=Stephen F. |date=1997 |title=The Science and Humanism of Linus Pauling (1901–1994) |url=http://oregonstate.edu/dept/spc/subpages/ahp/overview/entirearticle.htm |url-status=dead |journal=Chemical Society Reviews |volume=26 |pages=29–39 |doi=10.1039/cs9972600029 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515124732/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/spc/subpages/ahp/overview/entirearticle.htm |archive-date=May 15, 2009 |access-date=May 20, 2015|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="LeninPrize">{{Cite web |date=May 16, 2011 |title=Lenin Peace Prize Recipients |url=http://www.researchhistory.org/2011/05/16/lenin-peace-prize-recipients/ |website=Research History}}</ref> He continued his peace activism in the following years. He and his wife Ava helped to found the [[International League of Humanists]] in 1974.<ref name="HumanistFounders">{{Cite web |title=Founders |url=http://www.intlh.com/index_enu.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611040404/http://www.intlh.com/index_enu.html |archive-date=June 11, 2015 |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=International League of Humanists for peace and tolerance }}</ref> He was president of the scientific advisory board of the [[World Union for Protection of Life]] and also one of the signatories of the [[Dubrovnik–Philadelphia statement]] of 1974/1976.<ref name="Dubrovnik">{{Cite web |title=The Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement /1974–1976/ (short version) |url=http://www.intlh.com/statement.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035630/http://www.intlh.com/statement.html |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=International League of Humanists }}</ref> Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member of the International Academy of Science, Munich, until the end of his life.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.ias-icsd.org/history.html |access-date=March 16, 2015 |website=International Academy of Science, Munich |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142953/http://www.ias-icsd.org/history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Pauling was also a supporter of the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Johnson |editor1-first=Loch K. |title=Handbook of Intelligence Studies |date=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=275}}</ref> === Global activism === He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a [[world constitution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961 |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8 |access-date=July 1, 2023 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.6 |access-date=July 3, 2023 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}}</ref> As a result, for the first time in human history, a [[World Constituent Assembly]] convened to draft and adopt a [[Constitution for the Federation of Earth]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Preparing earth constitution {{!}} Global Strategies & Solutions {{!}} The Encyclopedia of World Problems |url=http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465 |access-date=July 15, 2023 |website=The Encyclopedia of World Problems {{!}} Union of International Associations (UIA) |archive-date=2023-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719215501/http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Eugenics=== Pauling supported a limited form of [[eugenics]] by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given a compulsory visible mark – such as a forehead tattoo – to discourage potential mates with the same defect, in order to reduce the number of babies with diseases such as [[sickle cell anemia]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mendelsohn |first=Everett |author-link=Everett Mendelsohn |date=March–April 2000 |title=The Eugenic Temptation |url=http://harvardmagazine.com/2000/03/the-eugenic-temptation.html |website=Harvard Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Special Collections & Archives Research Center, Oregon State University Libraries |date=2015 |title=Eugenics for Alleviating Human Suffering |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/narrative/page35.html |access-date=May 30, 2020 |website=It's in the Blood! A Documentary History of Linus Pauling, Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia}}</ref> ===Medical research and vitamin C advocacy=== {{main|Vitamin C megadosage}} [[File:Pauling Vit C Book Cover.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Pauling's book, ''How to Live Longer and Feel Better'', advocated very high intake of [[Vitamin C]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=How to Live Longer and Feel Better |publisher=Avon Books |year=1987 |edition=1 |location=New York |ol=18076125M}}</ref>]] In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with [[Bright's disease]], a renal disease. Following the recommendations of [[Thomas Addis]], who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as "nutritionist, cook, and eventually as deputy 'doctor'", Pauling believed he was able to control the disease with Addis's then-unusual low-protein salt-free diet and vitamin supplements.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peitzman |first=Steven J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FUDO5K1pAoC&pg=PA72 |title=Dropsy, dialysis, transplant: a short history of failing kidneys |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8018-8734-5 |location=Baltimore |pages=72–8; 190}}</ref> Thus Pauling's initial – and intensely personal – exposure to the idea of treating disease with vitamin supplements was positive.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} In 1965, Pauling read ''Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry'' by [[Abram Hoffer]] and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Biochemical imbalances in disease a practitioner's handbook |publisher=Singing Dragon |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-85701-028-5 |editor-last=Nicolle |editor-first=Lorraine |location=London |page=27 |editor-last2=Beirne |editor-first2=Ann Woodriff}}</ref> In 1968, Pauling published a brief paper in [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] entitled "Orthomolecular psychiatry",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=April 1968 |title=Orthomolecular psychiatry. Varying the concentrations of substances normally present in the human body may control mental disease |journal=Science |volume=160 |issue=3825 |pages=265–71 |bibcode=1968Sci...160..265P |doi=10.1126/science.160.3825.265 |pmid=5641253 |s2cid=20153555}}</ref> giving a name to the popular but controversial [[megavitamin therapy]] movement of the 1970s, and advocating that "orthomolecular therapy, the provision for the individual person of the optimum concentrations of important normal constituents of the brain, may be the preferred treatment for many mentally ill patients." Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of [[orthomolecular medicine]], which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and has been strongly criticized.<ref name="Cassileth">{{Cite book |last=Cassileth |first=Barrie R. |author-link=Barrie R. Cassileth |title=The alternative medicine handbook: the complete reference guide to alternative and complementary therapies |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-393-04566-6 |location=New York |pages=67}}</ref><ref name="bccancer">{{Cite web |date=February 2000 |title=Vitamin Therapy, Megadose / Orthomolecular Therapy |url=http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/PPI/UnconventionalTherapies/VitaminTherapyMegadoseOrthomolecularTherapy.