Editing Lithosphere

{{Short description|Outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite}}
{{For|the academic journal|Lithosphere (journal){{!}}''Lithosphere'' (journal)}}

[[File:Plates tect2 en.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The tectonic plates of the lithosphere on Earth]]
[[File:Earth cutaway schematic-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Earth cutaway from center to surface, the lithosphere comprising the crust and [[lithospheric mantle]] (detail not to scale)]]

A '''lithosphere''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|λίθος}}'' ({{grc-transl|λίθος}})|rocky||''{{wikt-lang|grc|σφαίρα}}'' ({{grc-transl|σφαίρα}})|sphere}}) is the rigid,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Skinner|first1=B. J.|last2=Porter|first2=S. C.|title=Physical Geology|page=17|chapter=The Earth: Inside and Out|year=1987|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=0-471-05668-5}}</ref> outermost rocky shell of a [[terrestrial planet]] or [[natural satellite]]. On [[Earth]], it is composed of the [[crust (geology)|crust]] and the [[lithospheric mantle]], the topmost portion of the [[upper mantle]] that behaves elastically on time scales of up to thousands of years or more. The crust and upper mantle are distinguished on the basis of chemistry and [[mineralogy]].

== Earth's lithosphere ==
Earth's lithosphere, which constitutes the hard and rigid outer vertical layer of the Earth, includes the crust and the lithospheric mantle (or mantle lithosphere), the uppermost part of the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] that is not [[Mantle convection|convecting]]. The layer below the lithosphere is called the [[asthenosphere]], which is the weaker, hotter, and deeper part of the upper mantle that is able to convect. The [[lithosphere&ndash;asthenosphere boundary]] is defined by a difference in response to stress. The lithosphere remains rigid for very long periods of geologic time in which it deforms elastically and through brittle failure, while the asthenosphere deforms [[Viscosity|viscously]] and accommodates strain through [[plasticity (physics)|plastic deformation]].{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

Due to this definition of the lithosphere&ndash;asthenosphere boundary, the thickness of the lithosphere is considered to be the depth to the [[Isotherm (contour line)|isotherm]] associated with the transition between brittle and viscous behavior.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Parsons|first1=B.|last2=McKenzie|first2=D.|name-list-style=amp|year=1978|title=Mantle Convection and the thermal structure of the plates|journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]]|url=http://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/~johne/teaching/pdfs/parsons-mckenzie78.pdf|volume=83|issue=B9|page=4485|bibcode=1978JGR....83.4485P|doi=10.1029/JB083iB09p04485|citeseerx=10.1.1.708.5792}}</ref> The temperature at which [[olivine]] becomes [[ductile]] (~{{cvt|1000|C|disp=or}}) is often used to set this isotherm because olivine is generally the weakest mineral in the upper mantle.<ref name="lithothick">{{cite web|last=Pasyanos|first=M. E.|date=15 May 2008|title=Lithospheric Thickness Modeled from Long Period Surface Wave Dispersion|url=https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/361453.pdf|access-date=2014-04-25}}</ref>

The lithosphere is subdivided horizontally into [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]], which often include [[terrane]]s accreted from other plates.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

