Editing Lorica segmentata

{{Short description|Plate armor used in Ancient Rome}}
{{tooshort|date=October 2023}}
{{RomanMilitary}}

The '''''lorica segmentata''''' ({{IPA|la|ɫoːˈriːka}}), also called '''''lorica lamminata''''', or '''''banded armour''''' is a type of [[personal armour]] that was used by soldiers of the [[Roman army]], consisting of [[Laminar armor|metal strips]] fashioned into circular bands, fastened to internal leather straps.

The ''lorica segmentata'' has come to be viewed as symbolic of the [[Roman legion]]s in popular culture.
[[File:Lorica segmentata remains and recreation.jpg|thumb|Remains and recreation of ''lorica segmentata'', from the [[Corbridge Hoard]].]]

== Name ==
[[file:007 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel VII (Ausschnitt 01).jpg|thumb|[[Roman legion]]aries marching across a [[pontoon bridge]], a [[Roman sculpture|relief scene]] from [[Trajan's Column|the column]] of Emperor [[Trajan]] (r. 98-117 AD) in Rome, Italy ([[monochrome photography|monochrome photographs]] by [[Conrad Cichorius]])]]

In [[Latin]], the name ''lorica segmentata'' translates to "segmented cuirass." However, this name was not given to the armor by the Romans. Instead, it was given by scholars in the 16th century.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Bishop|first=M.C|title=Lorica Segmentata Volume I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour|publisher=THE ARMATVRA PRESS|year=2002|isbn=0-953-9848-42|location=Great Britain}}</ref> Despite the lack of knowledge on the Roman name for the armor, scholars can make educated guesses on the Roman name. It is obvious the name had the word ''lorica'' in it.<ref name=":0" /> However, the following part of the name is unknown.<ref name=":0" /> Some scholars believe that the name was ''lorica lamminata''.<ref name=":0" /> This theory is based on the Romans referring to sheets of metal as lamina,<ref name=":0" />  although no firm evidence for any theory regarding the name of the armor currently exists.<ref name=":0" />

== History ==


Despite the armor being commonly associated with the Romans, the technology behind the ''lorica segmentata'' was old by the time it was introduced into the Roman infantry. The [[Dendra panoply]] is an example from the 15th century BC of articulated plate defense using a similar technique of overlapping curved plates. [[Laminar armour|Laminated]] armor was also used by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] and possibly the [[Dacia]]ns, [[Scythians]], or [[Sarmatians]] before the Romans adopted it. Some sets of limb armor of this type combined with [[Scale armour|scale armor]] dating back to the 4th century BC have been found in archaeological sites located in the [[steppe]]. It is possible the [[Manica (armguard)]] was worn by [[Gladiator|gladiators]] before it was introduced for military use.<ref name=":0" /> 

Although the exact time at which the Romans adopted the armor remains unknown, it is possible that the ''lorica segmentata'' was introduced after [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus']] [[Battle of Carrhae|defeat at Carrhae]] in 53 BC.<ref name=":0" /> Another possibility is that the armor was adopted in 21 AD after the [[Revolt of Sacrovir|Revolt of Julius Sacrovir and Julius Florus]].<ref name=":0" /> Since an archeological research conducted in [[Kalkriese]] confirmed that the soldiers at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in 9 AD wore the ''lorica segmentata'', it is assumed that this armor must have been in use before 9 AD.<ref name=":0" /> 

Around the middle of the third century the ''lorica segmentata'' fell out of favor with the [[Roman army]], although it did remain in use during the [[History of the Roman Empire#Late Roman Empire|Late Roman Empire]].<ref name=":0" /> Soldiers wearing the ''lorica segmentata'' were depicted on the [[Arch of Constantine]], a monument erected in Rome in 315. However, it has been argued that these depictions are from an [[Column of Marcus Aurelius|earlier monument]] by [[Marcus Aurelius]], from which [[Constantine the Great]] incorporated portions into his Arch.<ref name=":0" /> The latest known use of the armor was therefore in the 4th century.<ref name=":0" />

