Editing Literacy test

{{Short description|Examination of a person's ability to read and write}}
{{About|citizenship and voting eligibility tests in the United States|the standardized test in Ontario|Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test}}
{{Globalize|date=June 2020|2=US}}[[File:The color line still exists—in this case cph.3b29638.jpg|thumb|upright|Editorial cartoon from the January 18, 1879, issue of ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' criticizing the use of literacy tests. It shows "Mr. [[Solid South]]" writing on wall, "Eddikashun qualifukashun. The Blak man orter be eddikated afore he kin vote with us Wites, signed Mr. Solid South."]]

A '''literacy test''' assesses a person's [[literacy]] skills: their ability to read and write. Literacy tests have been administered by various governments, particularly to [[immigrants]]. 

Between the 1850s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connecticuthistory.org/literacy-tests-and-the-right-to-vote/|title=Literacy Tests and the Right To Vote - ConnecticutHistory.org|website=connecticuthistory.org|date=2 November 2020}}</ref> and 1960s, literacy tests were used as an effective tool for [[Disfranchisement|disenfranchising]] [[African American]]s in the Southern United States. Literacy tests were typically administered by white clerks who could pass or fail a person at their discretion based on race.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-08-08 |title=How Jim Crow-Era Laws Suppressed the African American Vote for Generations |url=https://www.history.com/news/jim-crow-laws-black-vote |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref> Illiterate whites were often permitted to vote without taking these literacy tests because of [[Grandfather clause|grandfather clauses]] written into legislation.<ref name=":0" />

Other countries, notably Australia, as part of its [[White Australia policy]], and South Africa adopted literacy tests either to exclude certain racialized groups from voting or to prevent them from immigrating to the country.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lake, Marilyn.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1135556055|title=Connected Worlds: History in Transnational Perspective|date=2006|publisher=Australian National University|isbn=978-1-920942-45-8|pages=209–230|oclc=1135556055}}</ref>

==Voting==

From the 1890s to the 1960s, many state governments administered literacy tests to prospective voters, to test their literacy in order to vote. The first state to establish literacy tests in the United States was Connecticut.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://connecticuthistory.org/literacy-tests-and-the-right-to-vote/|title = Literacy Tests and the Right to Vote|date = 2 November 2020}}</ref>

State legislatures employed literacy tests as part of the voter registration process starting in the late 19th century. Literacy tests, along with [[poll tax (United States)|poll taxes]], residency and property restrictions, and extra-legal activities (violence and intimidation)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crmvet.org/info/lithome.htm|title=Civil Rights Movement -- Literacy Tests & Voter Applications|website=www.crmvet.org}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2020}} were all used to deny [[suffrage]] to [[African Americans]].

The first formal voter literacy tests were introduced in 1890. At first, whites were generally exempted from the literacy test if they met alternate requirements that in practice excluded [[black people]], such as a [[grandfather clause]], or a finding of "[[good moral character]]", the latter's testimony of which was often asked only of white people.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}} Some locales administered separate literacy tests, with a more simplified literacy tests being administered to whites who had registered to vote.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}}

In ''[[Lassiter v. Northampton County Board of Elections]]'' (1959), the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] held that literacy tests were not necessarily violations of [[Equal Protection Clause]] of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] nor of the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifteenth Amendment]]. Southern states abandoned the literacy test only when forced to do so by federal legislation in the 1960s. The [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] stated that literacy tests used as a qualification for voting in federal elections be administered wholly in writing and only to persons who had not obtained a sixth grade education. 

To curtail the use of literacy tests, Congress enacted the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]]. The Act prohibited jurisdictions from administering literacy tests, among other measures, to citizens who attained a sixth-grade education in an American school in which the predominant language was Spanish, such as schools in [[Puerto Rico]].<ref>Voting Rights Act of 1965 § 4(e); {{usc|52|10303(e)}} (formerly 42 U.S.C. § 1973b(e))</ref> The Supreme Court upheld this provision in ''[[Katzenbach v. Morgan]]'' (1966). Although the Court had earlier held in ''Lassiter'' that literacy tests did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment,<ref>''[[Lassiter v. Northampton County Board of Elections]]'', {{ussc|360|45|1959}}</ref> in ''Morgan'' the Court held that [[United States Congress|Congress]] could enforce Fourteenth Amendment rights—such as the right to vote—by prohibiting conduct it deemed to interfere with such rights, even if that conduct may not be independently unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Buss|first=William G.|title=Federalism, Separation of Powers, and the Demise of the Religious Freedom Restoration Act|journal=Iowa Law Review|date=January 1998|volume=83| pages=405–406|url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ilr83&div=19|access-date=January 7, 2014}} {{subscription required|s}}</ref><ref>''[[Katzenbach v. Morgan]]'', {{ussc|384|641|1966}}, pp. 652–656</ref>