=== History of the concept ===
The concept of the lithosphere as Earth's strong outer layer was described by the English mathematician [[Augustus Edward Hough Love|A. E. H. Love]] in his 1911 monograph "Some problems of Geodynamics" and further developed by the American geologist [[Joseph Barrell]], who wrote a series of papers about the concept and introduced the term "lithosphere".<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=30056401|last=Barrell|first=J.|date=1914|title=The strength of the Earth's crust|journal=[[Journal of Geology]]|volume=22|pages=289–314|doi=10.1086/622155|issue=4|bibcode=1914JG.....22..289B|s2cid=118354240}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|jstor=30067162|last=Barrell|first=J.|date=1914|title=The strength of the Earth's crust|journal=[[Journal of Geology]]|volume=22|pages=441–468|doi=10.1086/622163|issue=5|bibcode=1914JG.....22..441B|s2cid=224833672}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|jstor=30060774|last=Barrell|first=J.|date=1914|title=The strength of the Earth's crust|journal=[[Journal of Geology]]|volume=22|pages=655–683|doi=10.1086/622181|issue=7|bibcode=1914JG.....22..655B|s2cid=224832862}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|jstor=30067883|last=Barrell|first=J.|date=1914|title=The strength of the Earth's crust|journal=[[Journal of Geology]]|volume=22|pages=537–555|doi=10.1086/622170|issue=6|bibcode=1914JG.....22..537B|s2cid=128955134}}</ref> The concept was based on the presence of significant gravity anomalies over continental crust, from which he inferred that there must exist a strong, solid upper layer (which he called the lithosphere) above a weaker layer which could flow (which he called the [[asthenosphere]]). These ideas were expanded by the Canadian geologist [[Reginald Aldworth Daly]] in 1940 with his seminal work "Strength and Structure of the Earth."<ref>Daly, R. (1940) ''Strength and structure of the Earth''. New York: Prentice-Hall.</ref> They have been broadly accepted by geologists and geophysicists.  These concepts of a strong lithosphere resting on a weak asthenosphere are essential to the theory of [[plate tectonics]].{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

=== Types ===
[[File:Subduction-en.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Different types of lithosphere]]
The lithosphere can be divided into oceanic and continental lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere is associated with [[oceanic crust]] (having a mean density of about {{convert|2.9|g/cm3|disp=or}}) and exists in the [[ocean basin]]s. Continental lithosphere is associated with [[continental crust]] (having a mean density of about {{convert|2.7|g/cm3|disp=or}}) and underlies the continents and [[continental shelves]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Philpotts|first1=Anthony R.|last2=Ague|first2=Jay J.|title=Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology|date=2009|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=9780521880060|pages=2–4, 29|edition=2nd}}</ref>

==== Oceanic lithosphere ====
{{Further|Oceanic crust}}
Oceanic lithosphere consists mainly of [[mafic]] crust and [[ultramafic rock|ultramafic]] mantle ([[peridotite]]) and is denser than continental lithosphere. Young oceanic lithosphere, found at [[mid-ocean ridge]]s, is no thicker than the crust, but oceanic lithosphere thickens as it ages and moves away from the mid-ocean ridge. The oldest oceanic lithosphere is typically about {{convert|140|km}} thick.<ref name="lithothick" /> This thickening occurs by conductive cooling, which converts hot asthenosphere into lithospheric mantle and causes the oceanic lithosphere to become increasingly thick and dense with age. In fact, oceanic lithosphere is a thermal boundary layer for the [[mantle convection|convection]]<ref>Donald L. Turcotte, Gerald Schubert, Geodynamics. Cambridge University Press, 25 mar 2002 – 456</ref> in the mantle.  The thickness of the mantle part of the oceanic lithosphere can be approximated as a thermal boundary layer that thickens as the square root of time.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
<math display="block"> h \, \sim \, 2\, \sqrt{ \kappa t } </math>

Here, <math>h</math> is the thickness of the oceanic mantle lithosphere, <math>\kappa</math> is the [[thermal diffusivity]] (approximately {{cvt|{{#expr: 10 ^ -6 }}|m2/s|disp=or}}) for silicate rocks, and <math>t</math> is the age of the given part of the lithosphere. The age is often equal to L/V, where L is the distance from the spreading centre of mid-ocean ridge, and V is velocity of the lithospheric plate.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stein|first1=Seth|last2=Stein|first2=Carol A.|chapter=Thermo-Mechanical Evolution of Oceanic Lithosphere: Implications for the Subduction Process and Deep Earthquakes|title=Subduction: Top to Bottom|series=Geophysical Monograph Series|date=1996|volume=96|pages=1–17|doi=10.1029/GM096p0001|bibcode=1996GMS....96....1S|isbn=9781118664575}}</ref>

