Editing Lydian language

{{Short description|Ancient Indo-European language}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Lydian
| altname          = Maeonian
| region           = [[Lydia]]
| latd             = 
| latm             = 
| latNS            = <!-- latitude degrees/minutes/direction -->
| longd            = 
| longm            = 
| longEW           = <!-- longitude degrees/minutes/direction -->
| ethnicity        = [[Lydians]]
| era              = attested {{nowrap|ca. 700–200 BCE}}
| ref              = 
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]]
| fam3             = [[Anatolian languages#Luwic branch|Luwo]]-Lydian?
| script           = [[Lydian alphabet]]
| iso3             = xld
| glotto           = lydi1241
| linglist         = xld
| notice           = IPA
}}
'''Lydian''' is an extinct [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]]<ref>{{cite book |title=The Etruscan Language: An Introduction |first1=Giuliano |last1=Bonfante |author-link=Giuliano Bonfante |first2=Larissa |last2=Bonfante |author2-link=Larissa Bonfante |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1983  |page=50 |quote="..confirmed by an analysis of the Lydian language, which is Indo-European.."}}</ref> [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian language]] spoken in the region of [[Lydia]], in western [[Anatolia]] (now in [[Turkey]]). The [[language]] is attested in [[graffiti]] and in [[coin]] legends from the late 8th century or the early 7th century to the 3rd century BCE, but well-preserved inscriptions of significant length are so far limited to the 5th century and the 4th century BCE, during the period of [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian domination.]] Thus, Lydian texts are effectively contemporaneous with those in [[Lycian language|Lycian]].

[[Strabo]] mentions that around his time (1st century BCE), the Lydian language was no longer spoken in Lydia proper but was still being spoken among the multicultural population of [[Kibyra]] (now [[Gölhisar]]) in southwestern Anatolia, by the descendants of the [[Lydians|Lydian]] colonists, who had founded the city.<ref>{{cite book|title = An Epigraphical Survey in the Kibyra-Olbasa Region conducted by A S Hall (Monograph)  | author= N. P. Milner |publisher= British Institute of Archaeology at [[Ankara]] | year= 1998}}</ref>

== Text corpus and decipherment ==
[[File:Lydian inscriptions.png|thumb|Map showing locations where inscriptions in the Lydian language have been found.]]
In 1916 the [[Sardis bilingual inscription]], a bilingual inscription in Aramaic and Lydian allowed [[Enno Littmann]] to decipher the Lydian language.<ref name="littmann1916">{{cite journal |last1=Littmann |first1=Enno |title=Sardis: Publications |journal=Publications of the American Society for the Excavation of Sardis |date=1916 |volume=VI |issue=1 |url=https://archive.org/details/lydianinscriptio00littuoft/page/n3/mode/2up |access-date=2021-02-09}}</ref> From an analysis of the two parallel texts, he identified the alphabetic signs, most of them correctly, established a basic vocabulary, attempted translation of a dozen unilingual texts, gave an outline of Lydian grammar, and even recognized peculiar poetical characteristics in several texts. Eight years later [[William Hepburn Buckler]] presented a collection of 51 inscriptions then known.<ref name="buckler1924">{{cite journal |last1=Buckler |first1=William Hepburn |title=Sardis: Publications |journal=Publications of the American Society for the Excavation of Sardis |date=1924 |volume=VI |issue=2 |url=https://archive.org/details/lydianinscriptio00littuoft/page/n3/mode/2up |access-date=2021-02-09}}</ref> The 109 inscriptions known by 1986 have been treated comprehensively by [[Roberto Gusmani]];{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}<ref name="gusmani1980" /> new texts keep being found from time to time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=CHG |title=Grave Stele from Haliller |url=https://www.sardisexpedition.org/en/artifacts/latw-11 |website=Archaeological Exploration of Sardis |access-date=2021-02-14}}</ref>

