Editing Lombard language

{{Short description|Gallo-Italic language spoken in the Italian region of Lombardy}}
{{For|the extinct 6th-century Germanic language|Lombardic language}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Lombard
| nativename       = {{lang|lmo|lombard}}, {{lang|lmo|lumbard}}, {{lang|lmo|lumbart}}, {{lang|lmo|lombart}}
| states           = {{plainlist|
*[[Italy]]
*[[Switzerland]]
}}
| region           = Italy<ref name=JMI>{{cite book |title=One Europe, many nations: a historical dictionary of European national groups |first=James |last=Minahan |year=2000 |place=Westport}}</ref><ref name=CMO>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages |first=Christopher |last=Moseley |year=2007 |place=New York}}</ref><ref name=AFI>{{cite book |title=Minority language planning and micronationalism in Italy |first=Paolo |last=Coluzzi |year=2007 |place=Berne}}</ref>
*[[Lombardy]]
*[[Piedmont]]
*[[South Tyrol]]
*[[Trentino]]
Switzerland<ref name=JMI/><ref name=CMO/><ref name=AFI/>
*[[Grisons]]
*[[Ticino]]
Brazil<ref name="auto">Spoken in [[Botuverá]], in [[Brazil]], municipality established by Italian migrants coming from the valley between [[Treviglio]] and [[Crema, Lombardy|Crema]]. A thesis of [[Leiden University]] about ''Brasilian Bergamasque'': [https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/52581/Thesis.pdf?sequence=1].</ref>
*[[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]
| speakers         = 3.8 million
| date             = 2002
| ref              = e18
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3             = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]
| fam4             = [[Latin]]
| fam5             = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
| fam6             = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
| fam7             = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]]
| fam8             = Gallo-Iberian
| fam9             = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]
| fam10            = [[Gallo-Italic languages|Gallo-Italic]]
| fam11            = Lombard–[[Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]]?<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/piem1239 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - Piemontese-Lombard |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029130658/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/piem1239 |archive-date=2023-10-29 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |author-link=Harald Hammarström |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |publication-place=[[Leipzig]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7398962 |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |author-link3=Martin Haspelmath |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian |doi-access=free}}</ref>
| dia1             = [[Western Lombard dialect|Western Lombard]]
| dia2             = [[Eastern Lombard dialect|Eastern Lombard]]
| iso3             = lmo
| glotto           = lomb1257
| glottorefname    = Lombard
| lingua           = 51-AAA-oc & 51-AAA-od
| notice           = IPA
| map              = File:Lombard_Language_distribution.png
| mapcaption       = '''Lombard language distribution in Europe:'''
{{legend|#01987c|Areas where Lombard is spoken}}
{{legend|#01f0c4|Areas where Lombard is spoken alongside other languages ([[Alemannic German|Alemannic]], [[Ladin language|Ladin]] and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]) and areas of linguistic transition (with [[Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]], with [[Emilian language|Emilian]] and with [[Venetian language|Venetian]])}}
{{legend|#a6feee|Areas of influence of Lombard ([[Trento|Tridentine]] dialect)}}
'''?''' Areas of uncertain diffusion of Ladin
| script           = Latin
| ancestor         = [[Old Latin]]
| ancestor2        = [[Vulgar Latin]]
| ancestor3        = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]]
| ancestor4        = [[Old Gallo-Italic language|Old Gallo-Italic]]
| ancestor5        = [[Old Lombard]]
}}