Oceanic lithosphere is less dense than asthenosphere for a few tens of millions of years but after this becomes increasingly denser than asthenosphere. While chemically differentiated oceanic crust is lighter than asthenosphere, [[Thermal expansion|thermal contraction]] of the mantle lithosphere makes it more dense than the asthenosphere. The gravitational instability of mature oceanic lithosphere has the effect that at [[subduction]] zones, oceanic lithosphere invariably sinks underneath the overriding lithosphere, which can be oceanic or continental. New oceanic lithosphere is constantly being produced at mid-ocean ridges and is recycled back to the mantle at subduction zones. As a result, oceanic lithosphere is much younger than continental lithosphere: the oldest oceanic lithosphere is about 170 million years old, while parts of the continental lithosphere are billions of years old.<ref name="Composition and development of the">{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/274544a0|title=Composition and development of the continental tectosphere|date=1978|last1=Jordan|first1=Thomas H.|authorlink1=Thomas H. Jordan|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=274|issue=5671|pages=544–548|bibcode=1978Natur.274..544J|s2cid=4286280}}</ref><ref name="Doilithos">{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.lithos.2009.04.028|title=Ultradeep continental roots and their oceanic remnants: A solution to the geochemical "mantle reservoir" problem?|date=2009|last1=O'Reilly|first1=Suzanne Y.|last2=Zhang|first2=Ming|last3=Griffin|first3=William L.|last4=Begg|first4=Graham|last5=Hronsky|first5=Jon|journal=[[Lithos (journal)|Lithos]]|volume=112|pages=1043–1054|bibcode=2009Litho.112.1043O}}</ref>

===== Subducted lithosphere =====
{{Further|Subduction}}
Geophysical studies in the early 21st century posit that large pieces of the lithosphere have been subducted into the mantle as deep as {{convert|2900|km}} to near the core-mantle boundary,<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2004.09.015|title=Derivation of Large Igneous Provinces of the past 200 million years from long-term heterogeneities in the deep mantle|date=2004|last1=Burke|first1=Kevin|last2=Torsvik|first2=Trond H.|journal=[[Earth and Planetary Science Letters]]|volume=227|issue=3–4|pages=531|bibcode=2004E&PSL.227..531B}}</ref> while others "float" in the upper mantle.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0012-821X(04)00070-6|title=4-D evolution of SE Asia's mantle from geological reconstructions and seismic tomography|date=2004|last1=Replumaz|first1=Anne|last2=Kárason|first2=Hrafnkell|last3=Van Der Hilst|first3=Rob D.|last4=Besse|first4=Jean|last5=Tapponnier|first5=Paul|journal=[[Earth and Planetary Science Letters]]|volume=221|issue=1–4|pages=103–115|bibcode=2004E&PSL.221..103R|s2cid=128974520}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/2007GC001806|title=A new global model for P wave speed variations in Earth's mantle|date=2008|last1=Li|first1=Chang|last2=Van Der Hilst|first2=Robert D.|last3=Engdahl|first3=E. Robert|last4=Burdick|first4=Scott|journal=[[Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems]]|volume=9|issue=5|pages=n/a|bibcode=2008GGG.....9.5018L|doi-access=free}}</ref> Yet others stick down into the mantle as far as {{convert|400|km}} but remain "attached" to the continental plate above,<ref name="Doilithos" /> similar to the extent of the old concept of "tectosphere" revisited by Jordan in 1988.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/petrology/Special_Volume.1.11|title=Structure and formation of the continental tectosphere|journal=[[Journal of Petrology]]|volume=29|issue=1|pages=11–37|year=1988|last1=Jordan|first1=T. H.|bibcode=1988JPet...29S..11J}}</ref> Subducting lithosphere remains rigid (as demonstrated by deep [[earthquake]]s along [[Wadati–Benioff zone]]) to a depth of about {{convert|600|km}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Frolich|first1=C.|year=1989|title=The Nature of Deep Focus Earthquakes|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|volume=17|pages=227–254|doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.17.050189.001303|bibcode=1989AREPS..17..227F}}</ref><!--Past {{convert|600|km}}, they really aren't lithosphere any more, but I haven't a source that actually spells that out. Leave for reader to infer. -->