All but a few of the extant Lydian texts have been found in or near [[Sardis]], the Lydian capital, but fewer than 30 of the inscriptions consist of more than a few words or are reasonably complete. Most of the inscriptions are on marble or stone and are sepulchral in content, but several are decrees of one sort or another, and some half-dozen texts seem to be in verse, with a stress-based meter and vowel [[assonance]] at the end of the line. Tomb inscriptions include many [[epitaphs]], which typically begin with the words 𐤤𐤮 𐤥𐤵𐤫𐤠𐤮 ''es wãnas'' ("this grave"). The short texts are mostly graffiti, coin legends, seals, potter's marks, and the like. The language of the [[Ionians|Ionian]] Greek poet [[Hipponax]] (sixth century BCE, born at [[Ephesus]]) is interspersed with Lydian words, many of them from popular [[slang]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hoffmann |first1=O. |last2=Scherer |first2=A. |title=Geschichte der griechischen Sprache |date=1969 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter & Co. |location=Berlin |page=I, 55}}</ref>

Lydian can be officially studied at Marburg University, Germany, within the Hittitology minor program.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.academia.edu/114022851 | title=Hethitologie in Marburg studieren | last1=Sasseville | first1=David }}</ref>

== Classification ==
Within the Anatolian group, Lydian occupies a unique and problematic position. One reason is the still very limited evidence and understanding of the language. Another reason is a number of features that are not shared with any other Anatolian language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/lydian.pdf|title=Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages: Lydian p. 601-607|author=Craig Melchert|author-link=Craig Melchert|year=2004|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030411025033/http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/lydian.pdf|archive-date=2003-04-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is still not known whether those differences represent developments peculiar to pre-Lydian or the retention in Lydian of archaic features that were lost in the other Anatolian languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sprawi.uibk.ac.at/files/hajnal/vortrag_lydisch_engl.pdf|title=Lydian: Late-Hittite or Neo-Luwian?|author=Ivo Hajnal|year=2001|publisher=[[University of Innsbruck]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100753/http://sprawi.uibk.ac.at/files/hajnal/vortrag_lydisch_engl.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-04|url-status=dead}}</ref> Until more satisfactory knowledge becomes available, the status of Lydian within Anatolian remains a "special" one.

==Writing system==
{{main|Lydian alphabet}}
The [[Lydian alphabet|Lydian script]], which is strictly alphabetic, consists of 26 signs:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
| sign || {{Script|Lydi|𐤠}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤡}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤢}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤣}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤤}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤥}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤦}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤧}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤨}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤩}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤪}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤫}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤬}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤭}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤮}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤯}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤰}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤱}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤲}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤳}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤴}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤵}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤶}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤷}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤸}} || {{Script|Lydi|𐤹}}
|-
| transliteration || a || p || g || d || e || w || i || y || k || l || m || n || o || r || s || t || u || f || q || š || [[Tau|τ]] || ã || ẽ || λ || ñ || c
|-
| (former transliteration) ||  || ''b'' ||  ||  ||  || ''v'' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || ''ś'' ||  ||  ||  ||  || ''s'' ||  ||  ||  ||  || ''ν'' || 
|-
| sound ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) || /a/ || /p~b/ || /g/ || /ð/ || /e:/ || /w/ or /v/ || /i/ || /i̯~j/? || /k~ɡ/ || /l/ || /m/ || /n/ || /o:/ || /r/ || /s/ || /t~d/ || /u/ || /f/ or /ɸ/ || /kʷ/ || /ʃ/ or /ç/ || /tʃ/ or /tç/ || /ãː/? || /ã/ or /æ̃/? || /ʎ/ (or /ɾʲ/?) || /ɲ/ or /ŋ/? || /ts~dz/?
|-
| Greek equivalent || Α || Β || Γ || Δ || Ε || F || Ι || (Ι) || Κ || Λ || Μ || Ν || Ο || Ρ || Σ || Τ || Υ || Φ || ϙ || - || (Ξ) || - || - || - || - || (Ζ)
|}

The script is related to or derived from that of [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] as well as its western Anatolian neighbours, the exact relationship still remaining unclear. The direction of writing in the older texts is either from left to right or right to left. Later texts show exclusively the latter. Use of word-dividers is variable. The texts were found chiefly at the ancient capital of [[Sardis]] and include decrees and epitaphs, some of which were composed in verse; most were written during the 5th century and the 4th century BCE, but a few may have been created as early as the 7th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22939/Anatolian-languages/74580/Lydian|title = Anatolian languages &#124; Britannica}}</ref>

