Editing Logotherapy

{{Short description|Psychotherapeutic approach}}
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'''Logotherapy''' is a form of [[existential therapy]] developed by [[neurologist]] and [[psychiatrist]] [[Viktor Frankl]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Proper palliative care makes assisted dying unnecessary |language=en |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/open-future/2018/08/24/proper-palliative-care-makes-assisted-dying-unnecessary |access-date=2018-09-17}}</ref> It is founded on the premise that the primary motivational force of individuals is to find [[Meaning of life|meaning in life]].<ref name="Marshall2012" /> Frankl describes it as "the Third Viennese School of [[Psychotherapy]]"<ref name="Frankl2006">{{Cite book |last=Frankl, Viktor |url=https://archive.org/details/manssearchformea00vikt |title=Man's Search for Meaning |date=1 June 2006 |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=978-0-8070-1427-1 |access-date=8 May 2012 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>[[Gordon Allport]], from the Preface to ''[[Man's Search for Meaning]]'', p. xiv</ref> along with [[Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]] and [[Alfred Adler|Alfred Adler's]] [[individual psychology]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Logotherapy: The benefits of finding meaning in life |language=en |work=Medical News Today |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320814.php |access-date=2018-09-17}}</ref>

Logotherapy is based on an [[Existential therapy|existential analysis]]<ref name="InstituteVienna">{{Cite web |title=About |url=http://www.viktorfrankl.org/e/logotherapy.html |access-date=22 May 2012 |publisher=Viktor Frankl Institute Vienna}}</ref> focusing on [[Kierkegaard]]'s ''[[Meaning (existential)|will to meaning]]'' as opposed to Adler's [[Nietzsche]]an doctrine of ''[[will to power]]'' or Freud's ''[[will to pleasure]]''. Rather than power or pleasure, logotherapy is founded upon the belief that striving to find meaning in life is the primary, most powerful motivating and driving force in [[human]]s.<ref name="Marshall2012">{{Cite book |last1=Maria Marshall |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gnZxPpqDjUUC |title=Logotherapy Revisited: Review of the Tenets of Viktor E. Frankl's Logotherapy |last2=Edward Marshall |date=2012 |publisher=Ottawa Institute of Logotherapy |isbn=978-1-4781-9377-7 |location=Ottawa |oclc=1100192135 |access-date=16 February 2020}}</ref> A short introduction to this system is given in Frankl's most famous book, ''[[Man's Search for Meaning]]'' (1946), in which he outlines how his theories helped him to survive his [[Holocaust]] experience and how that experience further developed and reinforced his theories. Presently, there are a number of [[List of logotherapy institutes|logotherapy institutes]] around the world.

==Basic principles==
The notion of ''logotherapy'' was created with the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''[[logos]]'' ("meaning"). Frankl's concept is based on the premise that the primary motivational force of an individual is to find meaning in life. The following list of tenets represents basic principles of logotherapy:
* Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.
* Our main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life.
* We have freedom to find meaning in what we do, and what we experience, or at least in the stance we take when faced with a situation of unchangeable suffering.<ref name="Marshall2012" />

The human spirit is referred to in several of the assumptions of logotherapy, but the use of the term spirit is not "spiritual" or "religious." In Frankl's view, the spirit is the will of the human being. The emphasis, therefore, is on the search for meaning, which is not necessarily the search for [[God]] or any other supernatural being.<ref name="Marshall2012" /> Frankl also noted the barriers to humanity's quest for meaning in life. He warns against "...affluence, [[hedonism]], [and] [[materialism]]..." in the search for meaning.<ref name="FranklInstitute">{{Cite web |title=About Logotherapy |url=http://www.logotherapyinstitute.org/About_Logotherapy.html |access-date=22 May 2012 |publisher=Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy}}</ref>

