Editing Lithography

{{short description|Printing technique}}
{{About|a printing method|rock types|Lithology|the microfabrication process|microlithography}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
[[File:Charles Marion Russell - The Custer Fight (1903).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A lithograph of [[Charles Marion Russell]]'s ''The Custer Fight'' (1903), with the range of tones fading toward the edges.]]
{{History of printing}}

'''Lithography''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|λίθος}}'' ({{grc-transl|λίθος}})|stone||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|γράφω}}'' ({{grc-transl|γράφω}})|to write}})<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Lithography |volume=16 |pages=785–789 |first=Frederick Vincent |last=Brooks}}</ref> is a [[planographic]] method of [[printing]] originally based on the [[miscibility|immiscibility]] of oil and water.<ref>Weaver, Peter. (1964) ''The Technique of Lithography''. London: [[B.T. Batsford]], p. 49.</ref> The printing is from a stone ([[lithographic limestone]]) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German author and actor [[Alois Senefelder]] and was initially used mostly for [[sheet music|musical score]]s and maps.<ref name="meggspage146">Meggs, Philip B. ''A History of Graphic Design''. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146, {{ISBN|0-471-29198-6}}.</ref><ref name="carterpage11">Carter, Rob, Ben Day, Philip Meggs. ''Typographic Design: Form and Communication'', Third Edition. (2002) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 11. {{ISBN|978-0471383413}}</ref> Lithography can be used to print text or images onto paper or other suitable material.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/lithographylitho00penn |title=Lithography and Lithographers |publisher=T. Fisher Unwin Publisher |year=1915 |isbn=9781330310847 |editor=Pennell |editor-first=Elizabeth Robbins |place=London |lccn=15017116}}</ref> A '''lithograph''' is something printed by lithography, but this term is only used for [[printmaking|fine art prints]] and some other, mostly older, types of printed matter, not for those made by modern commercial lithography.

Traditionally, the image to be printed was drawn with a greasy substance, such as oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth and flat [[limestone]] plate. The stone was then treated with a mixture of [[Acid strength|weak acid]] and [[gum arabic]] ("etch") that made the parts of the stone's surface that were not protected by the grease more [[Hydrophile|hydrophilic]] (water attracting). For printing, the stone was first moistened. The water adhered only to the gum-treated parts, making them even more oil-repellant.  An oil-based ink was then applied, and would stick only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a blank sheet of [[paper]], producing a printed page.  This traditional technique is still used for [[fine art]] printmaking.<ref name=brita2021>Peterdi, Gabor F. (2021): "[https://www.britannica.com/art/printmaking/Lithography Lithography]" section of "Printmaking" article. ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' online. Accessed 23 November 2021.</ref>

In modern commercial lithography, the image is transferred or created as a patterned [[polymer]] coating applied to a flexible plastic or metal plate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stbarnabaspress.co.uk/digital-photographic.html |title=Digital & Photographic |first=James |last=Hill |publisher=St Barnabas Press }}</ref>  The printing plates, made of stone or metal, can be created by a [[photography|photographic]] process, a method that may be referred to as "photolithography" (although the term usually refers to a vaguely similar [[photolithography|microelectronics manufacturing process]]).<ref>Hannavy, John. editor. ''Encyclopedia of nineteenth-century photography: A-I, index, Volume 1.'' Taylor & Francis (2008). {{ISBN|9780415972352}}. page 865.</ref><ref>Mansuripur, Masud. ''Classical Optics and Its Applications''. Cambridge University Press (2002) {{ISBN|9780521804998}}. page 416</ref>  [[Offset printing]] or "offset lithography" is an elaboration of lithography in which the ink is transferred from the plate to the paper indirectly by means of a [[rubber]] plate or cylinder, rather than by direct contact.  This technique keeps the paper dry and allows fully automated high-speed operation.  It has mostly replaced traditional lithography for medium- and high-volume printing: since the 1960s, most books and magazines, especially when illustrated in colour, are printed with offset lithography from photographically created metal plates.

As a printing technology, lithography is different from [[intaglio (printmaking)|intaglio printing]] (gravure), wherein a plate is [[engraving|engraved]], [[etching|etched]], or [[mezzotint|stippled]] to score cavities to contain the printing ink; and [[woodblock printing]] or [[letterpress printing]], wherein ink is applied to the raised surfaces of letters or images.