==Phonology==
=== Vowels ===
{|
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Oral vowels
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[High vowel|High]]
|{{IPA link|i}} {{grapheme|𐤦 - i}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}} {{grapheme|𐤰 - u}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}} {{grapheme|𐤤 - e}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}} {{grapheme|𐤬 - o}}
|-
![[Low vowel|Low]]
|
|{{IPA link|ä|a}} {{grapheme|𐤠 - a}}
|
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Nasal vowels
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Mid]]
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA link|ẽ}}~{{IPA link|æ̃}} {{grapheme|𐤶 - ẽ}}
|
|-
![[Low vowel|Low]]
|{{IPA link|ã}} {{grapheme|𐤵 - ã}}
|}
|}
Lydian has seven vowels: 𐤠 '''''a''''', 𐤤 '''''e''''', 𐤦 '''''i''''', 𐤬 '''''o''''', 𐤰 '''''u''''', 𐤵 '''''ã''''', and 𐤶 '''''ẽ''''', the last two being nasal vowels,{{Sfn|Gérard|2005}} typically before a ([[Synchrony and diachrony|synchronic or diachronic]]) nasal consonant (like '''''n''''', '''''ñ''''' or '''''m'''''). The vowels '''''e''''', '''''o''''', '''''ã''''', and '''''ẽ''''' occur only when accented.<ref name="eichner1986">{{cite journal |id={{INIST|11914067}} |last1=Eichner |first1=H |title=Die Akzentuation des Lydischen L'accentuation du lydien |journal=Die Akzentuation des Lydischen l'Accentuation du Lydien |date=1986 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=7–21 }}</ref> A vowel or glide 𐤧 '''''y''''' appears rarely, only in the oldest inscriptions,<ref name="Sasseville & Euler 2019"/> and probably indicates an allophone of '''''i''''' or '''''e''''' that is perhaps unstressed.

Lydian is notable for its extensive consonant clusters, which resulted from the loss of word-final short vowels, together with massive [[syncope (phonetics)|syncope]]; there may have been an unwritten [ə] in such sequences.

=== Consonants ===
(Note: until recently the Buckler (1924)<ref name="buckler1924" /> transliteration scheme was often used, which may lead to confusion. This older system wrote '''''v''''', '''''ν''''', '''''s''''', and '''''ś''''', instead of today's '''''w''''' (𐤥), '''''ñ''''' (𐤸), '''''š''''' (𐤳), and '''''s''''' (𐤮). The modern system renders the sibilants more naturally and prevents confusion between '''''v''''' (= w 𐤥) and the Greek [[nu (letter)|nu]] symbol '''''ν''''' (= ñ 𐤸).)

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Consonants
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Interdental consonant|Interdental]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! {{small|plain}}
! {{small|[[Labial–velar consonant|labial]]}}
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}} {{grapheme|𐤪 - m}}
|
| {{IPAlink|n}} {{grapheme|𐤫 - n}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|ɲ}}~{{IPAlink|ŋ}} {{grapheme|𐤸 - ñ}}
|
|-
! [[Plosive]]
| {{IPAlink|p}}~{{IPAlink|b}} {{grapheme|𐤡 - p}}
|
| {{IPAlink|t}}~{{IPAlink|d}} {{grapheme|𐤯 - t}}
|
| {{IPAlink|k}}~{{IPAlink|g}} {{grapheme|𐤨 - k}}<br>({{IPAlink|g}} {{grapheme|𐤢 - g}})
| {{IPAlink|kʷ}}~{{IPAlink|gʷ}} {{grapheme|𐤲 - q}}
|-
! [[Affricate]]
|
|
| {{IPAlink|ts}}~{{IPAlink|dz}} {{grapheme|𐤹 - c}}
| {{IPAlink|tʃ}} {{grapheme|𐤴 - τ}}
|
|
|-
! [[Fricative]]
| {{IPAlink|f}} {{grapheme|𐤱 - f}}
| {{IPAlink|ð}} {{grapheme|𐤣 - d}}
| {{IPAlink|s}} {{grapheme|𐤮 - s}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}} {{grapheme|𐤳 - š}}
|
|
|-
! [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|
|
| {{IPAlink|l}} {{grapheme|𐤩 - l}}
| {{IPAlink|ʎ}} {{grapheme|𐤷 - λ}}
|
|
|-
! [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
|
| {{IPAlink|r}} {{grapheme|𐤭 - r}}
|
|
|
|-
! [[Semivowel|Glide]]
|
|
|
|
|
| {{IPAlink|w}} {{grapheme|𐤥 - w}}
|}

Voicing was likely not distinctive in Lydian. However /p t k/ are voiced before nasals and apparently before /r/. The palatal affricate ('''''τ''''') and sibilant ('''''š''''') may have been [[Palato-alveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]].