[[Telos|Purpose in life]] and [[Meaning of life|meaning in life]] constructs appeared in Frankl's logotherapy writings with relation to [[existential vacuum]] and will to meaning, as well as others who have theorized about and defined [[Positive psychology|positive psychological]] functioning. Frankl observed that it may be psychologically damaging when a person's search for meaning is blocked. Positive life purpose and meaning were associated with strong religious beliefs, membership in groups, dedication to a cause, life values, and clear goals. Adult development and [[maturity (psychological)|maturity]] theories include the purpose in life concept. Maturity emphasizes a clear comprehension of life's purpose, directedness, and intentionality which contributes to the feeling that life is meaningful.<ref name="Adler1997">{{Cite web |last=Adler |first=Nancy |date=November 1997 |title=Purpose in Life |url=http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/research/psychosocial/purpose.php |access-date=2011-11-03 |website=Psychosocial workgroup |publisher=MacArthur Foundation}}</ref>

Frankl's ideas were operationalized by Crumbaugh and Maholick's Purpose in Life (PIL) test, which measures an individual's meaning and purpose in life.<ref name="Adler1997" />  With the test, investigators found that meaning in life mediated the relationships between religiosity and well-being;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dufton |first=Brian |date=Spring 1986 |title=The association between religiosity and the Purpose-in-Life test: Does it reflect purpose or satisfaction? |url=http://journals.biola.edu/jpt/volumes/14/issues/1/articles/42 |journal=Journal of Psychology and Theology |publisher=Biola University |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=42–48 |doi=10.1177/009164718601400105 |s2cid=149288526|url-access=subscription }}</ref> uncontrollable stress and substance use; depression and self-derogation.<ref name="Adler1997" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Harlow |first1=Lisa L. |last2=Newcomb, Michael D. |last3=Bentler, P. M |date=Sep 1987 |title=Purpose in Life Test assessment using latent variable methods. |journal=British Journal of Clinical Psychology |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=235–236 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8260.1987.tb01355.x |pmid=3664045}}</ref> Crumbaugh found that the Seeking of [[Nous|Noetic]] Goals Test (SONG) is a complementary measure of the PIL. While the PIL measures the presence of meaning, the SONG measures orientation towards meaning. A low score in the PIL but a high score in the SONG, would predict a better outcome in the application of Logotherapy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crumbaugh |first=James C. |date=July 1977 |title=The seeking of noetic goals test (SONG): A complementary scale to the purpose in life test (PIL) |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology |publisher=Wiley |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=900–907 |doi=10.1002/1097-4679(197707)33:3<900::AID-JCLP2270330362>3.0.CO;2-8 |pmid=893732}}</ref>

===Discovering meaning===
According to Frankl, "We can discover this meaning in life in three different ways: (1) by creating a work or doing a deed; (2) by experiencing something or encountering someone; and (3) by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering" and that "everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms – to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances".<ref name="Frankl2006" /> On the meaning of suffering, Frankl gives the following example:

{{blockquote|"Once, an elderly general practitioner consulted me because of his severe depression. He could not overcome the loss of his wife who had died two years before and whom he had loved above all else. Now how could I help him? What should I tell him? I refrained from telling him anything, but instead confronted him with a question, "What would have happened, Doctor, if you had died first, and your wife would have had to survive without you?:" "Oh," he said, "for her this would have been terrible; how she would have suffered!" Whereupon I replied, "You see, Doctor, such a suffering has been spared her, and it is you who have spared her this suffering; but now, you have to pay for it by surviving and mourning her." He said no word but shook my hand and calmly left the office.<ref name="Frankl2006" />{{rp|178–179}}}}

Frankl emphasized that realizing the value of suffering is meaningful only when the first two creative possibilities are not available (for example, in a concentration camp) and only when such suffering is inevitable{{spaced ndash}}he was not proposing that people suffer unnecessarily.<ref name="Frankl1986">{{Cite book |last=Frankl, Viktor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_qiURM2r2MC |title=The Doctor and the Soul: From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy |date=12 October 1986 |publisher=Random House Digital, Inc. |isbn=978-0-394-74317-2 |access-date=17 May 2012}}</ref>{{rp|115}}