==The principle of lithography==
Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image.  For instance, the positive part of an image is a water-repelling ("[[Hydrophobe|hydrophobic]]") substance, while the negative image would be water-retaining ("hydrophilic").  Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image and the water will clean the negative image.  This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer and more detailed print runs than the older physical methods of printing (e.g., intaglio printing, letterpress printing).

Lithography was invented by [[Alois Senefelder]]<ref name=EB1911/> in the [[Electorate of Bavaria]] in 1796.  In the early days of lithography, a smooth piece of limestone was used (hence the name "lithography": "lithos" ({{lang|grc|λιθος}}) is the [[Ancient Greek]] word for "stone").  After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, the gum sticking only to the non-oily surface. During printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite.

===Lithography on limestone===
[[File:Litography negative stone and positive paper.jpg|thumb|Lithography stone and [[mirror image]] print of a map of Munich.]]

Lithography works because of the mutual [[Hydrophobe|repulsion of oil and water]]. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium (hydrophobic) such as a [[Crayon|wax crayon]], which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible. A wide range of oil-based media is available, but the durability of the image on the stone depends on the [[lipid]] content of the material being used, and its ability to withstand water and acid. After the drawing of the image, an [[aqueous solution]] of [[gum arabic]], weakly acidified with [[nitric acid]] ({{chem|HNO|3}}) is applied to the stone. The function of this solution is to create a hydrophilic layer of [[calcium nitrate]] salt, {{chem|Ca(NO|3|)|2}}, and gum arabic on all non-image surfaces.<ref name=EB1911/> The gum solution penetrates into the pores of the stone, completely surrounding the original image with a hydrophilic layer that will not accept the printing ink. Using lithographic [[turpentine]], the printer then removes any excess of the greasy drawing material, but a hydrophobic molecular film of it remains tightly bonded to the surface of the stone, rejecting the gum arabic and water, but ready to accept the oily ink.<ref>[[A. Hoen & Co.|A. B. Hoen]], Discussion of the Requisite Qualities of Lithographic Limestone, with Report on Tests of the Lithographic Stone of Mitchell County, Iowa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XBIMAAAAYAAJ&lpg=RA1-PA339&pg=RA1-PA339 Iowa Geological Survey Annual Report, 1902], Des Moines, 1903; pages 339–352.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gascoigne |first1=Bamber |title=How to Identify Prints: a complete guide to manual and mechanical processes from woodcut to ink jet |date=1988 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=978-0500234549 |location=Spain |page=1c}}</ref>

When printing, the stone is kept wet with water. The water is naturally attracted to the layer of gum and salt created by the acid wash. [[Printing ink]] based on [[drying oil]]s such as [[linseed oil]] and [[varnish]] loaded with [[pigment]] is then rolled over the surface. The water repels the greasy ink but the hydrophobic areas left by the original drawing material accept it. When the hydrophobic image is loaded with ink, the stone and paper are run through a press that applies even pressure over the surface, transferring the ink to the paper and off the stone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lithograph |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-met/collection-areas/drawings-and-prints/materials-and-techniques/printmaking/lithograph |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Luigi Verardi after Dominico Ferri - Gaetano Donizetti - Carrefour de St Jean et Paul. Dans l'Opéra Marino Faliero.jpg|thumb|This very early colour lithograph from 1835 uses large washes of orange and cyan with black ink providing the details.|left]]
Senefelder had experimented during the early 19th century with multicolor lithography; in his 1819 book, he predicted that the process would eventually be perfected and used to reproduce paintings.<ref name="meggspage146"/> Multi-color printing was introduced by a new process developed by [[Godefroy Engelmann]] (France) in 1837 known as [[chromolithography]].<ref name="meggspage146"/> A separate stone was used for each color, and a print went through the press separately for each stone. The main challenge was to keep the images aligned (''[[Printing registration|in register]]''). This method lent itself to images consisting of large areas of flat color, and resulted in the characteristic poster designs of this period.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Lithographer at work, 1880.jpg|thumb|right|A lithographer at work, 1880.]]
"Lithography, or printing from soft stone, largely took the place of engraving in the production of English commercial maps after about 1852. It was a quick, cheap process and had been used to print British army maps during the [[Peninsular War]]. Most of the commercial maps of the second half of the 19th century were lithographed and unattractive, though accurate enough."<ref>Lynam, Edward. 1944. British Maps and Map Makers. London: W. Collins. Page 46.</ref>

===Modern lithographic process===
{{main|Offset printing}}
[[File:Gubernie zachodnie krolestwo polskie 1902.jpg|thumb|1902 Polish lithograph map of the western parts of the [[Russian Empire]]. Original size {{convert|33|×|24|cm|in|abbr=on}}.]]