Over time the type of ''lorica segmentata'' would change. From 9 BC to 43 AD the Roman soldier wore the [[Dangstetten]]-[[Kalkriese]]-[[Vindonissa]] types, from 69 to 100 the [[Corbridge]]-[[Carnuntum]] type was used. From 164 to 180, the [[Newstead, Scottish Borders|Newstead]] type was used.{{sfn|D'Amato|Sumner|2009|p=131}} The time the armors were used overlapped. It is possible that there was a fourth type, covering the body with segmented armor joined to [[scale armour|scale]] shoulder defenses. However, this is only known from one badly damaged statue originating at [[Alba Iulia]] in Romania. This armor was used from about 14 BC to the late 3rd century AD.{{sfn|D'Amato|Sumner|2009|p=130}} The ''lorica segmentata's'' use in the Roman army was geographically widespread, but the [[mail (armour)|mail]] armor ''[[lorica hamata]]'' may have been more common at all times.

== Construction ==

The plates in the ''lorica segmentata'' armor were made by overlapping [[Ferrous metallurgy|ferrous]] plates that were then riveted to straps made from [[leather]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bishop|first=M.C|title=The Newstead lorica segmentata|journal=Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies|volume= 10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bishop|first=M.C|title=Excavations at Roman Cordbridge|publisher=English Heritage|year=1988}}</ref> It is unknown what animal was used to make the leather and if it was [[Tanning (leather)|tanned]] or tawed.<ref name=":0" /> The plates were made of soft iron on the inside and rolled mild steel on the outside.<ref name=":0" /> This made the plates hardened against damage without making them brittle.<ref>David Sim (at Reading University)</ref> This [[case hardening]] was done by packing organic matter tightly around them and heating them in a forge, transferring carbon from the burnt materials into the surface of the metal.<ref name="Iron for the Eagles, by David Sim & Isabel Ridge, p.96">"Iron for the Eagles", by David Sim & Isabel Ridge</ref> The plates were made from beating out [[Ingot|ingots]].<ref name=":0" /> 

The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back. Additional strips, shoulder guards, [[Breastplate|breastplates]], and backplates were used to protect the upper body and the shoulders. The form of the armor allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections, each of which would collapse on itself into a compact mass. The fitments that closed the various plate sections together (buckles, lobate hinges, hinged straps, tie-hooks, tie-rings, etc.) were made of [[brass]]. In later variants dating from around 75–80 C.E., the fastenings of the armor were simplified. 

Bronze hinges were removed in favor of simple rivets, belt fastenings used small hooks, and the lowest two girdle plates were replaced by one broad plate. The component parts of the ''lorica segmentata'' moved in synchronization with the other parts.<ref name=":0" /> This made the armor more flexible.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Webster|first=Graham|title=The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Century A.D.|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1985|isbn=0-8061-3000-8}}</ref> The armor was very long lasting. The Kalkriese type of armor lasted 55 years, the Corbridge armor lasted 70 years, and the Newstead type lasted 90 years. {{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

== Usage ==

It is unclear who used this armor. On monuments, ''[[Auxilia]]'' are generally shown wearing mail, not [[cuirass]]es, and carrying oval shields. Roman depictions of legionaries, such as those found on [[Trajan's Column|Trajan's column]] often depict them wearing the ''lorica segmentata''.<ref>L. Rossi ''Trajan's Column and the Dacian Wars'' (Thames & Hudson 1971) 102</ref> On this basis, it has been supposed that ''lorica segmentata'' was exclusively used by [[Legionary|legionaries]] and [[Praetorian Guard|praetorians]].<ref name=":0" />  However, some historians consider [[Trajan's Column]] to be inaccurate as a historical source due to its inaccurate and stylized portrayal of Roman armor. These historians also say that "it is probably safest to interpret the Column reliefs as 'impressions', rather than accurate representations."<ref name=":0" />  