==Philosophical basis of logotherapy==
Frankl described the meta-clinical implications of logotherapy in his book ''The Will to Meaning: Foundations and Applications of Logotherapy''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frankl |first=Viktor E. |title=The will to meaning : foundations and applications of logotherapy |date=2014-06-24 |isbn=9781101664025 |edition=Expanded |location=New York, New York |oclc=934802526}}</ref> He believed that there is no psychotherapy apart from the theory of the individual. As an existential psychologist, he inherently disagreed with the "machine model" or "rat model", as it undermines the human quality of humans. As a neurologist and psychiatrist, Frankl developed a unique view of [[determinism]] to coexist with the three basic pillars of logotherapy (the freedom of will). Though Frankl admitted that a person can never be free from every condition, such as, biological, sociological, or psychological determinants; based on his experience during his life in the [[Nazi concentration camps]], he believed that a person is "capable of resisting and braving even the worst conditions". In doing such, a person can detach from situations and themselves, choose an attitude about themselves, and determine their own determinants, thus shaping their own character and becoming responsible for themselves.<ref name="Frankl1988">{{Cite book |last=Frankl, Viktor |url=https://archive.org/details/willtomeaningfou00fran_0 |title=The Will to Meaning: Foundations and Applications of Logotherapy |date=1 September 1988 |publisher=Meridian |isbn=978-0-452-01034-5 |access-date=17 May 2012 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

==Logotherapeutic views and treatment==

===Overcoming anxiety===
By recognizing the purpose of our circumstances, one can master [[anxiety]]. Anecdotes about this use of logotherapy are given by ''New York Times'' writer Tim Sanders, who explained how he uses its concept to relieve the stress of fellow airline travelers by asking them the purpose of their journey. When he does this, no matter how miserable they are, their whole demeanor changes, and they remain happy throughout the flight.<ref name="Sanders2008">{{Cite news |last=Sanders |first=Tim |date=27 October 2008 |title=A Chatterer's Guide to Easing Anxiety |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/27/travel/27iht-25flier.18204176.html}}</ref> Overall, Frankl believed that the anxious individual does not understand that their anxiety is the result of dealing with a sense of "unfulfilled responsibility" and ultimately a lack of meaning.<ref name="Boeree">{{Cite web |last=Boeree |first=C. George |year=2006 |title=Viktor Frankl |url=http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/frankl.html |publisher=Shippensburg University}}</ref>

===Treatment of neurosis===
Frankl cites two neurotic pathogens: hyper-intention, a forced intention toward some end which makes that end unattainable; and hyper-reflection, an excessive attention to oneself which stifles attempts to avoid the [[neurosis]] to which one thinks oneself predisposed. Frankl identified [[anticipatory anxiety]], a fear of a given outcome which makes that outcome more likely. To relieve the anticipatory anxiety and treat the resulting neuroses, logotherapy offers [[paradoxical intention]], wherein the patient intends to do the opposite of their hyper-intended goal.

A person, then, who fears (i.e. experiences anticipatory anxiety over) not getting a good night's sleep may try too hard (that is, hyper-intend) to fall asleep, and this would hinder their ability to do so. A logotherapist would recommend, then, that the person go to bed and intentionally try not to fall asleep. This would relieve the anticipatory anxiety which kept the person awake in the first place, thus allowing them to fall asleep in an acceptable amount of time.<ref name="Frankl2006" />

===Depression===
Viktor Frankl believed depression occurred at the psychological, physiological, and spiritual levels.<ref name="Boeree" /> At the psychological level, he believed that feelings of inadequacy stem from undertaking tasks beyond our abilities. At the physiological level, he recognized a "vital low", which he defined as a "diminishment of physical energy".<ref name="Boeree" /> Finally, Frankl believed that at the spiritual level, the depressed individual faces tension between who they actually are in relation to what they should be. Frankl refers to this as the gaping abyss.<ref name="Frankl1986" />{{rp|202}}<ref name="Boeree" /> Finally Frankl suggests that if goals seem unreachable, an individual loses a sense of future and thus meaning, resulting in depression.<ref name="Boeree" /> Thus logotherapy aims "to change the patient's attitude toward their disease as well as toward their life as a task".<ref name="Frankl1986" />{{rp|200}}