The '''Lombard language''' ({{langx|lmo|lombard|link=no}},<ref group="N">[[Classical Milanese orthography]], {{ill|Scriver Lombard|lmo}} and {{ill|New Lombard Orthography|lmo|Noeuva Ortografia Lombarda}}.</ref> {{lang|lmo|lumbard}},<ref name=":02" group="N">[[Ticino|Ticinese]] orthography.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vocabolario dei dialetti della Svizzera italiana - CDE (DECS) - Repubblica e Cantone Ticino |trans-title=Vocabulary of Swiss Italian dialects |url=https://www4.ti.ch/decs/dcsu/cde/pubblicazioni/vocabolario-dei-dialetti-della-svizzera-italiana/ |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=www4.ti.ch}}</ref> {{lang|lmo|lumbart}}<ref group="N">Modern Western orthography and Classical Cremish Orthography.</ref> or {{lang|lmo|lombart}},<ref group="N">[[Eastern Lombard|Eastern]] unified orthography.{{Clarify|reason=Still not clear where this orthography is from and who codified it, as it is mentioned just on lmo.wiki in a page with no sources|date=November 2022}}</ref> depending on the orthography; pronunciation: {{IPA|lmo|lũˈbaːrt, lomˈbart|}}) belongs to the [[Gallo-Italic]] group within the [[Romance languages]]. It is characterized by a [[Celtic language|Celtic]] [[linguistic substratum]] and a [[Lombardic language|Lombardic]] [[Superstratum|linguistic superstratum]]<ref name=":12">{{cite web |title=Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: LMO |url=http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=LMO |language=en |quote=Identifier: LMO - Language(s) Name: Lombard - Status: Active - Code set: 639-3 - Scope: Individual - Type: Living}}</ref> and is a [[dialect continuum|cluster of homogeneous dialects]] that are spoken by millions of speakers in [[Northern Italy]] and southern [[Switzerland]].  These include most of [[Lombardy]] and some areas of the neighbouring regions, notably the far eastern side of [[Piedmont]] and the extreme western side of [[Trentino]], and in Switzerland in the cantons of [[Ticino]] and [[Graubünden]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Mary C. |title=Policy and Planning for Endangered Languages |last2=Soria |first2=Claudia |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=9781316352410 |location=Cambridge, UK |page=130 |chapter=Assessing the effect of official recognition on the vitality of endangered languages: a case of study from Italy |quote=Lombard (Lumbard, ISO 639-9 lmo) is a cluster of essentially homogeneous varieties (Tamburelli 2014: 9) belonging to the Gallo-Italic group. It is spoken in the Italian region of Lombardy, in the Novara province of Piedmont and in Switzerland. [[Mutual intelligibility]] between Lombard and Italian has been reported as very low (Tamburelli 2014). Although some Lombard varieties, Milanese in particular, enjoy a rather long and prestigious literary tradition, Lombard is now used mostly in informal domains. According to [[Ethnologue]], Piedmontese and Lombard are respectively spoken by between 1,600,000 and 2,000,000 speakers and around 3,500,000 speakers. Those are very high figures for languages that have never been recognised officially or been systematically taught in schools. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-ZBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130 |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20170421123006/https://books.google.it/books?id=v-ZBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130 |archive-date=2017-04-21 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> The language is also spoken in [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] in [[Brazil]] by Lombard immigrants from the [[Province of Bergamo]], in [[Italy]].<ref name="auto"/><ref name=":1">{{cite web |last=Bonfadini |first=Giovanni |title=lombard, dialects |trans-title=lombard dialects |url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/dialetti-lombardi_%28Enciclopedia-dell%27Italiano%29/ |work=[[Enciclopedia Treccani]] |language=it}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Origins ===
The most ancient [[linguistic substratum]] that has left a mark on the Lombard language is that of the ancient [[Ligures]].{{sfn|Agnoletto|1992|p=120}}{{sfn|D'Ilario|2003|p=28}} However, available information about the ancient language and its influence on modern Lombard is extremely vague and limited.{{sfn|Agnoletto|1992|p=120}}{{sfn|D'Ilario|2003|p=28}} That is in sharp contrast to the influence left by the [[Celts]], who settled in [[Northern Italy]] and brought their [[Celtic languages]] and culturally and linguistically Celticised the Ligures.{{sfn|D'Ilario|2003|p=29}} The Celtic substratum of modern Lombard and the neighbouring languages of Northern Italy is self-evident and so the Lombard language is classified as a [[Gallo-Italic languages|Gallo-Italic language]] (from the ancient Roman name for the Celts, [[Gauls]]).{{sfn|Agnoletto|1992|p=120}}

[[Roman Empire|Roman domination]] shaped the dialects spoken in the area, which is called [[Cisalpine Gaul]] ("Gaul, this side of the mountains") by the Romans, and much of the [[lexicon]] and [[grammar]] of the Lombard language have their origin in [[Latin]].{{sfn|D'Ilario|2003|p=29}} However, that influence was not homogeneous{{sfn|Agnoletto|1992|p=120}} since idioms of different areas were influenced by previous linguistic substrata, and each area was marked by a stronger or weaker Latinisation or the preservation of ancient Celtic characteristics.{{sfn|Agnoletto|1992|p=120}}

The Germanic [[Lombardic language]] also left strong traces in modern Lombard, as it was the variety of [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] that was spoken by the Germanic [[Lombards]] (or Longobards), who settled in Northern Italy, which is called [[Lombardy (historical region)|Greater Lombardy]] after them, and in other parts of the [[Italian Peninsula]] after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. Lombardic acted as a [[linguistic superstratum]] on Lombard and neighboring Gallo-Italic languages since the Germanic Lombards did not impose their language by law on the Gallo-Roman population, but they rather acquired the Gallo-Italic language from the local population. Lombardic left traces, mostly in lexicon and phonetics, without Germanicising the local language in its structure and so Lombard preserved its Romance structure.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lagobba.it/?p=652 |title=Il milanese crogiuolo di tanti idiomi |trans-title=The Milanese melting pot of many languages |language=it |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924183757/http://www.lagobba.it/?p=652 |archive-date=2017-09-24}}</ref>

=== From the 15th to the 17th century ===
[[File:Giovanni_Bressani.jpg|thumb|left|Giovanni Bressani, author of satirical poems in the Bergamo dialect]]

From the 15th century onwards, literary Tuscan began to supplant the use of northern vernaculars such as Lombard, even regardless of the fact that Lombard itself began to be heavily influenced by the Tuscan vernacular. Prior to that, the Lombard language was widely used in administrative spheres.<ref>Brown, Josh: ''Testimonianze Di Una Precoce Toscanizzazione Nelle Lettere Commerciali del Mercante Milanese Francesco Tanso (?-1398)'', Archivio Datini, Prato https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-437059133.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818052204/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-437059133.html |data=18 agosto 2018 }}</ref> Among those who favoured the strengthening of Tuscan influences over Lombard culture was the Duke of Milan Ludovico il Moro; during his reign he brought numerous men of culture from the Republic of Florence to the Sforza court, the most famous of whom was certainly Leonardo da Vinci.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=21 September 2017 |publisher=storico.org |title=Ludovico il Moro e l'età aurea della Grande Milano |url=http://www.storico.org/umanesimo_rinascimento/ludovico_moro.html}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> At the same time, however, Lancino Curzio still wrote some works in Milanese dialect at the Sforza court.<ref>{{cite book|access-date=21 September 2017 |first=Mirko |last=Tavoni |title=Storia della lingua italiana. Il Quattrocento. |date=2015 |isbn=978-88-6292-538-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYbtCgAAQBAJ&dq=Lancino+Curti+dialetto+milanese&pg=PA153}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, the Lombard language was widely and actively discredited in Italian literary circles.  Tuscan writers and humanists such as [[Luigi Pulci]] and [[Benedetto Dei]] recorded aspects of the language spoken in Milan in the form of parodies;<ref>Mirko Tavoni, ''Storia della lingua italiana. Il Quattrocento'', Libreriauniversitaria.it Edizioni, 2015, p. 152</ref> similarly, the Asti-born writer Giorgio Alione parodied Milanese in his ''Commedia e farse carnovalesche nei dialetti astigiano, milanese e francese misti con latino barbaro'' (eng. "Comedy and carnival farces in the Asti, Milanese and French dialects mixed with barbaric Latin") composed at the end of the 15th century.<ref>{{Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani|gian-giorgio-alione|ALIONE, Gian Giorgio}}</ref> The Florentine humanist [[Lionardo Salviati|Leonardo Salviati]], one of the founders of the [[Accademia della Crusca]], an important Italian linguistic academy operating to this day, published a series of translations of a Boccaccian tale into various vernaculars (including Bergamo and Milanese) explicitly in order to demonstrate how ugly and awkward they were compared to Tuscan.<ref>Salviati, Leonardo: ''Degli Avvertimenti Della Lingua Sopra Il Decamerone'', Raillard, 1712</ref>