High-volume lithography is used to produce posters, maps, books, newspapers, and packaging—just about any smooth, mass-produced item with print and graphics on it. Most books, indeed all types of high-volume text, are printed using offset lithography.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Meyer |first=Isabella |date=2022-06-16 |title=Lithography - Understanding the Art of Lithography Printmaking |url=https://artincontext.org/lithography/ |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=Art in Context |language=en-US}}</ref>

For offset lithography, which depends on photographic processes, flexible [[Aluminium|aluminum]], [[polyester]], [[BoPET|mylar]] or paper printing plates are used instead of stone tablets. Modern printing plates have a brushed or roughened texture and are covered with a photosensitive [[emulsion]].  A [[Negative (photography)|photographic negative]] of the desired image is placed in contact with the emulsion and the plate is exposed to [[Ultraviolet|ultraviolet light]]. After development, the emulsion shows a reverse of the negative image, which is thus a duplicate of the original (positive) image. The image on the plate emulsion can also be created by direct laser imaging in a CTP ([[Computer to plate|computer-to-plate]]) device known as a platesetter. The positive image is the emulsion that remains after imaging. Non-image portions of the emulsion have traditionally been removed by a chemical process, though in recent times, plates have become available that do not require such processing.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Lithography press with map of Moosburg 02.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Lithography press for printing maps in Munich.]]
[[File:Lithography machine in Bibliotheca Alexandrina.jpg|thumb|right|Lithography machine in [[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]].]]
The plate is affixed to a cylinder on a printing press. Dampening rollers apply water, which covers the blank portions of the plate but is repelled by the emulsion of the image area. Hydrophobic ink, which is repelled by the water and only adheres to the emulsion of the image area, is then applied by the inking rollers.

If this image were transferred directly to paper, it would create a mirror-type image and the paper would become too wet. Instead, the plate rolls against a cylinder covered with a rubber ''blanket'', which squeezes away the water, picks up the ink and transfers it to the paper with uniform pressure. The paper passes between the blanket cylinder and a counter-pressure or impression cylinder and the image is transferred to the paper. Because the image is first transferred, or ''offset'' to the rubber blanket cylinder, this reproduction method is known as ''offset lithography'' or ''[[offset printing]]''.<ref>see diagram at [http://www.compassrose.com/static/Offset.jpg compassrose.com]</ref>

Many innovations and technical refinements have been made in printing processes and presses over the years, including the development of [[Printing press|presses]] with multiple units (each containing one printing plate) that can print multi-color images in one pass on both sides of the sheet, and presses that accommodate continuous rolls (''webs'') of paper, known as web presses. Another innovation was the continuous dampening system first introduced by Dahlgren, instead of the old method (conventional dampening) which is still used on older presses, using rollers covered with molleton (cloth) that absorbs the water. This increased control of the water flow to the plate and allowed for better ink and water balance. Recent dampening systems include a "delta effect or vario", which slows the roller in contact with the plate, thus creating a sweeping movement over the ink image to clean impurities known as "hickies".

[[File:Litography archive of the Bayerisches Vermessungsamt.jpg|thumb|Archive of lithographic stones in Munich.]]

This press is also called an ink pyramid because the ink is transferred through several layers of rollers with different purposes. Fast lithographic 'web' printing presses are commonly used in newspaper production.

The advent of [[desktop publishing]] made it possible for type and images to be modified easily on personal computers for eventual printing by desktop or commercial presses. The development of digital [[imagesetter]]s enabled print shops to produce negatives for platemaking directly from digital input, skipping the intermediate step of photographing an actual page layout. The development of the digital [[platesetter]] during the late 20th century eliminated film negatives altogether by exposing printing plates directly from digital input, a process known as computer-to-plate printing.