The discovery of parts of the ''lorica segmentata'' at areas where auxiliary soldiers would have been stationed implies that auxiliary troops used the ''lorica segmentata''. However, it is entirely possible that the reason behind the presence of the ''lorica segmentata'' in these areas could be that these areas had a small number of legionaries stationed there.<ref name=":0" /> On the [[Tropaeum Traiani|Adamclisi ''Tropaeum'']], the ''lorica segmentata'' does not appear at all, and legionaries and ''auxilia'' alike are depicted wearing the ''[[lorica squamata]]''. Some experts are of the opinion that the Adamclisi monument is a more accurate portrayal of the situation.<ref>Mattingly op cit 207</ref>

It may have been used rarely, maybe only for [[Pitched battle|set-piece battles]] and [[Parade|parades]]. This viewpoint considers the figures in Trajan's Column to be highly stereotyped, in order to distinguish clearly between different types of troops.<ref>Rossi op cit 59</ref> It is also debated if the lorica segmentata was only used in the west. All archaeological finds of such armor has been made in 16 countries in the western part of the Roman Empire but never in the east.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Review of: Lorica Segmentata. Vol. II: A Catalogue of Finds. JRMES Monograph, 2 |url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2004/2004.02.49 |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review |issn=1055-7660}}</ref>

== Cultural impact ==

The tendency to portray Roman [[Legionary|legionaries]] clad in this type of armour often extends to periods of time that are too early or too late in history.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

== Gallery ==

<gallery>
File:Medinaceli Actium reliefs 09.jpg|Relief from the first half of the 1st century depicting the naval [[Battle of Actium|battle at Actium]] 
File:047 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel XLVII (Ausschnitt 01).jpg|Detail of [[Trajan's Column]]
File:Base della colonna antonina, decursio sx 04.JPG|High relief on base of the [[Column of Antoninus Pius]]
file:Column of Marcus Aurelius - detail3.jpg|[[Roman legion]]aries  as depicted in [[relief]] on [[Column of Marcus Aurelius|the column]] of Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] (r. 161–180 AD) in Rome, Italy
File:Arch of Septimius Severus, Forum Romanum.jpg|Detail of an [[Arch of Septimius Severus]]
File:Roman soldier in lorica segmentata 1-cropped.jpg|A [[Historical reenactor|reenactor]] dressed as a Roman soldier in ''lorica segmentata''
</gallery>

== See also ==

* {{annotated link|Corbridge Hoard}}
* {{annotated link|Lorica hamata}}
* {{annotated link|Lorica plumata}}
* {{annotated link|Lorica squamata}}
* {{annotated link|Manica (armguard)}}

==References==

{{refs}}

== Bibliography ==

* {{ cite book |last1=D'Amato |first1=Raffaele |last2=Sumner |first2=Graham |year=2009 |title=Arms And Armour of the Imperial Roman Soldier |publisher=Frontline Books |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-1848325128 }}
* {{ cite book | title = Roman Body Armour | last1 = Travis | first1 = Hilary | last2 = Travis | first2 = John | publisher = Amberley Publishing | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-1-4456-0359-9 }}

==External links==
{{commons category}}

*[https://www.scribd.com/doc/3961788/Lorica-Segmentata-Volume-I-A-Handbook-of-Articulated-Roman-Plate-Armour ''Lorica Segmentata Volume I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour'', M.C. Bishop, Armatura Press (November 1, 2002)] (online version)
*[http://aespa.revistas.csic.es/index.php/aespa/article/view/31/31 Roman Army website, showing the third century finds of segmentata in spain] (downloadable PDF)
*[http://www.romancoins.info/MilitaryEquipment.html Ancient originals on the pages of the Roman Military Equipment Web Museum]

{{Italic title}}
[[Category:Ancient Roman legionary equipment]]
[[Category:Roman armour]]