At the same time, the 15th century saw the first signs of a true Lombard literature: in the eastern parts of Lombardy, the Bergamo-born [[Giovanni Bressani]] composed numerous volumes of satirical poetry and  the Brescia-born Galeazzo dagli Orzi wrote his ''Massera da bé'', a sort of theatrical dialogue;<ref>{{cite book|access-date=21 September 2017 |first=Hermann |last=Haller |title=The Other Italy: The Literary Canon in Dialect |date=January 1999 |isbn=978-0-8020-4424-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F4C4AXtLFIC&dq=Giovanni+Bressani+Galeazzo+dagli+Orzi&pg=PA106}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> in the west of the region area, the Mannerist painter Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo lead the composition of the "arabesques" in the Accademia dei Facchini della Val di Blenio, a Milanese [[academy]] founded in 1560.<ref>{{Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani|giovanni-paolo-lomazzo|LOMAZZO, Giovanni Paolo}}</ref>

At the beginning of the 17th century, the Ossola native Giovanni Capis published the ''Varon milanes de la lengua de Milan'' (eng. "Varrone Milanese on the language of Milan"), a sort of etymological dictionary was published.<ref>{{cite book|access-date=21 September 2017 |first=Guglielmo |last=Stefani |title=Dizionario corografico del Novarese |date=November 2010 |isbn=978-88-488-1157-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7fAAgAAQBAJ&dq=Varon+Milanes+dizionario+etimologico&pg=PA65}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> 
[[File:Meneghino - stampa ottocento.jpg|thumb|upright|Meneghino, a character from the Milanese theatre, who later became a mask of the commedia dell'arte]]

An example of a text in ancient Milanese dialect is this excerpt from ''Il falso filosofo'' (1698), act III, scene XIV, where [[Meneghino]], a traditional Milanese character from the [[commedia dell'arte]], presents himself in court (Lombard on the left,  Italian translation on the right):
{{Text and translation
| <poem>
«E mì interrogatus ghe responditt.
Sont Meneghin Tandœuggia,
Ciamæ par sora nomm el Tananan,
Del condamm Marchionn ditt el Sginsgiva;
Sont servitor del sior Pomponi Gonz,
C'al è trent agn che'l servj»
</poem>
| <poem>
E io interrogatus risposi:
Sono Meneghino Babbeo
chiamato per soprannome il Ciampichino
del fu Marchionne detto il Gengiva;
sono servitore del signor Pomponio Gonzo
che servo da trent'anni
</poem>
| Meneghino appears in court in "The False Philosopher" (1698), act III, scene XIV<ref>{{cite book|author=Carlo Maria Maggi |date=1701 |location=Milano |pages=100–101 |title=Comedie e rime in lingua milanese |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kPQmkrFoPdYC&pg=PA100 |volume=2}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
}}

The 17th century also saw the rise of the figure of the playwright Carlo Maria Maggi, who normalised the spelling of the Milanese dialect and who created, among other things, the Milanese mask of Meneghino.<ref>Atlante del Sapere: ''Maschere italiane'', Edizioni Demetra, 2002, pag. 116</ref> A friend and correspondent of Maggi was Francesco De Lemene, author of La sposa Francesca (the first literary work in modern [[Lodi, Lombardy|Lodi]] dialect)<ref>De Lemene, Francesco: ''La Sposa Francesca'', Edizione curata da Dante Isella, Giulio Einaudi Editore, 1979.</ref> and of a translation of ''[[Jerusalem Delivered|Gerusalemme liberata]]''. Moreover, the 17th century saw the emergence of the first [[Bosinada|bosinade]]: popular poems written on loose sheets and posted in the squares or read (or even sung) in public; they were widely diffused until the first decades of the 20th century.<ref>Sapere.it: ''[http://www.sapere.it/enciclopedia/bosinada.html Bosinada]''</ref>

=== In the modern era ===
[[File:Carlo Porta.jpg|thumb|Carlo Porta, the most important author of Lombard literature, also included among the greatest poets of Italian national literature]]

Milanese literature in the 18th century was quickly developing: some important names which emerged in that period include [[Domenico Balestrieri (writer)|Domenico Balestrieri]], who was associated the famous poet [[Giuseppe Parini]]. The latter wrote some compositions in the Lombard language.<ref name="anticacredenza">{{cite web|access-date=21 September 2017 |archive-date=6 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506201135/http://www.anticacredenzasantambrogiomilano.org/linguastoria/7001.html |publisher=anticacredenzasantambrogiomilano.org |title=Letteratura milanese - Il '700 |url=http://www.anticacredenzasantambrogiomilano.org/linguastoria/7001.html}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=21 September 2017 |publisher=unicatt.it |title=Sistema bibliotecario e documentale |url=http://opac.unicatt.it/search~S13*ita?/cFONDO+Silvio+Cipriani-E-75/cfondo+silvio+cipriani+e+++++++75/-3,-1,,E/browse}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> One of the most important writers of the period was the Bergamo-based abbot [[Giuseppe Rottario|Giuseppe Rota]], author of a substantial (unpublished) Bergamo-Italian-Latin vocabulary and of several poetic works in the Orobic idiom, which he always called "lingua".<ref>Biondelli, Bernardino: ''Saggio sui dialetti gallo-italici'', Milano, 1853, pag. 106.</ref>