In order to overcome depressed feelings and thoughts, Frankl challenges individuals who suffer from depression to find meaning in their suffering.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frankl |first1=Victor |title=Man's Search for Meaning |date=1959 |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=080701429X}}</ref> Frankl frequently cites [[Nietzsche]]'s words, "If we have our own why in life, we shall get along with almost any how".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nietzsche |first1=Friedrich |title=Twilight of the Idols, or, How to Philosophize with a Hammer |date=1889 |publisher=Penguin Publishing |isbn=978-0140445145}}</ref> Suffering and all the [[negative emotion]]s that come with it are a normal part of the human experience and should even be expected. Edith Weisskopf-Joelson, a psychologist and follower of logotherapy, argues that "our current mental-hygiene philosophy stresses the idea that people ought to be happy, that unhappiness is a symptom of maladjustment. Such a value system might be responsible for the fact that the burden of unavoidable unhappiness is increased by unhappiness about being unhappy".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weisskopf-Joelson |first1=Edith |title=Some comments on a Viennese school of psychiatry. |journal=The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology |date=November 1955 |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=701–703 |doi=10.1037/h0045771 |pmid=13286026 |url=https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045771|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Obsessive–compulsive disorder ===
Frankl believed that those with obsessive–compulsive disorder lack the sense of completion that most other individuals possess.<ref name="Boeree" /> Instead of fighting the tendencies to repeat thoughts or actions, or focusing on changing the individual symptoms of the disease, the therapist should focus on "transform[ing] the neurotic's attitude toward their neurosis".<ref name="Frankl1986" />{{rp|185}} Therefore, it is important to recognize that the patient is "not responsible for his obsessional ideas", but that "he is certainly responsible for his attitude toward these ideas".<ref name="Frankl1986" />{{rp|188}} Frankl suggested that it is important for the patient to recognize their inclinations toward perfection as fate, and therefore, must learn to accept some degrees of uncertainty.<ref name="Boeree" /> Ultimately, following the premise of logotherapy, the patient must eventually ignore their obsessional thoughts and find meaning in their life despite such thoughts.<ref name="Frankl1986" />

===Schizophrenia===
Though logotherapy was not intended to deal with severe disorders, Frankl believed that logotherapy could benefit even those with [[schizophrenia]].<ref name="Boeree" /> He recognized the roots of schizophrenia in physiological dysfunction.<ref name="Boeree" /> In this dysfunction, the person with schizophrenia "experiences himself as an object" rather than as a subject.<ref name="Frankl1986" />{{rp|208}} Frankl suggested that a person with schizophrenia could be helped by logotherapy by first being taught to ignore voices and to end persistent self-observation.<ref name="Boeree" /> Then, during this same period, the person with schizophrenia must be led toward meaningful activity, as "even for the schizophrenic there remains that residue of freedom toward fate and toward the disease which man always possesses, no matter how ill he may be, in all situations and at every moment of life, to the very last".<ref name="Frankl1986" />{{rp|216}}

===Terminally ill patients===
In 1977, Terry Zuehlke and John Watkins conducted a study analyzing the effectiveness of logotherapy in treating terminally ill patients. The study's design used 20 male Veterans Administration volunteers who were randomly assigned to one of two possible treatments – (1) group that received eight 45-minute sessions over a 2-week period and (2) group used as control that received delayed treatment. Each group was tested on five scales – the [[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory|MMPI K Scale]], MMPI L Scale, Death Anxiety Scale, Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, and the Purpose of Life Test. The results showed an overall significant difference between the control and treatment groups. While the univariate analyses showed that there were significant group differences in 3/5 of the dependent measures. These results confirm the idea that terminally ill patients can benefit from logotherapy in coping with death.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zuehlke |first1=T.E. |last2=Watkins, J.T. |year=1977 |title=Psychotherapy with Terminally Ill Patients |journal=Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1037/h0087512}}</ref>

===Forms of treatment===
''Ecce Homo'' is a method used in logotherapy. It requires of the therapist to note the innate strengths that people have and how they have dealt with adversity and suffering in life; to ask the patient to consider how, despite everything a person may have gone through, they made the best of their suffering. The method is called "Ecce Homo", which is Latin for "Behold the Man", because the method involves beholding how other people have made the best of their adversity.<ref>Viktor Frankl, ''The Will to Meaning'', Penguin Publishing Group, Kindle edition, p. 94.</ref>