As originally enacted, the Voting Rights Act also suspended the use of literacy tests in all jurisdictions in which less than 50% of voting-age residents were registered as of November 1, 1964, or had voted in the [[1964 United States presidential election|1964 presidential election]]. Congress amended the Act in 1970 and expanded the ban on literacy tests to the entire country.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Williamson|first=Richard A.|title=The 1982 Amendments to the Voting Rights Act: A Statutory Analysis of the Revised Bailout Provisions|journal=Washington University Law Review|year=1984|volume=62|issue=1|pages=5–9|url=http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/lawreview/vol62/iss1/2/|access-date=August 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060158/http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/lawreview/vol62/iss1/2/|archive-date=September 21, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Supreme Court then upheld the ban as constitutional in ''[[Oregon v. Mitchell]]'' (1970), but just for federal elections. The Court was deeply divided in this case, and a majority of justices did not agree on a rationale for the holding.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tok ji|first=Daniel P.|title=Intent and Its Alternatives: Defending the New Voting Rights Act|journal=Alabama Law Review|year=2006|volume=58|page=353|url=http://www.law.ua.edu/pubs/lrarticles/Volume%2058/Issue%202/tokaji.pdf|access-date=July 29, 2015}}</ref><ref>''[[Oregon v. Mitchell]]'', {{ussc|400|112|1970}}, pp. 188–121</ref>

==Immigration==

When introduced in the 1890s, the literacy test was a device to restrict the total number of immigrants while not offending the large element of ethnic voters.  The "old" immigration (British, Dutch, Irish, German, Scandinavian) had fallen off and was replaced by a "new" immigration from Italy, Russia and other points in Southern and eastern Europe. The "old" immigrants were voters and strongly approved of restricting the "new" immigrants.  The 1896 Republican platform called for a literacy test.<ref>{{cite book |first=Brian |last=Gratton |chapter=Demography and Immigration Restriction in American History |editor-first=Jack A. |editor-last=Goldstone |title=Political Demography: How Population Changes Are Reshaping International Security and National Politics |year=2011 |pages=159–75 |publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-994596-2 }}</ref>

The [[American Federation of Labor]] took the lead in promoting literacy tests that would exclude illiterate immigrants, primarily Eastern Europe and countries that had national waters in the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=A. T. |last=Lane |title=American Trade Unions, Mass Immigration and the Literacy Test: 1900–1917 |journal=Labor History |year=1984 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=5–25 |doi=10.1080/00236568408584739 }}</ref>

Corporate industry, however, needed workers for its mines and factories and opposed any restrictions on immigration.<ref>{{cite book |first=Claudia |last=Goldin |author-link=Claudia Goldin |chapter=The political economy of immigration restriction in the United States, 1890 to 1921 |title=The regulated economy: A historical approach to political economy |publisher=U. of Chicago Press |year=1994 |pages=223–258 |isbn=0-226-30110-9 }}</ref> In 1906, the [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]] [[Joseph Gurney Cannon]], a conservative [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], worked aggressively to defeat a proposed literacy test for immigrants. A product of the western frontier, Cannon felt that moral probity was the only acceptable test for the quality of an immigrant. He worked with Secretary of State [[Elihu Root]] and President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] to set up the "[[Dillingham Commission]]," a [[blue ribbon]] body of experts that produced a 41-volume study of immigration. The Commission recommended a literacy test and the possibility of annual quotas.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Robert F. |last=Zeidel |title=Hayseed Immigration Policy: 'Uncle Joe' Cannon and the Immigration Question |journal=Illinois Historical Journal |year=1995 |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=173–188 |jstor=40192956 }}</ref> Presidents Cleveland and Taft vetoed literacy tests in 1897 and 1913. President Wilson did the same in 1915 and 1917, but the test was passed over Wilson's second veto.<ref>{{cite book|first=Henry|last=Bischoff|title=Immigration Issues|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z55TNEvNX-UC&pg=PA156|year=2002|publisher=Greenwood|page=156|isbn=9780313311772}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era]]
* [[Freedmen]]
* [[Jim Crow laws]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Petit |first=Jeanne D. |title=The Men and Women We Want: Gender, Race, and the Progressive Era Literacy Test Debate |publisher=University of Rochester Press |year=2010 }}

== External links ==
* [http://www.crmvet.org/info/lithome.htm Are You "Qualified" to Vote? Alabama literacy test] ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100819100607/http://www.texancultures.utsa.edu/newtexans/literacy.htm Naturalization literacy test still in use today]

{{Voting rights in the United States}}
{{Literacy}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History of voting rights in the United States]]
[[Category:Elections in the United States]]
[[Category:History of racial segregation in the United States]]
[[Category:History of African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:Literacy]]
[[Category:Language tests]]