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202102734/http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/PPI/UnconventionalTherapies/VitaminTherapyMegadoseOrthomolecularTherapy.htm |archive-date=February 2, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=BC Cancer Agency}}</ref> In 1973, with [[Arthur B. Robinson]] and another colleague, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, which was soon renamed the [[Linus Pauling Institute]] of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing [[atherosclerosis]] and published three case reports on the use of [[lysine]] and vitamin C to relieve [[angina pectoris]]. During the 1990s, Pauling put forward a comprehensive plan for the treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C. In 1996, a website was created expounding Pauling's treatment which it referred to as Pauling Therapy. Proponents of Pauling Therapy believe that heart disease can be treated and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without drugs or heart operations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PaulingTherapy.com – Reversing Heart Disease w/o Drugs is Possible |url=http://www.paulingtherapy.com/ |website=www.paulingtherapy.com}}</ref> Pauling's work on [[vitamin C]] in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist [[Irwin Stone]] in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent [[colds]].<ref name="frs" /> Excited by his own perceived results, he researched the clinical literature and published ''[[Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)|Vitamin C and the Common Cold]]'' in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon [[Ewan Cameron (physician)|Ewan Cameron]] in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cameron |first=Ewan |author-link=Ewan Cameron |title=Cancer Bibliography: Ewan Cameron, M.D. and Vitamin C Therapy |url=http://www.doctoryourself.com/biblio_cameron.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Doctoryourself.com}}</ref> Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, ''Cancer and Vitamin C'', that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public<ref name="OnThisDay">{{Cite news |last=Severo |first=Richard |date=August 21, 1994 |title=Linus C. Pauling Dies at 93; Chemist and Voice for Peace |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0228.html |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly [[terminal illness|terminal]] patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=E |author1-link=Ewan Cameron |last2=Pauling |first2=L |date=October 1976 |title=Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=73 |issue=10 |pages=3685–9 |bibcode=1976PNAS...73.3685C |doi=10.1073/pnas.73.10.3685 |pmc=431183 |pmid=1068480 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=E |author1-link=Ewan Cameron |last2=Pauling |first2=L |date=September 1978 |title=Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Reevaluation of prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=75 |issue=9 |pages=4538–42 |bibcode=1978PNAS...75.4538C |doi=10.1073/pnas.75.9.4538 |pmc=336151 |pmid=279931 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A re-evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable, with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study, and judged to be "terminal" much earlier than the comparison group.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeWys |first=WD |year=1982 |title=How to evaluate a new treatment for cancer |journal=Your Patient and Cancer |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=31–36}}</ref> Later clinical trials conducted by the [[Mayo Clinic]] led by oncologist [[Edward T. Creagan|Dr. Edward T. Creagan]] also concluded that high-dose (10,000 mg) vitamin C was no better than [[placebo]] at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high-dose vitamin C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Creagan |first1=ET |last2=Moertel |first2=CG |last3=O'Fallon |first3=JR |date=September 1979 |title=Failure of high-dose vitamin C (ascorbic acid) therapy to benefit patients with advanced cancer. A controlled trial |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=301 |issue=13 |pages=687–90 |doi=10.1056/NEJM197909273011303 |pmid=384241}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moertel |first1=CG |last2=Fleming |first2=TR |last3=Creagan |first3=ET |last4=Rubin |first4=J |last5=O'Connell |first5=MJ |last6=Ames |first6=MM |date=January 1985 |title=High-dose vitamin C versus placebo in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer who have had no prior chemotherapy. A randomized double-blind comparison |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=312 |issue=3 |pages=137–41 |doi=10.1056/NEJM198501173120301 |pmid=3880867}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tschetter |first=L |display-authors=etal |year=1983 |title=A community-based study of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in patients with advanced cancer |journal=Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology |volume=2 |page=92}}</ref> The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer; the medical establishment concluded that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds or treat cancer were [[quackery]].<ref name="frs" /><ref name="PNASChen2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Q |last2=Espey |first2=M. G. |last3=Sun |first3=A. Y. |last4=Lee |first4=J.-H. |last5=Krishna |first5=M. C. |last6=Shacter |first6=E. |last7=Choyke |first7=P. L. |last8=Pooput |first8=C. |last9=Kirk |first9=K. L. |last10=Buettner |first10=G. R. |last11=Levine |first11=M. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=21 |pages=8749–54 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.8749C |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702854104 |pmc=1885574 |pmid=17502596 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation",<ref>{{Cite web |last=Goertzel |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Goertzel |year=1996 |title=Analyzing Pauling's Personality: A Three Generational, Three Decade Project |url=http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/goertzel.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014174038/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/goertzel.html |archive-date=October 14, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Special Collections, Oregon State University Libraries}}</ref><ref name="Golem">{{Cite book |last1=Pinch |first1=Trevor |author1-link=Trevor Pinch |title=Dr. Golem: how to think about medicine |last2=Collins |first2=Harry M. |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-226-11366-1 |location=Chicago |pages=89–111 |chapter=Alternative Medicine: The Cases of Vitamin C and Cancer |chapter-url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/113663.html}}</ref> and criticized the studies for using oral, rather than [[intravenous therapy|intravenous]] vitamin C<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Levine |first=M |display-authors=etal |year=2006 |title=Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases |journal=[[Canadian Medical Association Journal|CMAJ]] |volume=174 |issue=7 |pages=937–942 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.050346 |pmc=1405876 |pmid=16567755}}</ref> (which was the dosing method used for the first ten days of Pauling's original study<ref name=PNASChen2007/>). Pauling also criticised the Mayo Clinic studies because the controls were taking vitamin C during the trial, and because the duration of the treatment with vitamin C was short; Pauling advocated continued high-dose vitamin C for the rest of the cancer patient's life whereas the Mayo Clinic patients in the second trial were treated with vitamin C for a median of 2.5 months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |url=https://archive.org/details/howtolivelongerf00paul/page/173 |title=How to Live Longer and Feel Better |publisher=[[W. H. Freeman and Company|Freeman]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-7167-1781-2 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtolivelongerf00paul/page/173 173–175]}}</ref> Ultimately the negative findings of the Mayo Clinic studies ended general interest in vitamin C as a treatment for cancer.