==Critiques==
{{See also|Psychotherapy#General critiques}}

===Authoritarianism===
In 1961 [[Rollo May]] argued that logotherapy is, in essence, [[authoritarian]]. He suggested that Frankl's therapy presents a plain solution to all of life's problems, an assertion that would seem to undermine the complexity of human life itself. May contended that if a patient could not find their own meaning, Frankl would provide a goal for his patient. In effect, this would negate the patient's personal responsibility, thus "diminish[ing] the patient as a person".<ref name="May1969">{{Cite book |last=Rollo May |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWRZHZrR4IYC |title=Existential psychology |publisher=Random House |year=1969 |isbn=9780075535782 |page=42 |access-date=21 May 2012}} (First Edition 1961)</ref>  Frankl explicitly replied to May's arguments through a written dialogue, sparked by Rabbi [[Reuven Bulka]]'s article "Is Logotherapy Authoritarian?".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bulka |first=Reuven P. |date=Fall 1978 |title=Is Logotherapy Authoritarian? |journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=45–54 |doi=10.1177/002216787801800406 |s2cid=220400019}}</ref> Frankl responded that he combined the prescription of medication, if necessary, with logotherapy, to deal with the person's psychological and emotional reaction to the illness, and highlighted areas of freedom and responsibility, where the person is free to search and to find meaning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frankl |first=Viktor |date=Fall 1979 |title=Reply to Rollo May |journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=85–86 |doi=10.1177/002216787901900410 |s2cid=145012871}}</ref>

===Religiousness===
Critical views of the life and word of logotherapy's founder and his work assume that Frankl's religious background<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grollman |first=Earl |year=1965 |title=The logotherapy of Viktor E. Frankl |journal=Judaism |location=New York |publisher=American Jewish Congress |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=22–38 |issn=0022-5762 }}</ref> and experience of suffering guided his conception of meaning within the boundaries of the person<ref name="Pytell 2006 490–503">{{Cite journal |last=Pytell |first=T. |year=2006 |title=Transcending the Angel Beast: Viktor Frankl and Humanistic Psychology |journal=Psychoanalytic Psychology |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=490–503 |doi=10.1037/0736-9735.23.3.490}}</ref> and therefore that logotherapy is founded on Viktor Frankl's worldview.<ref name="Pytell 2007 641–657">{{Cite journal |last=Pytell |first=T. |year=2007 |title=Extreme Experience, Psychological Insight, and Holocaust Perception: Reflections on Bettelheim and Frankl |journal=Psychoanalytic Psychology |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=641–657 |doi=10.1037/0736-9735.24.4.641}}</ref> Some researchers argue that logotherapy is not a "scientific" psychotherapeutic school in the traditional sense but a philosophy of life, a system of values, or a secular religion<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Weisskopf-Joelson |first=Edith |date=1975 |title=Logotherapy: Science or faith? |journal=[[Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice]] |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=238–240 |doi=10.1037/h0086435}}</ref> that is not fully coherent and based on questionable metaphysical premises.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reitinger |first=Claudia |date=July 2015 |title=Viktor Frankl's Logotherapy from a Philosophical Point of View |journal=Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=344–357}}</ref>

Frankl openly spoke and wrote on religion and psychiatry, throughout his life, and specifically in his last book, ''Man's Search for Ultimate Meaning'' (1997). He asserted that every person has a spiritual unconscious, independently of religious views or beliefs, yet Frankl's conception of the spiritual unconscious does not necessarily entail religiosity. In Frankl's words: "It is true, Logotherapy, deals with the Logos; it deals with Meaning. Specifically, I see Logotherapy in helping others to see meaning in life. But we cannot "give" meaning to the life of others. And if this is true of meaning per se, how much does it hold for Ultimate Meaning?"<ref name="Frankl2000">{{Cite book |last=Frankl, Viktor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_hcQAQAAMAAJ |title=Man's search for ultimate meaning |date=10 August 2000 |publisher=Perseus Pub. |isbn=978-0-7382-0354-6 |access-date=10 May 2012}}</ref> The [[American Psychiatric Association]] awarded Viktor Frankl the 1985 [[Oskar Pfister Award]] (for important contributions to religion and psychiatry).<ref name="Frankl2000" />