In this period the linguistic characteristics of Lombard were well recognizable and comparable to the modern ones, except for some phonetic peculiarities and the presence of a remote past tense, replaced almost fully by the past perfect tense by 1875.<ref>{{cite web|archive-date=14 November 2023 |language=lmo |title=Il passato remoto in lombardo |trans-title=The remote past in Lombard |url=https://academiabonvesin.eu/2022/09/el-passad-lontan-in-lombard/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231114162543/https://academiabonvesin.eu/2022/09/el-passad-lontan-in-lombard/ |url-status=dead}}<!-- auto-translated from unknown (Italian or Spanish) by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref name="remoto">Biondelli reports that the Milanese dialect was the first Lombard variant to lose this verb tense. Biondelli, Bernardino: ''Saggio sui dialetti Gallo-italici'', 1853.</ref><ref name="veja">{{cite web|access-date=21 September 2017 |publisher=veja.it |title=La lingua padana o padanese |date=6 June 2012 |url=http://www.veja.it/2012/06/07/la-lingua-padana-o-padanese-prima-parte/}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

The beginning of the 19th century was dominated by the figure of [[Carlo Porta]], recognized by many as the most important author of Lombard literature, also included among the greatest poets of Italian national literature. With him some of the highest peaks of expressiveness in the Lombard language were reached, which clearly emerged in works such as ''La Ninetta del Verzee, Desgrazzi de Giovannin Bongee'', ''La guerra di pret'' and ''Lament del Marchionn de gamb avert''.<ref name="porta"/>

Milanese poetic production assumed such important dimensions that in 1815 the scholar [[Francesco Cherubini]] published an anthology of Lombard literature in four volumes, which included texts written from the seventeenth century to his day.<ref>{{Treccani|francesco-cherubini|Cherubini, Francesco}}</ref>

=== In the contemporary era ===
In the first part of the 20th century, the greatest exponent of Lombard literature was the Milanese lawyer [[Delio Tessa]], who distanced himself from the Portian tradition by giving his texts a strong expressionist tone.<ref>Novelli, Mauro: ''I saggi lirici di Delio Tessa'', LED, 2001, pagg. 52-54.</ref> In Bergamo, the most prominent advocate of Lombard language was [[Bortolo Belotti]], a lawyer, historian and minister in the liberal governments of the time.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=21 September 2017 |archive-date=22 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922050758/http://servizi.ct2.it/ssl/wiki/index.php?title=Bortolo_Belotti |publisher=servizi.ct2.it |title=Bortolo Belotti |url=http://servizi.ct2.it/ssl/wiki/index.php?title=Bortolo_Belotti}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

The Lombard language became known outside its linguistic borders thanks to I Legnanesi, a theatre company that performed comedies in the [[Legnanese]] dialect and which is the most famous example of [[Travesti (theatre)|travesti theatre]] in Italy.<ref name="ilgiorno">{{cite web|access-date=11 April 2014 |publisher=ilgiorno.it |title=Antonio Provasio, capocomico dei Legnanesi: "Milano mi dà il pane e mi riempie il cuore" |date=22 March 2014 |url=http://www.ilgiorno.it/milano/cronaca/2014/03/23/1042734-antonio-provasio-legnanesi-intervista.shtml#1}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> In their comic shows the actors propose to the public satirical figures of the typical Lombard court; founded in [[Legnano]] in 1949 by Felice Musazzi, Tony Barlocco and Luigi Cavalleri, it is among the most famous companies in the European dialect theatre scene.<ref name="ilgiorno" />

The 21st century has also seen the use of Lombard in contemporary music, such as in the musical pieces of Davide Van De Sfroos<ref name="antologia">{{cite web|access-date=21 September 2017 |archive-date=30 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630102556/https://sites.google.com/site/lombardofonia/home |title=Antologia lombarda |url=https://sites.google.com/site/lombardofonia/home}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> and in the translations into Lombard of the works of Bob Dylan.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=21 September 2017 |publisher=repubblica.it |title=Il tempismo è perfetto, Bob Dylan è in dialetto lombardo: "È l'emblema dei cantastorie" |date=17 October 2016 |url=http://www.repubblica.it/spettacoli/musica/2016/10/17/news/bob_dylan-149853920/}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> There is no shortage of translations of great literary classics; in fact, there are numerous versions in Lombard of works such as Pinocchio, The Betrothed, The Little Prince, the Divine Comedy and – in religious literature – of the Gospels.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=21 September 2017 |publisher=patrimonilinguistici.it |title=Letteratura in lingua locale: quale futuro? |date=2 February 2017 |url=http://patrimonilinguistici.it/letteratura-lingua-locale-quale-futuro/}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