It has now been argued that the laterals '''''l''''' and '''''λ''''' are actually flaps.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/79991787/Rhotacism_in_1st_Millennium_BC_Anatolia_Comparative_Luwian_and_Lydian_Phonology Sasseville, D. (2021). Rhotacism in 1st Millennium BC Anatolia Comparative Luwian and Lydian Phonology]</ref>

The sign 𐤣 has traditionally been transliterated '''''d''''' and interpreted as an interdental /ð/ resulting from the sound change *i̯ > ð or the lenition of Proto-Anatolian *t. However, it has recently been argued that in all contexts '''''d''''' in fact represents the palatal glide /j/, previously considered absent from Lydian.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oreshko |first1=Rostislav |title=Phonetic value of Lydian letter &lt;d&gt; revisited and development of PIE dentals in Lydian |journal=Wekwos |date=2019 |volume=4 |pages=191–262 |url=https://www.academia.edu/39978695 }}</ref> An interdental /ð/ would stand as the only interdental sound in Lydian phonology, whereas a palatal interpretation of '''''d''''' is complemented by a full series of other palatal consonants: '''''λ''''', '''''š''''', '''''ñ''''', and '''''τ'''''.

Lydian, with its many palatal and nasal sounds, must have sounded quite strange to the ears of ancient Greeks, and transcription of Lydian names into Greek would therefore present some difficulties. Recently a case has been made that the Lydian word Qλdãns, pronounced /kʷɾʲ'ðãns/, both meaning 'king' and the name of a god, could correspond to the Greek Κροῖσος, or [[Croesus]], the last Lydian king, whose kingdom was conquered by the Persians. If the identification is correct it would have the interesting historical consequence that king Croesus was not saved from being burnt at the stake, as Herodotus tells us,<ref>''Histories'', I, 86.</ref> but chose suicide and was subsequently deified.<ref name="Sasseville & Euler 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Sasseville |first1=David |last2=Euler |first2=Katrin |title=Die Identität des lydischen Qλdãns und seine kulturgeschichtlichen Folgen |journal=Kadmos |date=2019 |volume=58 |issue=1/2 |pages=125–156 |doi=10.1515/kadmos-2019-0007 |s2cid=220368367 }}</ref>

=== Stress ===
[[Heiner Eichner]] developed rules to determine which syllable in a word has the stress accent.<ref name="eichner1986" /> In short, the rules are:
* Syllables with vowel ''-'''ã'''-, -'''ẽ'''-, -'''e'''-, -'''o'''-, -'''aa'''-'', and ''-'''ii'''-'' always have stress. Syllables with ''-'''i'''- (-'''y'''-), -'''a'''-'' or ''-'''u'''-'' may be accented or unaccented.
* Enclitics ('''''-añ-, -in-, -it-''''', etc.) never have stress.
* Prefixes, even those with a long vowel ('''''ẽn-''''', '''''ẽt-'''''), do not have stress.<ref name="Sasseville2017" />
* An ''-'''a'''-'' before a nasal ('''''m, n, ñ''''') never has stress.
* In consonant clusters syllabic liquidae ('''''l, λ, r'''''), nasals ('''''m, n, ñ''''') and sibilants ('''''s, š''''') do not have stress.
* Within a declension or conjugation stress does not move from one syllable to another.
A useful application of those rules is the investigation of [[metre]]s in Lydian poetry.