<ref name = Golem/> Despite this, Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for treating cancer and the common cold, working with [[The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential]] to use vitamin C in the treatment of brain-injured children.<ref name="Pauling1978">{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L |date=November 1978 |title=Orthomolecular enhancement of human development |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/B/B/K/G/_/mmbbkg.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/B/B/K/G/_/mmbbkg.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |journal=Human Neurological Development |pages=47–51 |editor=Ralph Pelligra}}</ref> He later collaborated with the Canadian physician [[Abram Hoffer]] on a micronutrient regime, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Saul |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Dr. Abram Hoffer |title=Abram Hoffer, M.D., PhD 50 Years of Megavitamin Research, Practice and Publication |url=http://www.doctoryourself.com/biblio_hoffer.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Doctoryourself.com}}</ref> A 2009 review also noted differences between the studies, such as the Mayo Clinic not using intravenous Vitamin C, and suggested further studies into the role of vitamin C when given intravenously.<ref name="Cancerreevaluated">{{Cite journal |last1=Ohno |first1=S |last2=Ohno |first2=Y |last3=Suzuki |first3=N |last4=Soma |first4=G |last5=Inoue |first5=M |year=2009 |title=High-dose vitamin C (ascorbic acid) therapy in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer |journal=Anticancer Research |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=809–15 |pmid=19414313}}</ref> Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer.<ref name="Oncologist">{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Carmel |last2=Hutton |first2=Brian |last3=Ng |first3=Terry |last4=Shorr |first4=Risa |last5=Clemons |first5=Mark |date=2015 |title=Is There a Role for Oral or Intravenous Ascorbate (Vitamin C) in Treating Patients With Cancer? A Systematic Review |journal=The Oncologist |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=210–223 |doi=10.1634/theoncologist.2014-0381 |pmc=4319640 |pmid=25601965}}</ref><ref name="NIHFactsheet">{{Cite web |title=Vitamin C Fact Sheet for Health Professionals |url=http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/ |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=National Institutes of Health}}</ref> == Personal life == [[File:Linus Pauling family 1954.jpg|thumb|300px|The Pauling children at a gathering in celebration of the 1954 Nobel Prizes in Stockholm, Sweden. Seated from left: Linus Pauling, Jr., Peter Pauling and Linda Pauling. Standing from left: an unidentified person, and Crellin Pauling]] Pauling married [[Ava Helen Pauling|Ava Helen Miller]] on June 17, 1923. The marriage lasted until her death in 1981. They had four children.<ref name="family">{{Cite web |date=n.d. |title=The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/MM/p-nid/53 |access-date=November 10, 2011 |publisher=United States National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Linus Carl Jr. (1925–2023) became a [[psychiatry|psychiatrist]];<ref>{{cite news|title=Dr. Linus Carl Pauling Jr. Obituary|newspaper=Honolulu Star-Advertiser|date=November 5, 2023|url=https://hawaiiobituaries.com/us/obituaries/hawaiiobituaries/name/linus-pauling-obituary?id=53515681}}</ref> Peter (1931–2003) a [[crystallography|crystallographer]] at [[University College London]];<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Chapter 17. ''Peter Pauling'' by Matt McConnell|pages=203–240|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=twuhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 | title=Visions of Linus Pauling | isbn=978-981-12-6077-3 | editor=Petersen, Christoffer Eric | date=11 October 2022 | publisher=World Scientific }}</ref> Edward Crellin (1937–1997) a [[biologist]];<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reed.edu/reed-magazine/in-memoriam/obituaries/november1997/e-crellin-pauling-1959.html |title=Obituary. E. Crellin Pauling '59 |date=November 1997|website=Reed Magazine, Reed College}}</ref> and Linda Helen (born 1932) married noted Caltech geologist and glaciologist [[Barclay Kamb]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Biography |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/lpbio/lpbio2.html |access-date=November 10, 2011 |publisher=Linus Pauling Institute}}</ref> Pauling was raised as a member of the [[Lutheran]] Church,<ref name="AIPOralHistory">{{Cite web |title=Oral history interview with Linus Carl Pauling, 1964 March 27 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/3448.html |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=American Institute of Physics |archive-date=2014-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806110327/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/3448.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> but later joined the [[Unitarian Universalist]] Church.<ref name="UUBio">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling |url=http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography |archive-date=2018-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016165013/http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Two years before his death, in a published dialogue with Buddhist philosopher [[Daisaku Ikeda]], Pauling publicly declared his [[atheism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pauling |first1=Linus |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780867202786/page/22 |title=A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue |last2=Ikeda |first2=Daisaku |publisher=Jones & Bartlett |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-86720-277-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780867202786/page/22 22] |quote=...I [Pauling] am not, however, militant in my atheism. The great English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac is a militant atheist. I suppose he is interested in arguing about the existence of God. I am not. It was once quipped that there is no God and Dirac is his prophet.}}</ref> On January 30, 1960, Pauling and his wife were using a cabin about {{convert|80|mi|km}} south of [[Monterey, California|Monterey]], California, and he decided to go for a walk on a coastal trail. He got lost and tried to climb the rocky cliff, but reached a large overhanging rock about {{convert|300|ft|m|sigfig=1}} above the ocean. He decided it was safest to stay there, and meanwhile he was reported missing. He spent a sleepless night on the cliff before being found after almost 24 hours.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 1, 1960 |title=Dr. Pauling Rescued, On a Sea Cliff 24 Hrs |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1960n.5.html |access-date=April 22, 2018 |website=scarc.library.oregonstate.edu |publisher=New York Herald Tribune |location=Special Collections & Archives Research Center, Oregon State University Libraries |format=clipping}}</ref> ===Death and legacy=== Pauling died of [[prostate cancer]] on August 19, 1994, at 19:20 at home in [[Big Sur]], California.<ref name="Offit" /> He was 93 years old.<ref>Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 247.</ref> A grave marker for Pauling was placed in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in [[Lake Oswego, Oregon|Lake Oswego]], Oregon by his sister Pauline, but Pauling's ashes, along with those of his wife, were not buried there until 2005.<ref name="grave">{{Cite web |title=The Centennial: Who's Buried in Linus Pauling's Grave? |url=http://www.ci.oswego.or.us/sites/default/files/fileattachments/publicaffairs/webpage/13678/centennial_july2010.