== Status ==
Lombard is considered a [[minority language]] that is structurally separate from [[Italian language|Italian]] by both [[Ethnologue]] and the [[UNESCO]] ''Red Book on Endangered Languages''. However, [[Italy]] and [[Switzerland]] do not recognize Lombard-speakers as a linguistic minority. In Italy, that is the same as for most other minority languages,<ref>{{cite book |last=Coluzzi |first=P. |date=2004 |title=Regional and Minority Languages in Italy |series=Marcator Working Papers |volume=14}}</ref> which have been for a long time incorrectly classed as corrupted [[Regional Italian|regional dialects of Italian]]. However, Lombard and Italian belong to different subgroups of the Romance language family, and Lombard's historical development is not related to [[Standard Italian]], which is derived from [[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=von Wartburg |first=W. |date=1950 |title=Die Ausgliederung der romanischen Sprachräume |language=de |trans-title=The spin-off of the Romance language areas |location=Bern |publisher=Francke}}</ref>

=== Speakers ===
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Pietro speaking Lombard.webm|thumb|A Lombard speaker]]
Historically, the vast majority of [[Lombards]] spoke only Lombard, as "Italian" was merely a literary language, and most Italians were not able to read or write.<ref>{{Cite book |last=De Mauro |first=T. |date=1970 |title=Storia linguistica dell'Italia unita |language=it |trans-title=Linguistic history of unified Italy |edition=Second |location=Laterza, Berkeley}}</ref> After the [[Italian economic miracle]], Standard Italian arose throughout Italy and Lombard-speaking Switzerland, wholly-[[monoglot|monolingual]] Lombard-speakers became a rarity as time went by, but a small minority may still be uncomfortable speaking Standard Italian. Surveys in Italy find that all Lombard-speakers also speak Italian, and their command of both two languages varies according to their [[geography|geographical]] position as well as their [[sociology|socio]]-[[economics|economic]] situation. The most reliable predictor was found to be the speaker's age. Studies have found that young people are much less likely to speak Lombard as proficiently as their grandparents.<ref>2006 [http://portal-lem.com/images/it/Italie/Lingue_e_dialetti_e_lingue_straniere_in_Italia.pdf report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704234603/http://portal-lem.com/images/it/Italie/Lingue_e_dialetti_e_lingue_straniere_in_Italia.pdf |date=2010-07-04 }} by the Italian institute for national statistics. ([[Istituto Nazionale di Statistica|ISTAT]])</ref> In some areas, elderly people are more used to speaking Lombard than Italian even though they know both.

== Classification ==
[[File:Romance-lg-classification-en.svg|thumb|left|Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria]]
Lombard belongs to the [[Gallo-Italic]] (Cisalpine) group of [[Gallo-Romance languages]], which belongs to the [[Western Romance]] subdivision.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tamburelli |first1=Marco |last2=Brasca |first2=Lissander |date=2018 |title=Revisiting the classification of Gallo-Italic: a dialectometric approach |journal=[[Digital Scholarship in the Humanities]] |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=442–455 |doi=10.1093/llc/fqx041 |url=https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/researchoutputs/revisiting-the-classification-of-galloitalic(50b956b1-e97b-43a1-b2c4-d2625ad2c270).html}}</ref>

===Varieties===
Traditionally, the Lombard dialects have been classified into the Eastern, Western, Alpine and Southern Lombard dialects.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lingualombarda.it/index.php/lingua-lombarda-lato.html |title=Lingua lombarda |trans-title=Lombard language |language=it |publisher=Circolo Filologico Milanese |website=Lingua Lombarda}}</ref>

The varieties of the Italian provinces of [[Metropolitan City of Milan|Milan]], [[Province of Varese|Varese]], [[Province of Como|Como]], [[Province of Lecco|Lecco]], [[Province of Lodi|Lodi]], [[Province of Monza and Brianza|Monza and Brianza]], [[Province of Pavia|Pavia]] and [[Province of Mantua|Mantua]] belong to [[Western Lombard dialects|Western Lombard]], and the provinces of [[Province of Bergamo|Bergamo]], [[Province of Brescia|Brescia]] and [[Province of Cremona|Cremona]] are dialects of [[Eastern Lombard dialect|Eastern Lombard]]. All varieties spoken in the Swiss areas (both in the [[Canton (administrative division)|Canton]] of [[Ticino]] and the Canton of [[Graubünden]]) are Western, and both Western and Eastern varieties are found in the Italian areas.

The varieties of the Alpine valleys of [[Valchiavenna]] and [[Valtellina]] ([[Sondrio]]) and upper-[[Valcamonica]] (Brescia) and the four Lombard valleys of the Swiss canton of [[Graubünden]] have some peculiarities of their own and some traits in common with Eastern Lombard but should be considered Western.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Also, dialects from the [[Piedmontese]] provinces of [[Verbano-Cusio-Ossola]] and [[Province of Novara|Novara]], the [[Valsesia]] valley ([[province of Vercelli]]), and the city of [[Tortona]] are closer to Western Lombard than to Piedmontese.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Alternatively, following the traditional classification, the varieties spoken in parts of [[Sondrio]], [[Trentino]], [[Ticino]] and [[Grigioni]] can be considered as [[Alpine Lombard]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lingualombarda.it/index.php/lombardo-alpino-lato.html |title=Lombardo alpino |trans-title=Alpine Lombard |language=it |publisher=Circolo Filologico Milanese |website=Lingua Lombarda}}</ref> and those spoken in southern Lombardy such as in Pavia, Lodi, Cremona and Mantova can be classified as [[Southern Lombard]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lingualombarda.it/index.php/lombardo-meridionale-lato.html |title=Lombardo meridionale |trans-title=Southern Lombard |language=it |publisher=Circolo Filologico Milanese |website=Lingua Lombarda}}</ref>

== Literature ==
{{main|Western Lombard literature}}
Lacking a standard language, authors in the 13th and 14th language created [[Franco-Lombard]], a mixed language including [[Old French language|Old French]], for their literary works.
The Lombard variety with the oldest literary tradition (from the 13th century) is that of [[Milan]], but [[Milanese]], the native Lombard variety of the area, has now almost completely been superseded by Italian from the heavy influx of migrants from other parts of Italy (especially from [[Apulia]], [[Sicily]] and [[Campania]]) during the rapid industrialization after the [[Second World War]].