== Recent developments ==
Since the 1990s, the number of institutes providing education and training in logotherapy continues to increase worldwide.[https://www.viktorfrankl.org/institutes_wwE.html VFI / Institutes worldwide (E)] Numerous logotherapeutic concepts have been integrated and applied in different fields, such as [[cognitive behavioral therapy]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ameli |first1=Matti |last2=Dattilio |first2=Frank M. |date=2013 |title=Enhancing cognitive behavior therapy with logotherapy: Techniques for clinical practice. |journal=Psychotherapy |language=en |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=387–391 |doi=10.1037/a0033394 |issn=1939-1536 |pmid=24000857}}</ref> [[acceptance and commitment therapy]] (ACT),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sharp |first1=William G. |last2=Wilson |first2=Kelly G. |last3=Schulenberg |first3=Stefan E. |date=December 2004 |title=Use of Paradoxical Intention in the Context of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy |journal=Psychological Reports |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=946–948 |doi=10.2466/pr0.95.3.946-948 |issn=0033-2941 |pmid=15666933 |s2cid=27391991}}</ref> and [[Burnout (psychology)|burnout]] prevention.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Riethof |first1=Norbert |last2=Bob |first2=Petr |date=2019-06-14 |title=Burnout Syndrome and Logotherapy: Logotherapy as Useful Conceptual Framework for Explanation and Prevention of Burnout |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=10 |pages=382 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00382 |issn=1664-0640 |pmc=6587911 |pmid=31258490 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The logotherapeutic concepts of [[noogenic neurosis]] and existential crisis were added to the ICD 11 under the name demoralisation crisis, i.e. a construct that features hopelessness, meaninglessness, and existential distress as first described by Frankl in the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kissane |first1=David W. |last2=Clarke |first2=David M. |last3=Street |first3=Annette F. |date=March 2001 |title=Demoralization Syndrome — a Relevant Psychiatric Diagnosis for Palliative Care |journal=Journal of Palliative Care |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1177/082585970101700103 |issn=0825-8597 |pmid=11324179 |s2cid=41423140}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=David M. |last2=Kissane |first2=David W. |date=December 2002 |title=Demoralization: Its Phenomenology and Importance |journal=Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry |volume=36 |issue=6 |pages=733–742 |doi=10.1046/j.1440-1614.2002.01086.x |issn=0004-8674 |pmid=12406115 |s2cid=23248298}}</ref> Logotherapy has also been associated with psychosomatic and physiological health benefits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Randy |last2=Bavishi |first2=Chirag |last3=Rozanski |first3=Alan |date=2016 |title=Purpose in Life and Its Relationship to All-Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Events |journal=Psychosomatic Medicine |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=122–133 |doi=10.1097/psy.0000000000000274 |issn=0033-3174 |pmid=26630073 |s2cid=24337711}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rodriguez |first=L. |date=January 1939 |title=Additions à la flore des Antilles françaises |journal=Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=175–177 |doi=10.1080/00378941.1939.10834168 |issn=0037-8941|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Life expectancy at birth: women |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/530655752103 |doi=10.1787/530655752103|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Koizumi |first=M. |date=2008 |title=Effect of having a sense of purpose in life on the risk of death from cardiovascular diseases. |journal=Journal of Epidemiology |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=191–196 |doi=10.2188/jea.JE2007388 |pmc=4771589 |pmid=18753736}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Eric S. |last2=Sun |first2=Jennifer K. |last3=Park |first3=Nansook |author4-link=Laura Kubzansky |last4=Kubzansky |first4=Laura D. |last5=Peterson |first5=Christopher |date=2012-02-23 |title=Purpose in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among older U.S. adults with coronary heart disease: a two-year follow-up |journal=Journal of Behavioral Medicine |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=124–133 |doi=10.1007/s10865-012-9406-4 |issn=0160-7715 |pmid=22359156 |s2cid=6273837}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Lei |last2=Boyle |first2=Patricia A. |last3=Wilson |first3=Robert S. |last4=Levine |first4=Steven R. |last5=Schneider |first5=Julie A. |last6=Bennett |first6=David A. |date=2015 |title=Purpose in Life and Cerebral Infarcts in Community-Dwelling Older People |journal=Stroke |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=1071–1076 |doi=10.1161/strokeaha.114.008010 |issn=0039-2499 |pmc=4461202 |pmid=25791714 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Besides Logotherapy, other meaning-centered psychotherapeutic approaches such as [[positive psychology]] and meaning therapy have emerged.<ref>Wong, P. T. P. (1997). Meaning-centered counselling: A cognitive-behavioral approach to logotherapy. ''The International Forum for Logotherapy, 20''(2), 85–94.</ref><ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2012). From logotherapy to meaning-centered counseling and therapy. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), ''The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications'' (2nd ed., pp. 619–647). New York, NY: Routledge.</ref> [[Paul T. P. Wong|Paul Wong]]'s meaning therapy attempts to translate logotherapy into psychological mechanisms, integrating cognitive behavioral therapy, [[positive psychotherapy]] and the positive psychology research on meaning.<ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2016). Integrative meaning therapy: From logotherapy to existential positive interventions. In P. Russo-Netzer, S. E. Schulenberg, & A. Batthyany (Eds.). ''To thrive, to cope, to understand: Meaning in positive and existential psychotherapy'' (pp. 0–0). New York, NY: Springer.</ref><ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2014). Viktor Frankl's meaning seeking model and positive psychology. In A. Batthyany & P. Russo-Netzer (Eds.), ''Meaning in existential and positive psychology'' (pp. 149–184)''.'' New York, NY: Springer.</ref> Logotherapy is also being applied in the field of oncology<ref>Breitbart, W. S. & Poppet, S. R. (2014). ''Meaning-centered group psychotherapy for patients with advanced cancer: A treatment manual.'' New York, NY: Oxford.</ref><ref>Breitbart, W. S. & Poppet, S. R. (2014). ''Individual meaning-centered psychotherapy for patients with advanced cancer: A treatment manual.'' New York, NY: Oxford.</ref> and palliative care ([[William Breitbart]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Breitbart |first1=William |last2=Heller |first2=Karen S. |date=2003 |title=Reframing Hope: Meaning-Centered Care for Patients Near the End of Life |journal=Journal of Palliative Medicine |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=979–988 |doi=10.1089/109662103322654901 |issn=1096-6218 |pmid=14733692}}</ref> These recent developments introduce Viktor Frankl's logotherapy to a new generation and extend its impact to new areas of research.<ref>Batthyany, A., & Russo-Netzer, P. (2014). Meaning in positive and existential psychology. New York, NY: Springer.</ref>