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ci.oswego.or.us/sites/default/files/fileattachments/publicaffairs/webpage/13678/centennial_july2010.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=December 26, 2012}}</ref> Pauling's discoveries led to decisive contributions in a diverse array of areas including around 350 publications in the fields of quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine.<ref name="California">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling |url=http://www.californiamuseum.org/inductee/linus-pauling |access-date=June 1, 2015 |website=California Museum|date=February 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling – Biographical |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1954/pauling-bio.html |access-date=October 6, 2016 |website=Nobelprize.org |publisher=Nobel Media AB 2014}}</ref> His work on chemical bonding marks him as one of the founders of modern [[quantum chemistry]].<ref name="natureobit" /> ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond'' was the standard work for many years,<ref name="Hamilton">{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Neil A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tKxOpAh78IsC&pg=PA303 |title=American social leaders and activists |date=2002 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-4535-8 |location=New York |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> and concepts like [[Orbital hybridisation|hybridization]] and [[electronegativity]] remain part of standard chemistry textbooks. While his [[valence bond]] approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the color of [[organometallic]] complexes, and would later be eclipsed by the [[molecular orbital theory]] of [[Robert Mulliken]], valence bond theory still competes, in its modern form, with molecular orbital theory and [[density functional theory]] (DFT) as a way of describing chemical phenomena.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoffmann |first1=Roald |last2=Shaik |first2=Sason |last3=Hiberty |first3=Philippe C. |year=2003 |title=A Conversation on VB vs MO Theory: A Never-Ending Rivalry? |journal=[[Accounts of Chemical Research|Acc Chem Res]] |volume=36 |issue=10 |pages=750–6 |doi=10.1021/ar030162a |pmid=14567708}}</ref> Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds.<ref name=Marinacci/>{{rp|80–81}} His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure.<ref name="Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 95-100" /> [[Francis Crick]] acknowledged Pauling as the "father of [[molecular biology]]".<ref name="natureobit" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=March 1, 1986 |title=Pauling Honored by Scientists at Caltech Event |work=Los Angeles Times |agency=United Press International |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-03-01-me-13101-story.html |access-date=July 22, 2012}}</ref> His discovery of [[sickle cell anemia]] as a "molecular disease" opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level.<ref name=Strasser/> Pauling's 1951 publication with Robert B. Corey and H. R. Branson, "The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain," was a key early finding in the then newly emerging field of molecular biology. This publication was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the department of chemistry, Caltech, in 2017.<ref name="breakthrough">{{Cite web |title=Citations for Chemical Breakthrough Awards 2017 Awardees |url=http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/CCB-2017_Awardees.php |access-date=March 12, 2018 |website=Division of the History of Chemistry}}</ref><ref name="configurations">{{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Corey |first2=R. B. |last3=Branson |first3=H. R. |author3-link=Herman Branson |year=1951 |title=The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=205–11 |bibcode=1951PNAS...37..205P |doi=10.1073/pnas.37.4.205 |pmc=1063337 |pmid=14816373 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Commemorations === Oregon State University completed construction of the $77 million, {{convert|100,000|sqft|m2|adj=on}} Linus Pauling Science Center in the late 2000s, now housing the bulk of Oregon State's chemistry classrooms, labs, and instruments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Science Center {{!}} Department of Chemistry {{!}} Oregon State University |url=http://chemistry.oregonstate.edu/lpsc |access-date=November 10, 2016 |website=chemistry.oregonstate.edu}}</ref> On March 6, 2008, the [[United States Postal Service]] released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling designed by artist [[Victor Stabin]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=March 6, 2008 |title=Four Legends of American Science Now on U.S. Postage Stamps |work=United States Postal Service Postal News, Release No. 08-23 |url=https://about.usps.com/news/national-releases/2008/sr08_023.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://about.usps.com/news/national-releases/2008/sr08_023.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="stamp">{{Cite web |title=OSU Celebrates Linus Pauling and Release of New U.S. Postal Service Stamp |url=http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102050729/http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/ |archive-date=November 2, 2013 |access-date=February 25, 2015 |website=Oregon State University – University Events}}</ref> His description reads: "A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease."<ref name=Strasser/> The other scientists on this sheet of stamps included [[Gerty Cori]], biochemist, [[Edwin Hubble]], astronomer, and [[John Bardeen]], physicist.<ref name="stamp" /> California Governor [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] and First Lady [[Maria Shriver]] announced on May 28, 2008, that Pauling would be inducted into the [[California Hall of Fame]], located at [[The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts]]. The induction ceremony took place December 15, 2008. Pauling's son Linus Jr. was asked to accept the honor in his place.<ref name="CA.gov">{{Cite web |title=Governor & First Lady Participate in 2008 CA Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony |url=http://gov.ca.gov/news.php?id=11255 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602035158/http://gov.ca.gov/news.php?id=11255 |archive-date=June 2, 2015 |access-date=June 1, 2015 |website=CA.gov}}</ref> By proclamation of Gov. [[John Kitzhaber]] in the state of Oregon, February 28 has been named "Linus Pauling Day".<ref name=Notebooks/> The Linus Pauling Institute still exists, but moved in 1996 from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, where it is part of the Linus Pauling Science Center at [[Oregon State University]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Institute |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/ |access-date=June 25, 2013 |publisher=Lpi.oregonstate.edu}}</ref><ref name="CGT2011">{{Cite news |last=Cole |first=Gail |date=October 14, 2011 |title=Linus Pauling Science Center opens at OSU |work=Corvallis Gazette-Times |url=http://www.gazettetimes.com/news/local/linus-pauling-science-center-opens-at-osu/article_4f5a422e-f63a-11e0-af55-001cc4c03286.html |access-date=June 2, 2015}}</ref><ref name="OSUFoundation">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Science Center – A Moment to Celebrate |url=http://osufoundation.org/fundraisingpriorities/facilities/lpsc/landing.htm |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=Oregon State University Foundation |archive-date=2015-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329075533/http://osufoundation.org/fundraisingpriorities/facilities/lpsc/landing.