[[Ticinese dialect|Ticinese]] is a comprehensive denomination for the Lombard varieties that are spoken in Swiss canton [[Ticino]] (Tessin), and the ''Ticinese koiné'' is the Western Lombard [[koiné]] used by speakers of local dialects (particularly those diverging from the ''koiné'' itself) when they communicate with speakers of other Lombard dialects of [[Ticino]], [[Grisons|Grigioni]] or Italian [[Lombardy]]. The koiné is similar to Milanese and the varieties of the neighbouring provinces on the Italian side of the border.

There is extant literature in other varieties of Lombard like ''La masséra da bé'', a theatrical work in early Eastern Lombard, written by Galeazzo dagli Orzi (1492–?) presumably in 1554.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=w3L02qPzC9kC&pg=PA144 ''Produzione e circolazione del libro a Brescia tra Quattro e Cinquecento: atti della seconda Giornata di studi "Libri e lettori a Brescia tra Medioevo ed età moderna"''] Valentina Grohovaz (Brescia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore) 4 marzo 2004. Published by "Vita e Pensiero" in 2006, {{ISBN|88-343-1332-1}}, {{ISBN|978-88-343-1332-9}} (Google Books).</ref>{{failed verification|date=September 2014}}

== Usage ==
[[File:Mappa Dialetti lombardi.svg|thumb|Detailed geographic distribution of Lombard dialects

Legend: L01 – [[Western Lombard]]; L02 – [[Eastern Lombard]]; L03 – Southern Lombard; L04 – Alpine Lombard]]
Standard Italian is widely used in Lombard-speaking areas. However, the status of Lombard is quite different in the Swiss and Italian areas and so the Swiss areas have now become the real strongholds of Lombard.

=== In Switzerland ===
[[File:LSI CDE.jpg|thumb|left|The LSI, published in 2004]] In the Swiss areas, the local Lombard [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] are generally better preserved and more vital than in Italy. No negative feelings are associated with the use of Lombard in everyday life, even with complete strangers. Some radio and television programmes, particularly comedies, are occasionally broadcast by the [[Radiotelevisione svizzera|Swiss Italian-speaking broadcasting company]] in Lombard. Moreover, it is common for people to answer in Lombard in spontaneous interviews. Even some television advertisements have been broadcast in Lombard. The major research institution working on Lombard dialects is in [[Bellinzona]], [[Switzerland]] (''CDE – Centro di dialettologia e di etnografia'', a governmental (cantonal) institution); there is no comparable institution in Italy. In December 2004, it released a dictionary in five volumes, covering all Lombard varieties spoken in the Swiss areas.<ref name=":0" group="N">{{Citation |title=Lessico dialettale della Svizzera italiana (LSI) |url=http://www.ti.ch/decs/dc/cde/temi/lessico.asp?menu=11 |work=Centro di dialettologia e di etnografia |trans-title=Dialectal Lexicon of Italian Switzerland (LSI) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051123045803/http://www.ti.ch/decs/dc/cde/temi/lessico.asp?menu=11 |language=it |archive-date=2005-11-23}}</ref>

=== In Italy ===
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Jacopo speaking Lombard.webm|thumb|A Lombard-speaker, recorded in Italy]]
Today, in most urban areas of Italian Lombardy, people under 40 years old speak almost exclusively Italian in their daily lives because of schooling and [[television]] broadcasts in Italian. However, in rural areas, Lombard is still vital and used alongside Italian.

{{cn-span|A certain revival of the use of Lombard has been observed in the last decade. The popularity of modern artists singing their lyrics in Lombard dialects (in Italian ''rock dialettale'', the best known of such artists being Davide Van de Sfroos) is also a relatively-new but growing phenomenon involving the Swiss and the Italian areas.|date=May 2021}}

Lombard is spoken in [[Campione d'Italia]], an exclave of Italy that is surrounded by Swiss territory on [[Lake Lugano]].

== Phonology ==
The following tables show the sounds that are used in all Lombard dialects.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Consonant phonemes<ref name=":23">{{cite book |last=Sanga |first=Glauco |title=Dialettologia Lombarda |trans-title=Lombard dialectology |publisher=[[University of Pavia]] |year=1984 |pages=283–285 |language=it}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |
!Labial
!Alveolar
!(Palato-)
alveolar
!Velar
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|{{IPA link|ɲ}}
|({{IPA link|ŋ}})
|-
! rowspan="2" |Stop
!<small>voiceless</small>
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |Affricate
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|{{IPA link|t͡s}}
|{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}
|
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|
|{{IPA link|d͡z}}
|{{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!<small>voiceless</small>
|{{IPA link|f}}
|{{IPA link|s}}
|[[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]]
|
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|
|{{IPA link|z}}
|{{IPA link|ʒ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
!<small>central</small>
|{{IPA link|ʋ}}
|
|[[Voiced palatal approximant|j]]
|{{IPAlink|w}}
|-
!<small>lateral</small>
|
|[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]
|({{IPA link|ʎ}})
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Trill
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|}
In [[Eastern Lombard]] and [[Pavese dialect]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} {{IPA|/dz/}}, {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/ʒ/}} merge to {{IPAblink|z}} and {{IPA|/ts/}}, {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/ʃ/}} merge to {{IPAblink|s}}. In [[Eastern Lombard]], the last sound is often further [[debuccalized]] to {{IPAblink|h}}.