==Lithography as an artistic medium==
{{Further|List of printmakers}}
[[File:Bothwell Castle (Litography, 1833).jpg|thumb|Lithographic image of [[Bothwell Castle]] from 1833]]
During the early years of the 19th century, lithography had only a limited effect on [[printmaking]], mainly because technical difficulties remained to be overcome. Germany was the main center of production in this period. [[Godefroy Engelmann]], who moved his press from [[Mulhouse]] to Paris in 1816, largely succeeded in resolving the technical problems, and during the 1820s lithography was adopted by artists such as [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]] and [[Géricault]]. After early experiments such as ''Specimens of Polyautography'' (1803),<ref>{{cite book| title=Specimens of Polyautography, Consisting of Impressions taken from Original Drawings, Made on Stone purposely for this Work | date=1803|  publisher=Philipp André| location=London|  url=http://primo.getty.edu/GRI:GETTY_ALMA21118663020001551}}</ref> which had experimental works by  a number of British artists including [[Benjamin West]], [[Henry Fuseli]], [[James Barry (painter)|James Barry]], [[Thomas Barker of Bath]], [[Thomas Stothard]], [[Henry Greville, 3rd Earl of Warwick|Henry Richard Greville]], [[Richard Cooper Jr.|Richard Cooper]], [[Henry Singleton (painter)|Henry Singleton]], and [[William Henry Pyne]], London also became a center, and some of Géricault's prints were in fact produced there. [[Francisco Goya|Goya]] in Bordeaux produced his last series of prints by lithography—''The Bulls of Bordeaux'' of 1828. By the mid-century the initial enthusiasm had somewhat diminished in both countries, although the use of lithography was increasingly favored for commercial applications, which included the prints of [[Honoré Daumier|Daumier]], published in newspapers. [[Rodolphe Bresdin]] and [[Jean-François Millet]] also continued to practice the medium in France, and [[Adolph Menzel]] in Germany. In 1862 the publisher Cadart tried to initiate a portfolio of lithographs by various artists, which was not successful but included several prints by [[Manet]]. The revival began during the 1870s, especially in France with artists such as [[Odilon Redon]], [[Henri Fantin-Latour]] and [[Degas]] producing much of their work in this manner. The need for strictly limited [[edition (printmaking)|edition]]s to maintain the price had now been realized, and the medium became more accepted.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Huyser-Honig |first=Steven |date=2024-10-01 |title=The Pros and Cons of Limited Editions |url=https://www.grandrivergiclee.com/the-pros-and-cons-of-limited-editions/ |access-date=2025-03-20 |website=Grand River Giclée |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 27, 2022 |title=4 Things to Know About Limited Editions |url=https://medium.com/@Emergeast/4-things-to-know-about-limited-editions-2d6c802d5aeb |access-date=March 20, 2025 |website=medium.com}}</ref>

In the 1890s, color lithography gained success in part by the emergence of [[Jules Chéret]], known as the ''father of the modern poster'', whose work went on to inspire a new generation of poster designers and painters, most notably [[Toulouse-Lautrec]], and former student of Chéret, [[Georges de Feure]]. By 1900 the medium in both color and monotone was an accepted part of printmaking.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-29 |title=Lithography {{!}} History, Process & Applications {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/lithography |access-date=2025-03-20 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

During the 20th century, a group of artists, including [[Georges Braque|Braque]], [[Alexander Calder|Calder]], [[Chagall]], [[Raoul Dufy|Dufy]], [[Fernand Léger|Léger]], [[Matisse]], [[Joan Miró|Miró]], and [[Picasso]], rediscovered the largely undeveloped artform of lithography thanks to the [[Mourlot Studios]], also known as ''Atelier Mourlot'', a Parisian printshop founded in 1852 by the Mourlot family. The Atelier Mourlot originally specialized in the printing of wallpaper; but it was transformed when the founder's grandson, [[Fernand Mourlot]], invited a number of 20th-century artists to explore the complexities of fine art printing. Mourlot encouraged the painters to work directly on lithographic stones in order to create original artworks that could then be executed under the direction of master printers in small editions. The combination of modern artist and master printer resulted in lithographs that were used as posters to promote the artists' work.<ref>[http://www.fiaf.org/laboutique/mourlot History of 20th century lithography by Picasso, Matisse, Chagall, Braque, Leger at Atelier Mourlot, French Institute Alliance Française] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723085822/http://www.fiaf.org/laboutique/mourlot |date=July 23, 2012 }}</ref><ref>Mourlot, Fernand. ''Twentieth Century Posters.'' Wellfleet Press: Secaucus, New Jersey, 1989 {{ISBN|1555213855}}</ref>