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[The Valley Library]] Special Collections at Oregon State University contain the Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers, including digitized versions of Pauling's forty-six research notebooks.<ref name="Notebooks">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Research Notebooks Online |url=http://naturalscience.com/ns/news/news40.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905114549/http://naturalscience.com/ns/news/news40.html |archive-date=September 5, 2015 |access-date=June 1, 2015 |website=Natural Science }}</ref> In 1986, Caltech commemorated Linus Pauling with a symposium and lectureship.<ref name="Zewail">{{Cite book |last=Zewail |first=Ahmed |author-link=Ahmed Zewail |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3Y_4BjUj7gC&pg=PR13 |title=The Chemical Bond Structure and Dynamics |date=1992 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-08-092669-8 |location=Burlington |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> The Pauling Lecture series at Caltech began in 1989 with a lecture by Pauling himself. The Caltech Chemistry Department renamed room 22 of Gates Hall the Linus Pauling Lecture Hall, since Pauling spent so much time there.<ref name="Baum">{{Cite journal |last=Baum |first=Rudy |date=December 11, 1989 |title=Caltech launches Linus Pauling lecture series |journal=Chemical & Engineering News |volume=67 |issue=50 |pages=18–19 |doi=10.1021/cen-v067n050.p018a}}</ref> Other places named after Pauling include Pauling Street in Foothill Ranch, California;<ref name="Factory">{{Cite news |last=Johnson |first=Greg |date=March 20, 1996 |title=Pauling Road Address Fits New Vitamin Factory to a 'C' |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-03-20-fi-49317-story.html |access-date=June 2, 2015}}</ref> Linus Pauling Drive in Hercules, California; Linus and Ava Helen Pauling Hall at [[Soka University of America]] in Aliso Viejo, California;<ref name="Gottlieb">{{Cite news |last=Gottlieb |first=Jeff |date=August 19, 2001 |title=A New-View University |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-aug-19-me-35925-story.html |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon;<ref name="Woodward">{{Cite news |last=Woodward |first=Raju |date=February 29, 2012 |title=A son's tribute by Linus Pauling Jr. |work=Corvallis Gazette-Times |url=http://www.gazettetimes.com/news/local/a-son-s-tribute-by-linus-pauling-jr/article_9d0f7d7a-627f-11e1-84bb-001871e3ce6c.html |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> and [[Condon State Airport|Pauling Field]], a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon, where Pauling spent his youth.<ref name="Airport">{{Cite news |date=October 19, 1988 |title=Scientist cites Condon years as influential |work=Register-Guard, Eugene, Oregon |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1310&dat=19881019&id=8_JVAAAAIBAJ&pg=5043,4737376&hl=en |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> There is a psychedelic rock band in Houston, Texas, named [[The Linus Pauling Quartet]].<ref name="Heberlein">{{Cite book |last=Heberlein |first=L. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zV2XWD8q5sC&pg=PA81 |title=The Rough guide to internet radio |date=2002 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-85828-961-8 |location=London |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> The asteroid [[4674 Pauling]] in the inner asteroid belt, discovered by [[Eleanor F. Helin]], was named after Linus Pauling in 1991, on his 90th birthday.<ref name="Schmadel">{{Cite book |last=Schmadel |first=Lutz D. |author-link=Lutz D. Schmadel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aeAg1X7afOoC&pg=PA380 |title=Dictionary of minor planet names |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-29718-2 |edition=6th |location=Berlin |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> [[Linus Torvalds]], developer of the [[Linux]] kernel, is named after Pauling.<ref name="moody">{{Cite book |last=Moody |first=Glyn |author-link=Glyn Moody |url=https://archive.org/details/rebelcodeinside000mood/page/336 |title=Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution |publisher=Perseus Books Group |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7382-0670-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/rebelcodeinside000mood/page/336 336]}}</ref> Nobel laureate [[Peter Agre]] has said that Linus Pauling inspired him.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Agre |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Agre |date=December 10, 2013 |title=Fifty Years Ago: Linus Pauling and the Belated Nobel Peace Prize |url=https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/sites/default/files/fifty_years_ago-linus_pauling_and_the_belated_nobel_prize_science__diplomacy.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213004929/https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/letter-field/2013/fifty-years-ago-linus-pauling-and-belated-nobel-peace-prize |archive-date=February 13, 2014 |journal=[[Science & Diplomacy]] |volume=2 |issue=4}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2010, [[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]] named its distinguished postdoctoral program in his honor, as the Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship Program.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/linus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship|title=Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship | PNNL|website=www.pnnl.gov}}</ref> == Honors and awards == Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career, including the following:<ref name="summary">{{Cite web |last=Center for Oral History |title=Linus C. Pauling |url=https://oh.sciencehistory.org/oral-histories/pauling-linus-c |website=[[Science History Institute]]}}</ref><ref name="OH" /><ref name="honors">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors and Medals |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/ |access-date=April 25, 2013 |website=Special Collections |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries}}</ref> {{div col}} * 1931 [[ACS Award in Pure Chemistry]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=ACS Award in Pure Chemistry |url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/funding-and-awards/awards/national/bytopic/acs-award-in-pure-chemistry.html |access-date=January 18, 2014 |publisher=American Chemical Society}}</ref> * 1931 [[Irving Langmuir Award]], American Chemical Society.<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1933 Elected Member of the United States [[National Academy of Sciences]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Linus Pauling |department=Member Directory |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]]|url=https://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/51785.html}}</ref> * 1936 Elected Member of the United States [[American Philosophical Society]]<ref>{{cite web|title=American Philosophical Society Member History |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=pauling&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced}}</ref> * 1940 [[Alpha Chi Sigma]], professional chemistry fraternity.<ref name="Chi1940">{{Cite web |title=Alpha Chi Sigma Fraternity, Certificate of Membership |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/1940h.1.html |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Special Collections & Archives Research Center. |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries}}</ref> * 1941 [[William H. Nichols#Nichols' legacy|Nichols Medal]], New York Section, American Chemical Society.<ref name="OH" /> * 1944 Elected Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Linus Carl Pauling |date=February 9, 2023 |department=Member Directory |publisher=[[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]|url=https://www.amacad.org/person/linus-carl-pauling}}</ref> * 1946 [[Willard Gibbs Award]], Chicago section of the American Chemical Society.