==Locations==
A number of logotherapeutic institutes have opened up in various countries around the world and include:
{{Div col}}

===Africa===
* Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy South Africa<ref>{{Cite web |title=VFISA |url=https://vfisa.co.za/ |website=vfisa.co.za}}</ref>

===Asia===
* The Viktor Frankl Center for Logotherapy in Israel<ref>{{Cite web |title=Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy in Israel |url=https://themeaningseeker.org/ |website=Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy in Israel}}</ref>
* Japan Logotherapist Association<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home &#124; 日本ロゴセラピーゼミナール |url=http://japan-logotherapy.com/ |website=japan-logotherapy.com}}</ref>

=== Australia===
* Viktor Frankl Institute Australia<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 8, 2019 |title=Home – Life Change Therapies |url=https://www.lifechange.net.au/ |website=www.lifechange.net.au}}</ref>

===Europe===
* Viktor Frankl Zentrum Wien<ref>{{Cite web |title=Herzlich willkommen im VIKTOR FRANKL ZENTRUM WIEN! |url=https://www.franklzentrum.org/home.html |website=www.franklzentrum.org}}</ref>
* Viktor Frankl Institute of Ireland<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 6, 2014 |title=Viktor Frankl Institute of Ireland |url=http://www.logotherapyireland.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606212900/http://www.logotherapyireland.com/ |archive-date=2014-06-06}}</ref>
*  Logotherapy Institute of Finland<ref>{{Cite web |title=Logotherapy Institute of Finland |url=http://logoterapia.fi/cmsms/index.php?page=in-english}}</ref>
* Logotherapy Institute of Serbia<ref>{{Cite web |title=Logotherapy Institute of Serbia |url=http://logoterapija.rs/}}</ref>
* Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy – Prague, Czech Republic<ref>{{Cite web |title=Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy – Prague, Czech Republic |url=http://www.expats.cz/prague/czech/universities/viktorfranklinstituteforlogotherapy/}}</ref>
* Viktor Frankl Institute of Turkey<ref>{{Cite web |title=Viktor Frankl Enstitüsü Türkiye |url=https://www.viktorfrankltr.net/}}</ref>