==== Continental lithosphere ====
{{Further|Continental crust|Subcontinental lithospheric mantle}}
[[File:Lithosphere of Earth - Idealized Cross-section.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Idealized cross-section of Earth's lithosphere (Abbreviations: cb=cratonic [[Sedimentary basin|basin]], LIP=[[large igneous province]], MOR=[[mid-ocean ridge]])]]
Continental lithosphere has a range in thickness from about {{convert|40|km}} to perhaps {{convert|280|km}};<ref name="lithothick" /> the upper approximately {{convert|30|to|50|km}} of typical continental lithosphere is crust. The crust is distinguished from the upper mantle by the change in chemical composition that takes place at the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity|Moho discontinuity]]. The oldest parts of continental lithosphere underlie [[craton]]s, and the mantle lithosphere there is thicker and less dense than typical; the relatively low density of such mantle "roots of cratons" helps to stabilize these regions.<ref name="Composition and development of the"/><ref name="Doilithos"/>

Because of its relatively low density, continental lithosphere that arrives at a subduction zone cannot subduct much further than about {{cvt|100|km}} before resurfacing. As a result, continental lithosphere is not recycled at subduction zones the way oceanic lithosphere is recycled. Instead, continental lithosphere is a nearly permanent feature of the Earth.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ernst|first1=W. G.|title=Metamorphism, partial preservation, and exhumation of ultrahigh-pressure belts|journal=Island Arc|date=June 1999|volume=8|issue=2|pages=125–153|doi=10.1046/j.1440-1738.1999.00227.x|bibcode=1999IsArc...8..125E|s2cid=128908164}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/2001RG000108|title=Subduction zones|journal=[[Reviews of Geophysics]]|volume=40|issue=4|pages=1012|year=2002|last1=Stern|first1=Robert J.|bibcode=2002RvGeo..40.1012S|s2cid=247695067|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Mantle xenoliths ==
Geoscientists can directly study the nature of the subcontinental mantle by examining mantle [[xenolith]]s<ref>Nixon, P.H. (1987) ''Mantle xenoliths'' J. Wiley & Sons, 844 p. {{ISBN|0-471-91209-3}}</ref> brought up in [[kimberlite]], [[lamproite]], and other [[volcanic pipe]]s. The histories of these xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, including analyses of abundances of isotopes of [[osmium]] and [[rhenium]]. Such studies have confirmed that mantle lithospheres below some cratons have persisted for periods in excess of 3 billion years, despite the mantle flow that accompanies plate tectonics.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/2004RG000156|title=Physical, chemical, and chronological characteristics of continental mantle|date=2005|last1=Carlson|first1=Richard W.|journal=[[Reviews of Geophysics]]|volume=43|issue=1|pages=RG1001|bibcode=2005RvGeo..43.1001C|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Microorganisms ==
The upper part of the lithosphere is a large habitat for [[microorganism]]s, with some found more than {{Convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on|order=flip}} below Earth's surface.<ref name="Dengler 2018 c737">{{cite web|last=Dengler|first=Roni|title=Scientists discover staggering amount of life deep below Earth's surface|website=Astronomy Magazine|date=11 December 2018|url=https://www.astronomy.com/science/scientists-discover-staggering-amount-of-life-deep-below-earths-surface/|access-date=2023-10-09}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Carbonate–silicate cycle]]
* [[Climate system]]
* [[Cryosphere]]
* [[Geosphere]]
* [[Kola Superdeep Borehole]]
* [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]
* [[Pedosphere]]
* [[Solid earth]]
* [[Vertical displacement]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book|first1=Stanley|last1=Chernicoff|first2=Donna|last2=Whitney|title=Geology. An Introduction to Physical Geology|edition=4th|publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]]|date=1990|isbn=978-0-13-175124-8}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Lithospheres}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061102114945/http://www.windows.ucar.edu/cgi-bin/tour_def/earth/interior/earths_crust.html Earth's Crust, Lithosphere and Asthenosphere]
* [http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Education-and-Careers/Resources/Papers-and-Reports/Flood-basalts-mantle-plumes-and-mass-extinctions/The-Crust-and-Lithosphere Crust and Lithosphere]

{{Earthsinterior}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Lithosphere| ]]
[[Category:Plate tectonics]]
[[Category:Earth's mantle]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]