<ref name=honors/> * 1947 [[Davy Medal]], [[Royal Society]].<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1947 T. W. Richards Medal, Northeastern Section of the American Chemical Society.<ref name=honors/> * 1948 [[Presidential Medal for Merit]] by President [[Harry S. Truman]] of the United States.<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1948 Elected a Foreign Member of the [[Royal Society]] of London (ForMemRS)<ref name="frs" /> * 1951 [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] medal, California section of the American Chemical Society.<ref name=honors/> * 1952 Pasteur Medal, Biochemical Society of France.<ref name="OH" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Societe de Chimie Biologique, Louis Pasteur Medal. 1952 – Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors and Medals |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/1952h.3.html |website=scarc.library.oregonstate.edu}}</ref> * 1954 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]].<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1955 Addis Medal, National Nephrosis Foundation.<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1955 John Phillips Memorial Award, [[American College of Physicians]].<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1956 Avogadro Medal, Italian Academy of Science.<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1957 [[Paul Sabatier (chemist)|Paul Sabatier]] Medal. * 1957 Pierre Fermat Medal in Mathematics (awarded for only the sixth time in three centuries).<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120113045400/http://oregondigital.org/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/pawards&CISOPTR=33&CISOBOX=1&REC=2 Pauling's awards and medals] (includes image of Fermat medal).</ref> * 1957 International [[Hugo Grotius|Grotius]] Medal.<ref name="OH" /> * 1959 [[Messenger Lectures]]hip * 1960 Fellow, [[Royal Society of Arts]] * 1961 Humanist of the Year, [[American Humanist Association]]. * 1961 [[Gandhi Peace Award]] by [[Promoting Enduring Peace]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gandhi Peace Award |url=http://www.pepeace.org/gandhi-peace-award |access-date=April 26, 2013 |publisher=Promoting Enduring Peace}}</ref> * 1962 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1965 Medal, Academy of the Rumanian People's Republic.<ref name="OH" /> * 1966 [[Linus Pauling Award]].<ref name="OH" /> * 1966 Silver Medal, [[Institute of France]].<ref name="OH" /> * 1966 Supreme Peace Sponsor, World Fellowship of Religion.<ref name="OH" /> * 1967 [[Washington A. Roebling]] Medal, [[Mineralogical Society of America]].<ref name=honors/> * 1972 [[Lenin Peace Prize]].<ref name="OH" /> * 1974 [[National Medal of Science]] by President [[Gerald R. Ford]] of the United States.<ref name=honors/> * 1978 [[Lomonosov Gold Medal]], Presidium of the Academy of the USSR.<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1979 Gold Medal Honoree, [[National Institute of Social Sciences]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold Medal Honorees |url=http://www.socialsciencesinstitute.org/gold-medal-honorees |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702153336/http://www.socialsciencesinstitute.org/gold-medal-honorees |archive-date=July 2, 2019 |access-date=July 2, 2019 |website=[[National Institute of Social Sciences]]}}</ref> * 1979 [[NAS Award in Chemical Sciences]], [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]].<ref name="OH" /><ref name="Chemical">{{Cite web |title=NAS Award in Chemical Sciences |url=http://www.nasonline.org/programs/awards/chemical-sciences.html |access-date=June 2, 2015 |publisher=National Academy of Sciences}}</ref> * 1979 Golden Plate Award, [[American Academy of Achievement]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement |url=https://www.achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration |website=www.achievement.org |publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]}}</ref> * 1981 [[John K. Lattimer]] Award, [[American Urological Association]].<ref name=honors/> * 1984 [[Priestley Medal]], American Chemical Society.<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1984 Award for Chemistry, [[Arthur M. Sackler]] Foundation.<ref name="OH" /> * 1986 [[Lavoisier Medal]] by Fondation de la Maison de la Chimie.<ref name=honors/> * 1987 Award in Chemical Education, American Chemical Society.<ref name="OH" /> * 1989 [[Vannevar Bush Award]], [[National Science Board]].<ref name="OH" /><ref name=honors/> * 1990 [[Richard C. Tolman]] Medal, American Chemical Society Southern California Section.<ref name="OH" /> * 1992 [[Daisaku Ikeda]] Medal, [[Soka Gakkai International]]<ref name=honors/> * 2008 "American Scientists" [[List of people on stamps of the United States#P|U.S. postage stamp]] series, $0.41, for his sickle cell disease work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OSU Celebrates Linus Pauling and Release of New U.S. Postal Service Stamp |url=http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102050729/http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/ |archive-date=November 2, 2013 |access-date=April 25, 2013 |website=Events |publisher=Oregon State University}}</ref> {{div col end}} == Publications == ===Books=== {{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooksby=yes|viaf= 91892412}} * {{Cite book |last1=Pauling |first1=Linus |title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry |last2=Wilson |first2=E. B. |publisher=Reprinted by [[Dover Publications]] |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-486-64871-2 |author-mask=2 |orig-year=Originally published in 1935}} * {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |year=1939 |author-mask=——}} * {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory |publisher=[[W. H. Freeman and Company|Freeman]] |year=1947 |author-mask=——}} ** Greatly revised and expanded in 1947, 1953, and 1970. Reprinted by [[Dover Publications]] in 1988. * {{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=Linus |title=The Architecture of Molecules |last2=Hayward |first2=Roger |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |publisher=[[W. H. Freeman and Company|Freeman]] |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7167-0158-3 |volume=51 |location=San Francisco |pages=977–84 |doi=10.1073/pnas.51.5.977 |pmc=300194 |pmid=16591181 |author-mask=2 |doi-access=free |issue=5|bibcode=1964PNAS...51..977P }} ** [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/index.html Manuscript notes and typescripts (clear images)] * {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=No more war! |publisher=Dodd, Mead & Co |year=1958 |isbn=978-1-124-11966-3 |author-mask=2}} * {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=Vitamin C, the Common Cold and the Flu |publisher=[[W. H. Freeman and Company|Freeman]] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-7167-0360-0 |author-mask=2}} * {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=How to Live Longer and Feel Better |publisher=Avon |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-380-70289-3 |author-mask=2}} * {{Cite book |last1=Cameron |first1=E. |author1-link=Ewan Cameron |title=Cancer and Vitamin C: A Discussion of the Nature, Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of Cancer With Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C |last2=Pauling |first2=Linus |publisher=Camino |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-940159-21-1 |author-mask2=2}} * {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=Linus Pauling On Peace: A Scientist Speaks Out on Humanism and World Survival |publisher=Rising Star Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-933670-03-7 |author-mask=2}} * {{Cite book |last1=Hoffer |first1=Abram |title=Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments |last2=Pauling |first2=Linus |publisher=CCNM Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-897025-11-6 |location=Toronto |author-mask2=2}} * {{Cite book |last1=Ikeda |first1=Daisaku |title=A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue |last2=Pauling |first2=Linus |publisher=I. B. Tauris |others=Richard L. Gage (ed., trans.) |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84511-889-1 |location=London |author-mask2=2}} ===Journal articles=== * {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1927 |title=The Theoretical Prediction of the Physical Properties of Many-Electron Atoms and Ions. Mole Refraction, Diamagnetic Susceptibility, and Extension in Space |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society|Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences]] |volume=114 |issue=767 |pages=181–211 |bibcode=1927RSPSA.114..181P |doi=10.1098/rspa.1927.0035 |doi-access=free}} * {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1929 |title=The Principles Determining the Structure of Complex Ionic Crystals |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=1010–1026 |doi=10.1021/ja01379a006|bibcode=1929JAChS..51.1010P }} * {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1931 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. I. Application of Results Obtained from the Quantum Mechanics and from a Theory of Paramagnetic Susceptibility to the Structure of Molecules |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=1367–1400 |doi=10.1021/ja01355a027|bibcode=1931JAChS..53.1367P }} * {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1931 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. II. The One-Electron Bond and the Three-Electron Bond |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=3225–3237 |doi=10.1021/ja01360a004|bibcode=1931JAChS..53.3225P }} * {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1932 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. III. The Transition from One Extreme Bond Type to Another |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=988–1003 |doi=10.1021/ja01342a022|bibcode=1932JAChS..54..988P }} * {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1932 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=3570–3582 |doi=10.1021/ja01348a011|bibcode=1932JAChS..54.3570P }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Wheland |first2=G. W. |author-mask=2 |year=1933 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. V. The Quantum-Mechanical Calculation of the Resonance Energy of Benzene and Naphthalene and the Hydrocarbon Free Radicals |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11409/1/PAUjcp33c.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11409/1/PAUjcp33c.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of Chemical Physics |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=362 |bibcode=1933JChPh...1..362P |doi=10.1063/1.1749304}} * {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1935 |title=The Structure and Entropy of Ice and of Other Crystals with Some Randomness of Atomic Arrangement |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=57 |issue=12 |pages=2680–2684 |doi=10.1021/ja01315a102|bibcode=1935JAChS..57.2680P }} * {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1940 |title=A Theory of the Structure and Process of Formation of Antibodies* |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=62 |issue=10 |pages=2643–2657 |doi=10.1021/ja01867a018|bibcode=1940JAChS..62.2643P }} * {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1947 |title=Atomic Radii and Interatomic Distances in Metals |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=542–553 |doi=10.1021/ja01195a024|bibcode=1947JAChS..69..542P }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Itano |first2=H. A. |last3=Singer |first3=S. J. |author3-link=Seymour Jonathan Singer |last4=Wells |first4=I. C. |author-mask=2 |year=1949 |title=Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease |journal=Science |volume=110 |issue=2865 |pages=543–548 |bibcode=1949Sci...110..543P |doi=10.1126/science.110.2865.543 |pmid=15395398|s2cid=31674765 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Corey |first2=R. B. |last3=Branson |first3=H. R. |author3-link=Herman Branson |author-mask=2 |year=1951 |title=The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=205–11 |bibcode=1951PNAS...37..205P |doi=10.1073/pnas.37.4.205 |pmc=1063337 |pmid=14816373 |doi-access=free}} ==See also== * [[List of peace activists]] * [[Niacin (substance)|Niacin]] * [[Nobel disease]] ==References== ===Citations=== {{reflist}} ===Bibliography=== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |url=https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingchem00hage |title=Linus Pauling and the Chemistry of Life |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-513972-3 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}} * {{Cite book |last1=Marinacci |first1=Barbara |title=Linus Pauling on Peace |last2=Krishnamurthy |first2=Ramesh |publisher=Rising Star Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-933670-03-7}} * {{Cite book |last=Serafini |first=Anthony |url=https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingmana00sera |title=Linus Pauling: A Man and His Science |date=1989 |publisher=Paragon House |isbn=978-1-55778-440-7 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}} {{Refend}} == General and cited references == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Hargittai |first=István |title=Candid Science: Conversations with Famous Chemists |publisher=Imperial College Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-86094-151-1 |editor-last=Hargittai |editor-first=Magdolna |edition=Reprinted |location=London}} * {{Cite book |title=Linus Pauling: In His Own Words: Selected Writings, Speeches, and Interviews |publisher=Simon & Schuster |others=Introduction by Linus Pauling |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-684-81387-5 |editor-last=Marinacci |editor-first=Barbara |location=New York}} [https://archive.org/details/linuspaulinginhi0000paul online] * Pauling, Linus. '' Selected Scientific Papers Vol. II'' [https://archive.org/details/linus-pauling-selected-scientific-papers-vol-ii online] * {{Cite book |last=Sturchio |first=Jeffrey L. |url=https://oh.sciencehistory.org/sites/default/files/pauling_l_0067_suppl.pdf |title=Linus C. Pauling, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio in Denver, Colorado on 6 April 1987 |date=April 6, 1987 |publisher=[[Chemical Heritage Foundation]] |location=Philadelphia, PA}} {{Refend}} == Further reading == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Coffey |first=Patrick |title=Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-532134-0}} * {{Cite journal |last=Davenport |first=Derek A. |year=1996 |title=The Many Lives of Linus Pauling: A Review of Reviews |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=73 |issue=9 |pages=A210 |bibcode=1996JChEd..73A.210D |doi=10.1021/ed073pA210 |doi-access=free}} * Gormley, Melinda. "The first ‘molecular disease’: a story of Linus Pauling, the intellectual patron." ''Endeavour'' 31.2 (2007): 71–77 [http://gerald.monard.free.fr/MC/m2bio/sickle-cell-anemia-1.