==Morphology==

===Nouns===
Nouns and adjectives distinguish [[grammatical number|singular and plural]] forms. Words in the texts are predominantly singular. Plural forms are scarce, and a [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] has not been found in Lydian. There are two [[grammatical gender|genders]]: animate (or 'common') and inanimate (or 'neuter'). Only three cases are securely attested: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], and [[dative case|dative]]-[[locative case|locative]]. A [[genitive case]] seems to be present in the plural, but in the singular usually a so-called [[possessive]] is used instead, which is similar to the [[Luwic languages]]: a suffix -li is added to the root of a substantive, and thus an adjective is formed that is declined in turn. However, recently it has been defended that a form ending in -l, formerly thought to be an "endingless" variant of the possessive, was indeed a genitive singular.<ref name="YakubovichInscr22">{{cite journal |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |title=An agreement between the Sardians and the Mermnads in the Lydian language? |journal=Indogermanische Forschungen |date=2017 |volume=122 |pages=265–293 |doi=10.1515/if-2017-0014 |s2cid=171633908 }}</ref> Of an [[ablative case]] there are only a few uncertain examples.

Nouns, adjectives, and pronomina are all declined according to a similar paradigm:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}<ref name="gusmani1980">{{cite book |last1=Gusmani |first1=Roberto |title=Lydisches Wörterbuch. Ergänzungsband, Lieferung 1-3 |date=1980–1986 |publisher=Carl Winter Universitätsverlag |location=Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-533-02929-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/gusmani-lydisches-worterbuch-2nd-edition-1980/page/n1/mode/2up |access-date=2021-02-07}}</ref><ref name="Sasseville2017">{{cite journal |last1=Sasseville |first1=David |title=The Lydian nominal paradigm of i-mutation |journal=Indo-European Linguistics |date=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=130–146 |doi=10.1163/22125892-00501002 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!
! colspan="2" | Singular
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Case
! animate !! inanimate
! animate !! inanimate
|-
| Nominative
| -š, -s
| rowspan="2" | -d (-t)
| -(a)š (?)
| rowspan="2" | -a (?) (-añ (?), -Ø (?))
|-
| Accusative
| -ñ (-n)
| -(a)s, -(a)š (?)
|-
| Dative-Locative
| colspan="2" | -λ
| colspan="2" | -añ (-an) (?)
|-
| Genitive
| colspan="2" | -l (?);<br>(Possessive:) -lis, -liñ, -lid,...
| colspan="2" | -añ (?)
|-
| Ablative
| colspan="2" | -d (-t)
| colspan="2" | ?
|}

==== Substantives ====
Examples of substantives:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}<ref name="gusmani1980" />

{| class="wikitable"
|  || || ciw- || astrko- || artimu- || || mru- || anlola-
|-
|  || || = god || = patron:<br>Lord, Lady || = Artemis || || = stele || = funeral stele
|-
! Case
! colspan="4" align="center" | (animate)
! colspan="3" align="center" | (inanimate)
|-
| Nominative Singular || -š, -s || ciw'''š''' || ast(u)rko'''s''' || artimu'''s''' || rowspan="2" | -d (-t) || mru'''d''' ||
|-
| Accusative Singular || -ñ (-n) || ciw'''ñ''' ||  || artimu'''ñ''' || mru'''d''' || 
|-
| Dative-Locative Sing. || -λ || || astrko'''λ''' || artimu'''λ''' || -λ || mru'''λ''' ||
|-
| Genitive Singular || -l (?) || ||  || artimu'''l''' || -l (?) ||  ||
|-
| Ablative Singular || -d (-t) || ciw'''ad''' (?) || astrko'''t''' (?) ||  || -d (-t) || ||
|-
| Nom./Acc. Plural || -aš, -as (?) ||  ||  ||  || -a (?) (-añ (?), -Ø (?)) || || anlol'''a'''
|-
| Dative-Locative Plural || -añ (?) || ciw'''añ''' ||  ||  || -añ (?) || || anlol'''añ'''
|}

==== Adjectives ====
Examples of adjectives:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}<ref name="gusmani1980" /><ref name="Sasseville2017" />

