Editing Luke Howard

{{Short description|British manufacturing chemist (1772–1864)}}
{{for|the Australian composer and pianist|Luke Howard (musician)}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Luke Howard
| image             = Luke Howard.jpg
| image_size        = 200px
| caption           = Portrait by [[John Opie]]
| birth_date        = 28 November 1772
| birth_place       = London, England
| death_date        = {{death date and given age|1864|3|21|91|df=y}}
| death_place       = London, England
| citizenship       = [[United Kingdom]]
| nationality       = [[United Kingdom|British]]
| ethnicity         = 
| fields            = [[Meteorology]], [[Chemistry]], [[Pharmaceuticals]]
| workplaces        = 
| alma_mater        = 
| doctoral_advisor  = 
| academic_advisors = 
| doctoral_students = 
| notable_students  = 
| known_for         = Naming the Sky
| author_abbrev_bot = 
| author_abbrev_zoo = 
| influences        = 
| influenced        = 
| awards            = 
| signature         = 
| footnotes         = 
}}

'''Luke Howard''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS}} (28 November 1772 – 21 March 1864) was a British manufacturing [[chemist]] and an [[amateur]] [[meteorologist]] with broad interests in science.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10301906&wwwflag=2&imagepos=3 | title = Luke Howard, English chemist and meteoroligist, early 19th century. | access-date =23 September 2008}}</ref> His lasting contribution to science is a [[Clouds#Homospheric nomenclatures and cross-classification|nomenclature system for clouds]], which he proposed in an 1802 presentation to the [[Askesian Society]]. Because of this, Howard is referred to as "The Godfather of Clouds", the "namer of the clouds", and the "father of meteorology".{{sfn|Hamblyn|2011|p=62}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Day |first1=John A. |title=Luke Howard--"The Godfather of Clouds" |url=https://www.cloudman.com/luke_howard.htm |website=Cloudman}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Luke Howard was born on 28 November 1772 in London to tin-plate manufacturer Robert Howard (1738–1812) and Elizabeth née Leatham (1742–1816). Howard attended a Quaker grammar school in [[Burford]], Oxfordshire where the headteacher was renowned for his flogging of slow-to-learn pupils.<ref>{{cite ODNB|chapter=Howard, Luke (1772–1864), manufacturing chemist and meteorologist |title=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|language=en|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/13928|year=2004}}</ref> In 1796 Howard married. He and his wife had two sons, Robert Howard and [[John Eliot Howard]], who were ultimately to take over their father's chemical manufacturing business, [[Howards and Sons]]. Their daughter Elizabeth married [[John Hodgkin (barrister)|John Hodgkin]], a [[barrister]].

Although a Quaker, he quit the [[Quakers|Society]] in 1825 after a dispute concerning apocryphal texts. A larger rift in the Society, the members being known as Beaconites being followers of [[Isaac Crewdson]]'s ''A Beacon to the Society of Friends'', led to Howard's final resignation from the [[Quakers|Society]] in 1836. Howard was subsequently baptized into the [[Plymouth Brethren]] in 1837 by Crewdson.

Howard died on 21 March 1864 at 7 Bruce Grove, [[Tottenham]] and is buried at [[Winchmore Hill]] Quaker Meeting House in [[London Borough of Enfield|Enfield]], north London.

==Career==
Luke Howard became a [[pharmacist]] by profession. After serving an apprenticeship with a pharmacist in [[Stockport, Cheshire]], he worked at a druggist's in Bishopsgate before setting up his own pharmacy in Fleet Street. In 1798, he began a partnership with fellow [[Quakers|Quaker]] [[William Allen (English Quaker)|William Allen]] to form the pharmaceutical company of Allen and Howard. Howard operated the partnership's factory built on the marshes at [[Plaistow, Newham|Plaistow]], to the east of London. The partnership was ended in 1807 and Howard relocated his operations to Stratford East London. This factory soon became the successful industrial chemicals and pharmaceuticals company later, 1856, known as [[Howards and Sons]].