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031085636/http://gerald.monard.free.fr/MC/m2bio/sickle-cell-anemia-1.pdf |date=2020-10-31 }}. * Mead, Clifford. ''Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker'' (2008) * Morgan, G. J. "Emile Zuckerkandl, Linus Pauling, and the molecular evolutionary clock, 1959–1965." ''Journal of the History of Biology'' (1998) 155–178. * Nakamura, Jeanne, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. "Catalytic creativity: The case of Linus Pauling." ''American Psychologist'' 56.4 (2001): 337+. * Strasser, Bruno J. "A world in one dimension: Linus Pauling, Francis Crick and the central dogma of molecular biology." ''History and philosophy of the life sciences'' (2006): 491–512 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bruno_Strasser/publication/5501485_A_world_in_one_dimension_Linus_Pauling_Francis_Crick_and_the_central_dogma_of_molecular_biology/links/00b4951e59db7402f4000000.pdf online]. * Strasser, Bruno J. "Linus Pauling's “molecular diseases”: Between history and memory." ''American journal of medical genetics'' 115.2 (2002): 83–93 [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.613.5672&rep=rep1&type=pdf online]. * White, Florence Meiman. ''Linus Pauling Scientist and Crusader'' (1980) [https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingscie00whit online] * Zannos, Susan. ''Linus Pauling and the chemical bond'' (2004), 48pp [https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingchem0000zann online], for secondary schools {{Refend}} == External links == {{wikiquote}} {{Commons|Linus C. Pauling}} {{Scholia|author}} * [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/digitalresources/pauling/ Linus Pauling Online] a Pauling portal created by Oregon State University Libraries * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071014174033/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/crick.html Crick, Francis, "The Impact of Linus Pauling on Molecular Biology" (transcribed from video at the 1995 Oregon State University symposium)] * [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/index.html The Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers at the Oregon State University Libraries] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190719010423/http://www.paulingcatalogue.org/ The Pauling Catalogue] * {{Cite web |last=Center for Oral History |title=Linus C. Pauling |url=https://oh.sciencehistory.org/oral-histories/pauling-linus-c |website=[[Science History Institute]]}} * {{Cite book |last=Sturchio |first=Jeffrey L. |url=https://oh.sciencehistory.org/sites/default/files/pauling_l_0067_suppl.pdf |title=Linus C. Pauling, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio in Denver, Colorado on 6 April 1987 |date=April 6, 1987 |publisher=[[Chemical Heritage Foundation]] |location=Philadelphia, PA}} * [http://paulingblog.wordpress.com The Pauling Blog] * [http://www.users.muohio.edu/shermalw/honors_2001_fall/honors_papers_2001/Lowrey_LPauling.htm Linus Pauling (1901–1994)] * [http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/conversations/Pauling Berkeley Conversations With History interview] * [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/digitalresources/pauling/ Linus Pauling Centenary Exhibit] * [http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html Linus Pauling from The Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016165013/http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html |date=2018-10-16 }} * {{Cite web |title=It's in the Blood! A Documentary History of Linus Pauling, Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia – Special Collections & Archives Research Center – Oregon State University |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/ |access-date=February 25, 2015 |website=Oregon State University Library}} * [http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/ The Linus Pauling Institute] at Oregon State University * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621142646/http://charon.girinst.org/~zeke/test.bit.pdf Publications of Pauling] * [https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/ The Linus Pauling Papers] – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine * [http://www.opb.org/television/programs/oregonexperience/segment/linus-pauling/ Linus Pauling] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719010408/http://www.opb.org/television/programs/oregonexperience/segment/linus-pauling/ |date=July 19, 2019 }} Documentary produced by ''[[Oregon Public Broadcasting]]'' * [https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/5h73px42w Oral history interview with Linus C. Pauling] from [https://digital.sciencehistory.org/ Science History Institute Digital Collections] {{s-start}} {{s-ach}} {{succession box | title = [[List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry|Laureate]] of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] | years = 1954 | before = [[Hermann Staudinger]] | after = [[Vincent du Vigneaud]] }} {{succession box | title = [[List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates|Laureate]] of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] | years = 1962 | before = [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] | after = [[International Committee of the Red Cross|International Committee <br /> of the Red Cross]], <br /> [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|League of Red Cross Societies]] }} {{s-end}} {{Linus Pauling}} {{Nobel Peace Prize Laureates 1951–1975}} {{Nobel Prize in Chemistry Laureates 1951–1975}} {{1962 Nobel Prize winners}} {{Time Persons of the Year 1951–1975}} {{Presidents of the American Chemical Society}} {{U.S. anti-nuclear}} {{Gandhi Peace Award laureates}} {{1954 Nobel Prize winners}} {{World Constitutional Convention call signatories}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Pauling, Linus}} [[Category:1901 births]] [[Category:1994 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century American biochemists]] [[Category:20th-century atheists]] [[Category:American anti-war activists]] [[Category:American anti–nuclear weapons activists]] [[Category:American atheists]] [[Category:American biophysicists]] [[Category:American humanists]] [[Category:American Nobel laureates]] [[Category:American pacifists]] [[Category:American people of German descent]] [[Category:American physical chemists]] [[Category:California Institute of Technology alumni]] [[Category:California Institute of Technology faculty]] [[Category:Deaths from prostate cancer in California]] [[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] [[Category:Fellows of the American Physical Society]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh]] [[Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society]] [[Category:Foreign members of the Russian Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Foreign members of the USSR Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:History of genetics]] [[Category:American inorganic chemists]] [[Category:Medal for Merit recipients]] [[Category:Members of the American Chemical Society]] [[Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society]] [[Category:Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Members of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science]] [[Category:Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters]] [[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:National Medal of Science laureates]] [[Category:Nobel laureates in Chemistry]] [[Category:Nobel laureates with multiple Nobel awards]] [[Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates]] [[Category:Oregon State University faculty]] [[Category:Orthomolecular medicine advocates]] [[Category:Presidents of the American Chemical Society]] [[Category:People from Condon, Oregon]] [[Category:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America editors]] [[Category:Recipients of the Lenin Peace Prize]] [[Category:Recipients of the Lomonosov Gold Medal]] [[Category:American theoretical chemists]] [[Category:Time Person of the Year]] [[Category:Vannevar Bush Award recipients]] [[Category:Washington High School (Portland, Oregon) alumni]] [[Category:World Constitutional Convention call signatories]] [[Category:Writers from Portland, Oregon]] [[Category:Members of Phi Kappa Phi]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts]] [[Category:Delta Upsilon members]]
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