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=2| Case
!
! aλa-<br>{{nobold|other}}
! wissi-, wiswi-{{efn|including ''<u>ni</u>wissi-, <u>ni</u>wiswi-'' {{=}} '<u>not</u> good: bad'.}}<br>{{nobold|good}}
! ipsimši-<br>{{nobold|Ephesian}}
! sfardẽti-<br>{{nobold|Sardian}}{{efn|inhabitant of Sardis.}}
! pakiwali-<br>{{nobold|Pakiwas's}}{{efn|Pakiwas is a person's name.}}
|-
|rowspan=2| Nominative animate
| singular
| -š, -s || aλa'''s''' || wissi'''š''' || ipsimši'''š''' || sfardẽti'''š''' || pakiwali'''š'''
|-
| plural
| -(a)š (?) ||  ||  ||  || sfardẽn'''τ''' {{efn|note that τ (/tʃ/) is written instead of t + š (/t/ + /ʃ/).}} ||
|-
|rowspan=2| Nom./Acc. inanimate
| singular
| -d (-t) || aλa'''d''' || wiswi'''d''' ||   ||  || pakiwali'''d'''
|-
| plural
| -a (?) (-añ (?), -Ø (?)) ||  || (ni)wisw'''a''' ||  ||  ||
|-
|rowspan=2| Dative-Locative
| singular
| -λ || aλa'''λ''' || (ni)wisl'''λ''' ||  ipsiml'''λ''' || sfardẽt'''λ''' || pakiwal'''λ'''
|-
| plural
| -añ (-an) (?) || aλ'''ẽñ''' (?) ||  ||   || sfardẽt'''añ''' ||
|-
|colspan=2| Genitive Plural
| -añ (?) ||  ||  || ipsimñ'''añ''' ||  ||
|}
{{notelist}}

==== Pronomina ====
Examples of pronomina:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}<ref name="gusmani1980" />

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=4|
! ẽmi- <br>{{nobold|my, mine}}
! pili- <br>{{nobold|his}}
! eš- <br>{{nobold|this}}
! qi- <br>{{nobold|who, which}}
|-
!colspan=3| Case
!
!colspan=2| (personal)
! (demonstrative)
! (relative, interrogative)
|-
| Nominative
| singular
| animate
| -š, -s || ẽmi'''š''' || pili'''š''' || es'''s''' (e'''s''', e'''š''') || qi'''š''' (qe'''š''', qy'''š''')
|-
| Accusative
| singular
| animate
| -ñ (-n) || ẽm'''ñ''' || pil'''ñ''' || eš'''ñ''' (eš'''n''') || q'''ñ'''
|-
|rowspan=3| Nom./Acc.
| singular
| inanimate
| -d (-t) ||  ||  || eš'''t''' || qi'''d''' (qe'''d''', qy'''d''')
|-
|rowspan=2| plural
| animate
| -aš, -as (?) || ẽmin'''aš''' (?) || pilin'''aš''' ||  || 
|-
| inanimate
| -a (?) (-añ (?), -Ø (?)) || ẽmin'''añ''' (?) || pilin'''añ''' ||  || qid'''a''' (?)
|-
| rowspan=2 colspan=2| Dative-Locative
| singular
| -λ || ẽm'''λ''' || pil'''λ''' || eš'''λ''' || q'''λ'''
|-
| plural
| -añ (-an) (?) ||  ||  || eš'''ñañ''' (?) ||
|-
|colspan=2| Genitive
| singular
| -l (?) ||  || pi'''l''' ||  || 
|}

===Verbs===
Just as in other Anatolian languages verbs in Lydian were conjugated in the present-future and preterite tenses with three persons singular and plural. [[imperative mood|Imperative]] or [[gerundive]] forms have not been found yet. Singular forms are often hard to distinguish from plural forms in the third person present active (both ending in ''-t/-d''): the plural form seems to be in principle nasalized, but this could not always be expressed in the writing.

Lydian distinguished a [[mediopassive voice|mediopassive]] voice with the third-person singular ending ''-t(a)λ'' or ''-daλ'' (derived from Proto-Anatolian *-tori; ''-t(a)λ'' after consonant stems and part of the stems ending in a vowel, ''-daλ'' when [[lenition|lenited]] after other stems ending in a vowel or glide).<ref name="hcm2009">{{cite web |last1=Melchert |first1=H. Craig |title=Medio-Passive Forms in Lydian? |url=https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/fsgusmani.pdf |access-date=2021-02-23}}</ref><ref name="yakubovich">{{cite book |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |chapter=Showing Reverence in Lydian |pages=399–409 |editor1-last=Catt |editor1-first=Adam Alvah |editor2-last=Kim |editor2-first=Ronald I. |editor3-last=Vine |editor3-first=Brent |title=QAZZU Warrai: Anatolian and Indo-European Studies in Honor of Kazuhiko Yoshida |date=2019 |publisher=Beech Stave Press |isbn=978-0-9895142-6-2 }}</ref>