Howard was elected a [[Fellow]] of the [[Royal Society]] in 1821.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://royalsociety.org/search/?query=luke%20howard|title= Library and Archive Catalogue|publisher= Royal Society|access-date=1 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Search Results |url=https://catalogues.royalsociety.org/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Persons&id=NA4515 |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=catalogues.royalsociety.org}}</ref> In July 1838, Howard became an honorary member of the Societe Francaise de Statistique Universelle, the society founded by M Cesar Moreau (French Consul to London<ref>{{Cite web |date=1828-11-21 |title=MOREAU, Cesar. 12693 |url=https://www.historicalautographs.co.uk/autographs/moreau-cesar-12693/ |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=Historical Autographs |language=en-GB}}</ref>), of which the Royal Society was a member.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=anonymes''Anonyme'' |first=Catégorie:Textes |date=1830 |title=France. Société française de statistique universelle |url=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_fran%C3%A7aise_de_statisque_universelle |journal=Période initiale |pages=177–180}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C4265234 |title=Catalogue description British Records Association offer of certain pages, registered as BRA 762, formerly... |date=1949}}</ref> Howard spent the years 1824 to 1852 in [[Ackworth, West Yorkshire|Ackworth]], Yorkshire.

==Scientific work==
===Background===
Luke Howard has been called "the father of meteorology" for his comprehensive recordings of weather in the London area from 1801 to 1841 and his writings, which transformed the science of meteorology.{{sfn|Thornes|1999|p=189}} Howard had an earlier interest in botany, presenting a paper "Account of a Microscopical Investigation of several Species of Pollen, ..." that was published in the [[Linnaean Society]]'s ''Transactions'' for 1802,<ref>Luke Howard. Read 4 March 1800. "[[s:Transactions of the Linnean Society of London/Volume 6/Account of a microscopical investigation of several species of pollen, with remarks and questions on the structure and use of that part of vegetables|Account of a microscopical investigation of several species of pollen, with remarks and questions on the structure and use of that part of vegetables]]" ''Transactions of the Linnean Society of London''. Volume 6</ref> but wrote to [[Goethe]] that his passion was for meteorology.<ref>{{cite DNB|wstitle=Howard, Luke (1772-1864)|first=Thomas |last=Hodgkin|authorlink=Thomas Hodgkin|volume=28}}</ref>

===Howard's ''On the modification of clouds''===
In his late twenties, Luke Howard wrote the ''Essay on the Modification of Clouds'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=On The Modification Of Clouds |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/library-and-archive/archive-hidden-treasures/on-the-modification-of-clouds-1803 |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=Met Office |language=en}}</ref> which was published in 1803.{{sfn|Thornes|1999|p=189}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Luke |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/essay-on-the-modifications-of-clouds/3EE7DE12FB7D639C7E4658ECBE46A4F3 |title=Essay on the Modifications of Clouds |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-03768-6 |series=Cambridge Library Collection - Earth Science |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/cbo9781139096966}}</ref> Howard's system was similar to the recently popularized [[Linnaean classification]] system developed by taxonomist [[Carl von Linne]].<ref name=Pedgley>{{cite journal |last1=Pedgley |first1=D.E. |title=Luke Howard and his clouds |journal=Weather |date=February 2003 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=51–55|doi=10.1256/wea.157.02 |bibcode=2003Wthr...58...51P |s2cid=119944734 }}</ref> Howard named the three principal categories of clouds – [[cumulus cloud|cumulus]], [[stratus cloud|stratus]], and [[Cirrus cloud|cirrus]], as well as a series of intermediate and compound modifications, such as [[cirrostratus]] and [[cirrocumulus]], in order to accommodate the transitions occurring between the forms. Howard's classification system applied the recently popularized [[Linnaean taxonomy|Linnean]] principles of natural history classification. By applying these principles to phenomena as short-lived as clouds, Howard arrived at an elegant solution to the problem of naming transitional forms in nature.

In his 1803 ''Essay'', Howard included detailed cloud drawings to supplement the written descriptions of his classifications. The drawings of clouds were Howard's own, taken from the rigorous notes and watercolor sketches in Howard's sketchbook. However, the landscapes were done by painter Edward Kennion, as Howard had no formal artistic training. The engravings done by Thomas Milton for the publishing of Howard's essay slightly altered the depictions of the clouds.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jardine|first1=Boris|title=Made real: artifice and accuracy in nineteenth-century scientific illustration|journal=Science Museum Group Journal|date=Autumn 2014|volume=2|issue=2|doi=10.15180/140208|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[File:Cumulostratus Etching- Luke Howard.png|thumb|A depiction of a cumulostratus cloud, included in Howard's 'On the modification of clouds']]

Howard also emphasized the importance of clouds in meteorology:

<blockquote>"Clouds are subject to certain distinct modifications, produced by the general causes which affect all the variations of the atmosphere; they are commonly as good visible indicators of the operation of these causes, as is the countenance of the state of a person's mind or body".{{sfn|Thornes|1999|p=36}}</blockquote>

Howard strongly believed that "cloud formation and destruction were visible signs of atmospheric processes and were based on the laws of physics".<ref name=Pedgley/> Howard referred to cloud formation as "nubification", a term that was never popularized. Howard had the same elementary knowledge of cloud physics as many other researchers at the time, including his close friend and chemist [[John Dalton]]. Some of this knowledge was generally correct, like Howard and Dalton's belief that clouds were formations of water particles, that the slow speed of the particles' descension was due to air resistance, and that they evaporated right below the [[cloud base]]. Howard, however, held some incorrect beliefs about cloud physics. Primarily Howard gave electricity too large a role in the formation of clouds. The knowledge Howard had about cloud physics partially formed his motives for creating a classification system.<ref name=Pedgley/>

===Other cloud classification systems===
Howard was not the first to attempt a classification of clouds—biologist [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] (1744–1829) proposed a list of descriptive terms in French the same year that Howard presented his essay, containing five terms, four of which overlapped with Howard's system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holt |first1=Jack R. |title=CLOUDS: KEYS TO UNDERSTANDING WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE |journal=CLOUDS |date=March 2005 |url=https://needoc.net/clouds-keys-to-understanding-weather-climate-and-the-hydrologic-cycle-jack-r-holt |access-date=22 March 2020 |archive-date=21 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321192552/https://needoc.net/clouds-keys-to-understanding-weather-climate-and-the-hydrologic-cycle-jack-r-holt |url-status=dead }}</ref> The two were not known to have any contact, Lamarck working independently in France, and Howard working independently in England. Despite being presented in the same year, Howard's system gained popularity quickly and became far more widespread than Lamarck's.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gedzelman |first1=Stanley |title=A Cloud, by any other name |journal=Weatherwise |date=December 2003 |pages=24–28|doi=10.1080/00431670309605401 |s2cid=190689508 }}</ref> Howard's system's success has been said to be due to Howard's use of universal Latin, the Linnaean classification system, and his emphasis on the mutability of clouds. Lamarck's system, however, used French terms and opted for descriptive terms as opposed to a classification system like Linnaeus'. Lamarck's essay proposing his system contained no pictures and was published in an obscure academic journal.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lamarck |first1=Jean-Baptiste |title=Sur la forme des nuages |journal=Annuaire météorologique |date=1802 |pages=149–164}}</ref> Additionally, [[Napoleon]] publicly denounced Lamarck's meteorological work, and Lamarck's system was never well known within his own country.{{sfn|Hamblyn|2011}}

===Later meteorological work===
In addition to his seminal work on clouds, Howard contributed numerous papers on other meteorological topics. He was also a pioneer in [[urban climate]] studies, publishing the earliest scientific book on urban climatology, ''The Climate of London'' in 1818–20, a 700-page book including continuous daily observations of wind direction, atmospheric pressure, maximum temperature, and rainfall;{{sfn|Thornes|1999|p=203}}<ref name="Day Ludlam">{{cite journal|last1=Day|first1=John A.|last2=Ludlam|first2=Frank H.|title=Luke Howard and His Clouds: A Contribution to the Early History of Cloud Physics|journal=Weather |date=November 1972|volume=27|issue=11|pages=448–461|doi= 10.1002/j.1477-8696.1972.tb04247.x|bibcode=1972Wthr...27..448D}}</ref> it also demolished [[James Hutton]]'s theory of rain, though without suggesting a definitive alternative.{{sfn|Thornes|1999|p=190}} In it, Howard was first to note the [[urban heat island]] effect, showing that temperatures in London, compared to those simultaneously measured in the surrounding countryside, were 3.7&nbsp;°F (2.1&nbsp;°C) warmer at night, and cooler during the day, and to attribute the concentration of smog (which he called 'city fog') to this phenomenon.<ref>Landsberg, Helmut Erich (1981). The urban climate. Academic Press, New York, p.3.</ref> For ''[[Rees's Cyclopædia]]'' he contributed articles on meteorology, but the titles are not known.