=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Vowel phonemes<ref name=":22">{{cite book |last=Sanga |first=Glauco |title=Dialettologia Lombarda |publisher=[[University of Pavia]] |year=1984 |pages=283–285 |language=it}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Front
! rowspan="2" |Central
! rowspan="2" |Back
|-
!Unrounded
!Rounded
|-
!High
|{{IPA link|i|i iː}}
|{{IPA link|y|y yː}}
|
|{{IPA link|u|u uː}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |Mid
|{{IPA link|e|e eː}}
|{{IPA link|ø|ø øː}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}}
|-
|{{IPA link|ɛ}}
|{{IPA link|œ|(œ)}}<ref>[œ] occurs in most areas of the language but may overlap in usage with [ø], as they both share the same trigram (''oeu'').</ref>
|
|{{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
!Low
|
|
|{{IPA link|ä|a aː}}
|
|}
In [[Western Lombard|Western varieties]], [[vowel length]] is contrastive ([[Milanes|Milanese]] {{lang|lmo|andà}} "to go" and {{lang|lmo|andaa}} "gone"),<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=Sanga|first=Glauco|year=1984|title=Dialettologia Lombarda|language=it|publisher=[[University of Pavia]]|pages=283–285}}</ref> but Eastern varieties normally use only short [[allophone]]s.

Two repeating orthographic vowels are separated by a dash to prevent them from being confused with a long vowel: ''a-a'' in ''ca-àl'' "horse".<ref name=":2"/>

Western long {{IPA|/aː/}} and short {{IPA|/ø/}} tend to be back {{IPAblink|ɑː}} and lower {{IPAblink|œ}}, respectively, and {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}} may merge to {{IPAblink|ɛ}}.

=== Alternative spelling systems ===
There have been contemporary attempts to develop alternative spelling systems suitable for use by all variants of Lombard. Among these, there is the attempt to develop a unified spelling (lomb. urtugrafia ünificada), which has not taken root due to the excessive complexity and lack of intuitiveness (as well as the lack of adaptability to the Italian keyboard) of the system, which uses symbols such as ç for /z/ and /ʧ/, or ə for unstressed /a/, /ə/ and /e/, as well as the obligation to mark the vowel length, despite the elimination of the accents on the first grapheme of the digraph (aa and not àa).<ref name=":8">Claudio Beretta e Cesare Comoletti, ''Grafia lombarda semplificata'', 2003. In: Claudio Beretta (a c. di), ''Parlate e dialetti della Lombardia: lessico comparato'', Milano, Mondadori: pp. 23-24.</ref><ref>Jørgen Giorgio Bosoni, ''Una proposta di grafia unificata per le varietà linguistiche lombarde: regole per la trascrizione'', 2003. ''Bollettino Storico dell'Alta Valtellina'' 6: 195-298.</ref><ref>Claudio Meneghin, ''Rebuilding the Rhaeto-Cisalpine written language: Guidelines and criteria'', 2007-2010. ''Part I: ORS-Orthography''. ''Part II: Morphology, I: noun, article and personal pronoun''. ''Part III. Morphology, II: adjectives, pronouns, invariables''. ''Part IV. Morphology, III: the verb''. ''Ianua'' 7 (2007): 37-72; 8 (2008): 113-152; 9 (2009): 37-94; 10 (2010): 33-72</ref> Some examples are presented below: 
{| class="wikitable"
!Ortografia<br>classica<br><small>(1600-)</small>
!Ortografia<br>ticinese<br><small>(1907-)</small>
!Ortografia<br>moderna<br><small>(1979-)</small>
!Scriver<br>Lombard<br><small>(2011-)</small>
!Noeuva<br>Ortografia<br>Lombarda<br><small>(2020-)</small>
!Phonetic 
(IPA)
!Italian translation
|-
|lombard
|lumbaart
|lumbàrt
|lombard
|lombard
|/lum'ba:rt/
|lombardo
|-
|su
|sü<br>sö
|sü<br>sö
|su<br>sœ
|su<br>soeu
|/sy/ (west.)<br>/sø/ (east.)
|su
|-
|fiœu
|fiöö<br>fiöl
|fiöö<br>fiöl
|fiœl
|fioeul
|/fjø:/ (west.)
/fjøl/ (east.)
|ragazzo
|-
|comun
|cumün<br>comü
|cumün<br>comü
|comun
|comun
|/ku'myn/ (west.)<br>/ko'my/ (east.)
|comune
|-
|nazion
|nassiù(n)<br>nazziù(n)
|nasiù(n)<br>naziù(n)
|nazion
|nazzion
|/na'sju(n)/<br>/na'tsju(n)/
|nazione
|-
|giamò
|giamò
|giamò
|jamò
|sgiamò
|/ʤa'mɔ/
|di già
|-
|casetta
|caseta
|caʃèta
|caseta
|caseta
|/ka'zɛta/
|casetta
|-
|gatt
|gatt
|gàt
|gat
|gat
|/gat/
|gatto
|-
|Lecch
|Lecch
|Lèch
|Lec
|Lech
|/lɛk/
|Lecco
|-
|Còmm
|Comm<br>Cumm
|Còm<br>Cum
|Com
|Com
|/kɔm/<br>/kum/
|Como
|-
|parlaa
|parlaa<br>parlàt
|parla<br>parlàt
|parlad
|parlad
|/par'la:/ (west.)<br>/par'lat/ (east.)
|parlato
|-
|pajœu
|pajöö<br>pajöl
|paiöö<br>paiöl
|paiœl
|pajoeul
|/pa'jø:/ (west.)<br>/pa'jøl/ (east.)
|paiolo
|-
|dur
|düür
|düür 
|dur
|dur
|/dy:r/
|duro
|}
== See also ==
* [[Diachronics of plural inflection in the Gallo-Italian languages]]
* [[Emilian-Romagnol language]]
* [[Gallo-Italic of Sicily]]
* [[La Spezia–Rimini Line]]
* [[Languages of Europe]]
* [[Ligurian language]]
* [[Piedmontese language]]
* [[Pierre Bec]]
* [[Romance plurals]]
* [[Venetian language]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=N}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book |last=Agnoletto |first=Attilio |title=San Giorgio su Legnano - storia, società, ambiente |year=1992 |id=[[Servizio bibliotecario nazionale|SBN]]&nbsp;[http://opac.sbn.it/bid/CFI0249761 IT\ICCU\CFI\0249761]}}
* {{cite book |last=D'Ilario |first=Giorgio |title=Dizionario legnanese |publisher=Artigianservice |year=2003 |id=[[Servizio bibliotecario nazionale|SBN]]&nbsp;[http://opac.sbn.it/bid/MIL0625963 IT\ICCU\MIL\0625963]}}
* Bernard Comrie, Stephen Matthews, Maria Polinsky (eds.), The Atlas of languages: the origin and development of languages throughout the world. New York 2003, Facts On File. p.&nbsp;40.
* Brevini, Franco - Lo stile lombardo: la tradizione letteraria da Bonvesin da la Riva a Franco Loi / Franco Brevini - Pantarei, Lugan - 1984 (Lombard style: literary tradition from Bonvesin da la Riva to Franco Loi )
* Glauco Sanga: La lingua Lombarda, in Koiné in Italia, dalle origini al 500 (Koinés in Italy, from the origin to 1500), Lubrina publisher, Bèrghem.
* Claudio Beretta: ''Letteratura dialettale milanese. Itinerario antologico-critico dalle origini ai nostri giorni'' - Hoepli, 2003.
* G. Hull: "The linguistic Unity of Northern [[Italy]] and [[Rhaetia]], [[PhD thesis]], University of Sydney, 1982; published as ''The Linguistic Unity of Northern Italy and Rhaetia: Historical Grammar of the Padanian Language'', 2 vols. Sydney: Beta Crucis Editions, 2017.
* Jørgen G. Bosoni: ''«Una proposta di grafia unificata per le varietà linguistiche lombarde: regole per la trascrizione»'', in ''Bollettino della Società Storica dell’Alta Valtellina'' 6/2003, p.&nbsp;195-298 (Società Storica Alta Valtellina: Bormio, 2003). A comprehensive description of a unified set of writing rules for all the Lombard varieties of Switzerland and Italy, with [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcriptions and examples.
* Tamburelli, M. (2014). Uncovering the 'hidden' multilingualism of Europe: an Italian case study. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 35(3), 252-270.
* NED Editori: ''I quatter Vangeli de Mattee, March, Luca E Gioann'' - 2002.
* Stephen A. Wurm: Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger of Disappearing. Paris 2001, [[UNESCO]] Publishing, p.&nbsp;29.
* Studi di lingua e letteratura lombarda offerti a Maurizio Vitale, (Studies in Lombard language and literature) Pisa: Giardini, 1983
* A cura di Pierluigi Beltrami, Bruno Ferrari, Luciano Tibiletti, Giorgio D'Ilario: ''Canzoniere Lombardo'' - Varesina Grafica Editrice, 1970.
* Sanga, Glauco. 1984. Dialettologia Lombarda. University of Pavia. 346pp.