[[Grant Wood]], [[George Bellows]], [[Alphonse Mucha]], [[Max Kahn]], [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Eleanor Coen]], [[Jasper Johns]], [[David Hockney]], [[Susan Dorothea White]], and [[Robert Rauschenberg]] are a few of the artists who have produced most of their prints in the medium. [[M. C. Escher]] is considered a master of lithography, and many of his prints were created using this process. More than other printmaking techniques, [[printmaker]]s in lithography still largely depend on access to good [[Printer (publishing)|printer]]s, and the development of the medium has been greatly influenced by when and where these have been established.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} An American scene for lithography was founded by [[Robert Blackburn (artist)|Robert Blackburn]] in New York City.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Master Printmaker Robert Blackburn Honored in Exhibition at Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/prn-03-004/ |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref>

As a special form of lithography, the serilith or '''seriolithograph''' is a mixed-media original print that combines both lithography and [[serigraphy]] (screen printing). In this technique, the artist hand-draws the separations for each process, ensuring a high level of craftsmanship. Seriliths are typically produced as limited-edition fine art prints and are published by artists and publishers around the world. They are widely recognized and collected within the art community. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrysideart.com/serigraphy.htm|title=What is a Serilith?|access-date=2007-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109132626/http://countrysideart.com/serigraphy.htm|archive-date=2007-11-09|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==See also==
{{columns-list|
* [[Block printing]]
* [[Color printing]]
* [[Electron-beam lithography]]
* [[Flexography]]
* [[German inventors and discoverers]]
* [[History of graphic design]]
* [[Lineography]]
* [[List of art techniques]]
* [[Proton beam writing]], lithography using MeV ions
* [[Photochrom]]
* [[Photogravure]]
* [[Photolithography]]
* [[Theodore Regensteiner]], inventor of the four-color lithographic press
* [[Rotogravure]]
* [[Stencil lithography]]
* [[Stereolithography]]
* [[Typography]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Lithography}}
* [https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/l/lithography About Lithography]
* Twyman, Michael. ''Early Lithographed Books''. Pinner, Middlesex: [[Private Libraries Association]], 1990
* [http://www.moma.org/exhibitions/2001/whatisaprint/flash.html Museum of Modern Art information on printing techniques and examples of prints]
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/NE2420xS475/ The Invention of Lithography], Aloys Senefelder, (Eng. trans. 1911) (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] and [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/NE2420xS475/1f/invention_of_lithography.pdf layered PDF] format)
* [http://www.theodesmedt.be Theo De Smedt's website, author of ''"What's lithography"'']
* [http://www.daumier.org Extensive information on Honoré Daumier and his life and work, including his entire output of lithographs]
* [http://daumier-register.org Digital work catalog to 4000 lithographs and 1000 wood engravings]
* [http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/IAfE1888_1of3.html Detailed examination of the processes involved in the creation of a typical scholarly lithographic illustration in the 19th century]
* [http://www.steendrukmuseum.nl  Nederlands Steendrukmuseum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100618221600/http://www.wesleyan.edu/dac/coll/grps/dela/faust_01-10.html Delacroix's ''Faust'' lithographs at the Davison Art Center, Wesleyan University]
* [http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/exhibits/color/lithogr.htm A brief historic overview of Lithography]. University of Delaware Library. Includes citations for 19th century books using early lithographic illustrations.
* [http://www.librarycompany.org/pos/index.htm Philadelphia on Stone: The First Fifty Years of Commercial Lithography in Philadelphia]. Library Company of Philadelphia. Provides an historic overview of the commercial trade in Philadelphia and links to a biographical dictionary of over 500 Philadelphia lithographers and catalog of more than 1300 lithographs documenting Philadelphia.
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/94303/rec/1 Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures], an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on lithography
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Lithography| ]]
[[Category:1796 introductions]]
[[Category:Communication design]]
[[Category:Graphic design]]
[[Category:Planographic printing]]
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