Luke Howard also published the first textbook in meteorology in 1837, ''Seven Lectures in Meteorology''. In the fifth lecture, Howard included the same classification scheme he proposed in 1802, slightly changing his descriptions. Howard notes again the importance of cloud studies for meteorology in the introduction of his work, claiming clouds to be "the subjects of grave theory and practical research...shewn to be governed, in their production, suspension, and destruction, by... fixed Laws".<ref name="Day Ludlam"/>

==Legacy==
Howard's classification of clouds was later adopted by [[Ralph Abercromby (meteorologist)|Ralph Abercromby]] and [[Hugo Hildebrand Hildebrandsson]], who further developed and popularised the system laid out by Howard.<ref>[http://www.jmcvey.net/cable/observational/index.htm telegraphic codes and message practice, 1870–1945: telegraphy in meteorology] ''citing'' {{cite book|first=Richard|last=Hamblyn|title=The Invention of Clouds: How an amateur meteorologist forged the language of the skies|location=New York|date=2001}}</ref> Abercromby noted in a paper on the naming of clouds that to the Quaker Howard "any name connected with heathen mythology was specially distasteful".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Folk-Lore_Journal/Volume_6/Cloud-Land_in_Folk-Lore_and_in_Science|title=Cloud-Land in Folk-Lore and in Science|last=Abercromby|first=Ralph|publisher=The Folk-Lore Journal|year=1888|volume=6|pages=96}}</ref> 
Howard's cloud classification had a major influence on the arts as well as on science. His original essay, ''On the Modification of Clouds'', was translated into German and French in 1815. This allowed German writer and scholar [[Goethe]] to access the text. Goethe was entranced by Howard's system, and he later wrote a series of poems in gratitude to him, including the lines (note: English translation):
{{poemquote|1=
But Howard gives us with his clear mind
The gain of lessons new to all mankind;
That which no hand can reach, no hand can clasp
He first has gained, first held with mental grasp.{{sfn|Thornes|1999|p=190}}
}}
Goethe also wrote to Howard (via one of Goethe's English friends), requesting Howard's autobiography and process in developing his classification system. Goethe also attempted to commission German painter Caspar David Friedrich for cloud studies based on Howard's system, but Friedrich declined. However, Friedrich did begin a series of cloud studies later that year.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Slater |first1=A.W. |title=Luke Howard, F.R.S. (1772–1864) and His Relations with Goethe |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |date=August 1972 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=119–140|doi=10.1098/rsnr.1972.0014 |s2cid=144266531 }}</ref> Howard's classification system, along with Goethe's interest, resulted in a great artistic interest in clouds. Howard's work is also rumored to have inspired [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]]'s poem "The Cloud" and informed [[John Constable]]'s paintings and studies of skies,{{sfn|Thornes|1999|p=52}} in addition to the writings and art of [[John Ruskin]], who used Howard's cloud classification in his criticisms of landscape paintings in ''Modern Painters''.{{sfn|Thornes|1999|p=187}}
{{multiple image
 | total_width=440
 | align = center
 | image_gap = 10
 | image1 = Study_of_Cirrus_Clouds_-_Constable.jpg
 | alt1 = John Constable's "Study of Cirrus Clouds"
 | caption1 = [[John Constable]]'s "Study of Cirrus Clouds"
 | image2 = Constable - Seascape Study with Rain Cloud.jpg
 | alt2 = John Constable's "Seascape Study with Rain Cloud"
 | caption2 = [[John Constable]]'s "Seascape Study with Rain Cloud"
}}
[[File:Luke Howard blue plaque.jpg|thumb|upright|English Heritage Blue plaque – 7 Bruce Grove, Tottenham, London]]
Howard appears in a novel by French writer Stéphane Audeguy titled, ''La théorie des nuages'', winner of the 2005 Prix de l'Académie.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} Published in the US in 2007 as ''The Theory of Clouds''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Adudeguy|first=S.|translator-last=Bent|translator-first=T.|title=The Theory of Clouds|publisher=Harcourt Books|date=2007|isbn=9780151014286}}</ref>

An [[English Heritage]] [[blue plaque]]<ref>{{openplaque|190}}</ref> dedicated to Howard at 7 Bruce Grove, [[Tottenham]] (the house in which he died, aged 91), states simply his fame as "Namer of Clouds". Howard was actively involved in the development of a Tottenham religious meeting house with his son, [[John Eliot Howard]]. Originally known as Brook Street Meeting House, it is now the [[Brook Street Chapel]] found on [[Tottenham High Road]].