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=lmo|language=Lombard}}
* [http://www.lengualombarda.org/440114785 Far Lombard] This Lombard language association website is a place where you can learn Lombard through texts and audio visual materials.
* [https://www.lingualombarda.it/index.php Lombard language digital library]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100617174127/http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Lombard/ Learn Lombard online]
* [http://it.wikibooks.org/wiki/Insubre/Copertina Learn Lombard Italian site]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050921094359/http://www.ti.ch/Decs/DC/CDE/ Centro di dialettologia e di etnografia del Cantone Ticino].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060101003809/http://www.ti.ch/decs/dc/cde/temi/documentiorali.asp Repubblica e Cantone Ticino] Documenti orali della Svizzera italiana. {{in lang|it}}
* [http://associazioni.provincia.so.it/idevv/ Istituto di dialettologia e di etnografia valtellinese e valchiavennasca] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060422040428/http://associazioni.provincia.so.it/idevv/ |date=22 April 2006 }}.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051123045803/http://www.ti.ch/decs/dc/cde/temi/lessico.asp?menu=11 LSI - Lessico dialettale della Svizzera italiana].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050305060240/http://www.rtsi.ch/scrittori/ RTSI: Acquarelli popolari], some video and audio documents (interviews, recordings, etc. of writers from [[Ticino]]) in [[Ticinese dialect|Ticinese]] varieties (the [[metalanguage]] of this site is Italian, and some of the interviews are in Italian rather than in Ticinese Lombard).
* [http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/europe_index.html#potentially UNESCO Red Book on Endangered Languages: Europe. Potentially endangered languages], where Lombard is classified as a potentially endangered language.
* [http://www4.ti.ch/decs/dcsu/ac/cde/pubblicazioni/vocabolario-dei-dialetti-della-svizzera-italiana/ VSI - Vocabolario dei dialetti della Svizzera italiana].
* [http://inlombard.eu5.net/index.html in_lombard] website dedicated to the Lombard language (in English)
* [http://dizionarilombard.eu5.net/ dizionari.lombard (monolingual Lombard online dictionary)]
* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ier\rom&first=0 Lombard basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]
* [https://lmo.wiktionary.org Lombard Wiktionary]
{{Languages of Italy}}
{{Languages of Switzerland}}
{{Romance languages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Lombard language| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Lombardy]]
[[Category:Languages of Piedmont]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]