About a dozen [[grammatical conjugation|conjugations]] can be distinguished, on the basis of (1) the verbal root ending (''a''-stems, consonant stems, -''ši''-stems, etc.), and (2) the endings of the third person singular being either unlenited (''-t; -tλ, -taλ'') or lenited (''-d; -dλ, -daλ''). For example, ''šarpta-''<sup>(t)</sup> (to inscribe, to carve) is an unlenited ''a''-stem (''šarptat'', he inscribes), ''qaλmλa-''<sup>(d)</sup> (to be king) is a lenited ''a''-stem (''qaλmλad'', he rules). Differences between the various conjugations are minor.

Many Lydian verbs are composite, using prefixes such as ''ẽn-'' (= 'in-'?), ''ẽt-'' (= 'into-'<ref name="melchert1993hpa">{{cite journal |id={{INIST|4289439}} |last1=Melchert |first1=H. Craig |title=Historical Phonology of Anatolian |journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies |date=1993 |volume=21 |issue=3–4 |pages=237–257 |url=https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/anathistphon.pdf |access-date=2021-02-27}}</ref>), ''fa-/f-'' ('then, subsequently, again'?<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |title=Lydian Etymological Notes |journal=Historische Sprachforschung |date=2005 |volume=118 |pages=75–91 |jstor=40849242 }}</ref>), ''šaw-,'' and ''kat-/kaτ-'' (= 'down-'?), and suffixes like ''-ãn-/-ẽn-'' ([[delimitative|durative]]?<ref name="YakubovichInscr22"/>), ''-no-/-ño-'' ([[causative]]?{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p=177}}), ''-ši-'' ([[frequentative|iterative]]?{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p=195}}), and ''-ki-'' or ''-ti-'' ([[denominal verb|denominative]]?{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|pp=151, 212}}); their meaning is often difficult to determine.{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}

Examples of verbal conjugation:<ref name="sass2020">{{cite book |last1=Sasseville |first1=David |title=Anatolian Verbal Stem Formation: Luwian, Lycian and Lydian |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden / Boston |isbn=978-90-04-43628-2 }}{{pn|date=July 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! width="10%" | !! width="10%" | !! width="10%" |  !! width="10%" | cẽn(š)i-<sup>(t)</sup> !! width="10%" | cuni/cñi-<sup>(t?)</sup> !! width="10%" | in(ãn)i-<sup>(t)</sup> !! width="10%" | tro-<sup>(d)</sup> !! width="10%" | u-<sup>(d)</sup> !! width="20%" | (other verbs)
|-
|  ||  || '''(ending)''' || ''to dedicate'' || ''to erect'' || ''to make'' || ''to hand over'' || ''to write'' || 
|-
| colspan="9" | '''Active:'''
|-
| rowspan="6" valign="top" | Present/future || 1 Singular || -u, -w || cẽn'''u''' ||  || inãn'''u''' || (kan-)tor'''u'''; <br>(fa-kan-)tro'''w''' ||  || 
|-
| 2 Singular || -š ||  ||  ||  || (fa-)tro'''š''' ||  || 
|-
| 3 Singular || -t, -d ||  ||  || in'''t'''; inãn'''t''' || (kan-)tro'''d''' || (ẽn-)u'''d''' || 
|-
| 1 Plural || -wñ || τẽn'''wñ''' ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| 2 Plural || ? ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| 3 Plural || ~-t || cẽni'''t''', (ši-)τẽni'''t''' ||  ||  || (ta-)tro'''t''' ||  || taqtula- (''= ?''): taqtul'''ãt'''
|-
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | Preterite || 1 Singular || -dñ (~-ñ, -ñ) || cẽnši'''dñ''' ||  || inãn'''idñ''' || tro'''dñ''' ||  || ca- (''to give a share''): (fẽn-)c'''ãñ'''; <br>ow- (''to favor''): ow'''ñ'''
|-
| 3 Singular || -l || cẽna'''l''' || (fa-)cuni'''l''', (fa-)cñi'''l''' || in'''l''', i'''l''' || (ẽn-)tro'''l''' || u'''l''', (kat-)u'''l''' || 
|-
| 1 Plural || -wñ<ref name="hcm2009" /> ||  ||  ||  || (fiš-)tro'''wñ''' ||  ||
|-
| 3 Plural || -rs,<ref name="hcm2009" /> -riš ||  || (fa-)cñi'''riš''' ||  ||  ||  || še- (''to release''): še'''rs'''
|-
| Imperative ||  || ? ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| colspan="2" | Participle || -m(i)- ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || kipτa- (''to act as a'' kipτa): kipτa'''m'''-
|-
| colspan="2" | Infinitive || -l ||  ||  || ina'''l''' ||  || u'''l''' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | Nominal derivative || (A) || -to ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || karf-/korf-: karf'''to-s''' (''= ?'')
|-
| (B) || -λo (-lo) ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || karf-/korf-: šaw-korf'''λo-s''', šaw-karb'''lo-s''' (''= ?'')
|-
| colspan="9" | '''Mediopassive:'''
|-
|  Present/future || 3 Singular || -t(a)λ, -daλ || cẽn'''tλ''' ||  ||  ||  ||  || išlo- (''to honor?''): išlo'''daλ'''
|-
| Preterite || 3 Singular || -rst ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || pife- (''to grant''): pife'''rst'''
|}