Whilst Howard's factory was located in [[Plaistow, Newham|Plaistow]], he resided at The River House, 3, Blaker Road, [[Stratford, London|Stratford]]. Howard's observations of the changing skyscape as he travelled between his home and factory facilitated his recording and categorization of clouds and his other observations of nature. Town Planning consent for this property's redevelopment was submitted in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|access-date=2018-06-04|url=http://planningregister.londonlegacy.co.uk/swift/apas/run/WPHAPPDETAIL.DisplayUrl?theApnID=15%2F00164%2FFUL&backURL=%3Ca%20href%3Dwphappcriteria.display%3ESearch%20Criteria%3C%2Fa%3E%20%3E%20%3Ca%20href%3D%27wphappsearchres.displayResultsURL%3FResultID%3D95100&StartIndex=1&SortOrder=APNID%3Aasc&DispResultsAs=wphappsresweek1&BackURL=%3Ca%20href%3Dwphappcriteria.display%3ESearch%20Criteria%3C%2Fa%3E%27%3ESearch%20Results%3C%2Fa%3E|title=Web APAS - Planning Application - Details|website=planningregister.londonlegacy.co.uk|publisher=London Legacy Development Corporation|archive-date=16 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616043130/http://planningregister.londonlegacy.co.uk/swift/apas/run/WPHAPPDETAIL.DisplayUrl?theApnID=15%2F00164%2FFUL&backURL=%3Ca%20href%3Dwphappcriteria.display%3ESearch%20Criteria%3C%2Fa%3E%20%3E%20%3Ca%20href%3D%27wphappsearchres.displayResultsURL%3FResultID%3D95100&StartIndex=1&SortOrder=APNID%3Aasc&DispResultsAs=wphappsresweek1&BackURL=%3Ca%20href%3Dwphappcriteria.display%3ESearch%20Criteria%3C%2Fa%3E%27%3ESearch%20Results%3C%2Fa%3E|url-status=dead}}</ref>

His daughter Rachel founded a school in [[Ackworth, West Yorkshire|Ackworth]], [[West Yorkshire]], which also contains a Plymouth Brethren burial ground.

In 2018, [[Tottenham Hotspur FC]] club, located near his house in Bruce Grove, named viewing areas in honour of his cloud names at the top of its east and west stands of its [[Tottenham Hotspur Stadium|new stadium]]. These, with panoramic views of the pitch and across London, were named 'Stratus East' and 'Stratus West' in recognition of Howard's classifications of cloud formations.

In 2024, The [[Royal Mail]] released stamp honoring Howard.<ref>{{cite web|title=Digest: New Stamps of the UK, 2024, pt. 1 |url=https://findyourstampsvalue.com/news/digest-new-stamps-of-the-uk-2024-pt-1 |website=findyourstampsvalue.com |date=May 17, 2024 |access-date=November 27, 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
*{{cite book|author-link=Richard Hamblyn|last=Hamblyn|first=Richard|title=The Invention of Clouds|location=London|publisher=Picador|date=2011|isbn=978-0-330-53730-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Thornes|first=John.E.|title=John Constable's Skies|publisher=The University of Birmingham Press|date=1999|isbn=1-902459-02-4}}
*[http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/lotw/1.html ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'']
*HOWARDS AND SONS LIMITED {CHEMISTS} Collection of Papers at the London Metropolitan Archives https://search.lma.gov.uk/scripts/mwimain.dll/144/LMA_OPAC/web_detail/REFD+ACC~2F1037?SESSIONSEARCH

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Luke Howard}}
{{wikisource author}}
*[http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/history/howard.htm Luke Howard Biography ]
*[http://cloudman.com/luke_howard.htm More on Luke Howard]
* {{BBKL|h/howard_lu|band=28|autor=Claus Bernet|spalten=827–832}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Howard, Luke}}
[[Category:1772 births]]
[[Category:1864 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century evangelicals]]
[[Category:19th-century evangelicals]]
[[Category:Scientists from London]]
[[Category:Amateur meteorologists]]
[[Category:British chemists]]
[[Category:English meteorologists]]
[[Category:English Quakers]]
[[Category:English tax resisters]]
[[Category:British Plymouth Brethren]]
[[Category:People from Ackworth, West Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Down Gaelic footballers]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Yorkshire]]