===North America===
* Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy – Stamford, Texas<ref>[https://www.viktorfranklinstitute.org/ Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy – Stamford, Texas]</ref>
* Arizona Institute of Logotherapy<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arizona Institute of Logotherapy |url=http://logotherapy.us/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024032419/http://logotherapy.us/ |archive-date=2017-10-24 |access-date=2018-03-11}}</ref>
* Canadian Institute of Logotherapy – Ottawa, Canada<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ottawa Institute of Logotherapy |url=https://logotherapy.ca/ |website=Ottawa Institute of Logotherapy}}</ref>
* Sociedad Mexicana de Análisis Existencial y Logoterapia<ref>{{Cite web |title=Construyendo |url=https://logoterapia-smael.edu.mx/ |website=logoterapia-smael.edu.mx}}</ref>

===South America===
* Fundacion Argentina de Logoterapia – Buenos Aires<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fundación Argentina de Logoterapia &#124; Viktor Emil Frankl |url=https://www.logoterapia-arg.com.ar/ |website=www.logoterapia-arg.com.ar}}</ref>
* Associação Brasileira de Logoterapia e Análise Existencial Frankliana (SOBRAL)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://logoterapia.com.br/ |website=Sobral}}</ref>

===Online===
* Viktor Frankl Institute – Vienna, Austria<ref>{{Cite web |title=Viktor Frankl Institute Vienna |url=https://www.viktorfrankl.org/ |website=www.viktorfrankl.org}}</ref>
* Viktor Frankl Institute of America<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://viktorfranklamerica.com/ |website=The Viktor E. Frankl Institute of America}}</ref>{{Div col end}}
* Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.viktorfranklinstitute.org// |website=The Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Existential therapy]]
*[[Ikigai]]—similar Japanese concept

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* Frankl, Viktor ''[https://archive.org/details/manssearchformea00vikt Man's Search for Meaning]. An Introduction to Logotherapy,'' Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-8070-1427-1}}
*Frankl, Viktor (12 October 1986). ''[[The Doctor and the Soul|The Doctor and the Soul: From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy]]''. Random House Digital, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-394-74317-2}}. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
* Frankl, Viktor ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FgVsAAAAMAAJ Psychotherapy and Existentialism]. Selected Papers on Logotherapy,'' Simon & Schuster, New York, 1967. {{ISBN|0-671-20056-9}}
* Frankl, Viktor ''[https://archive.org/details/willtomeaningfou00fran_0 The Will to Meaning]. Foundations and Applications of Logotherapy,'' New American Library, New York, 1988 {{ISBN|0-452-01034-9}}
* Frankl, Viktor ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfBJ84QCAYC The Unheard Cry for Meaning]. Psychotherapy and Humanism,'' Simon & Schuster, New York, 2011 {{ISBN|978-1-4516-6438-6}}
* Frankl, Viktor ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cY3u6N1zXIgC&q=Viktor+Emil+Frankl On the Theory and Therapy of Mental Disorders]. An Introduction to Logotherapy and Existential Analysis,'' Brunner-Routledge, London-New York, 2004. {{ISBN|0-415-95029-5}}
* Frankl, Viktor ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dHHVzdO_SJoC Viktor Frankl Recollections].'' An Autobiography, Basic Books, Cambridge, MA 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-7382-0355-3}}.
* Frankl, Viktor ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_hcQAQAAMAAJ Man's Search for Ultimate Meaning].'' Perseus Book Publishing, New York, 1997; {{ISBN|978-0-7382-0354-6}}.

==External links==
*[https://www.viktorfrankl.org/ Viktor Frankl Institute Vienna]
*[https://viktorfranklamerica.com/ Viktor Frankl Institute of America]
*[https://www.franklzentrum.org/english/viktor-frankl-centre-vienna.html Viktor Frankl Centre]
*[http://viktorandi.publishpath.com/ Viktor and I (documentary)]
* [https://www.viktorfranklinstitute.org/ Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy]
* [https://themeaningseeker.org/ Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy in Israel]

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[[Category:Existentialist concepts]]
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