=== Particles ===
To emphasize where an important next part of a sentence begins, Lydian uses a series of [[enclitic]] particles that can be affixed to a pivotal word. Examples of such "emphatic" enclitics are -in-, -it-/-iτ-, -t-/-τ-, -at-, and -m-/-um-. When stacked and combined with other suffixes (such as pronomina, or the suffix -k = 'and') veritable clusters are formed. The word ak = 'so..., so if...' provides many examples:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}
: akτin (= ak-τ-in) - 'so...', 'so if...', 'yea, if...'
: akmsin (= ak-m-s-in) - 'so if he...' (-s- = 'he'), or (= ak-ms-in) - 'so if to them...' (-ms- = 'to them')
: akmλt (= ak-m-λ-t) - 'so if to him...' (-λ- = 'to him'); etc.

==Syntax==
The basic word order is [[subject-object-verb]], but constituents may be extraposed to the right of the verb. Like other Anatolian languages, Lydian features clause-initial particles with enclitic pronouns attached in a chain. It also has a number of preverbs and at least one postposition. Modifiers of a noun normally precede it.

==Sample text and vocabulary==

=== The Lydian bilingual ===
[[File:Sardis bilingual inscription full size.jpg|thumb|The [[Sardis bilingual inscription]] was the "[[Rosetta Stone]]" for the Lydian language.]]In May 1912 American excavators at the Sardis [[necropolis]] discovered a bilingual inscription in [[Lydian alphabet|Lydian]] and [[Aramaic script|Aramaic]].<ref>http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/anatol/lydian/lydco.htm, Inscription #1 (Retrieved 2021-02-03).</ref> Being among the first texts found, it provided a limited equivalent of the [[Rosetta Stone]] and permitted a first understanding of the Lydian language.<ref name="littmann1916" />

The first line of the Lydian text has been destroyed, but can be reconstructed from its Aramaic counterpart.

{| class=wikitable style="margin:auto"
! Text
! Transliteration
! Reconstructed Pronunciation
! Translation<ref>Translation adapted from [https://babaev.tripod.com/archive/grammar21.html The Grammar of the Lydian Language] by Cyril Babaev (Retrieved 2021-02-01).</ref>
|-
| align=right| ...]
| [...]
| [...]
| [In year 10 of King [[Artaxerxes II|Artaxerxes]]<ref>Probably Artaxerxes II, but Artaxerxes I or Artaxerxes III may also be meant.</ref> [i.e., [[395 BC|395 BCE]](?)] were dedicated,]
|-
| align=right| 𐤬]𐤭𐤠𐤷 𐤦𐤳𐤩𐤷 𐤡𐤠𐤨𐤦𐤩𐤩𐤷 𐤤𐤳𐤯 𐤪𐤭𐤰𐤣 𐤤𐤮𐤮𐤨 [𐤥𐤠𐤫𐤠𐤮]
| [o]raλ išlλ pakillλ ešt mrud ess-k [wãnas]
| ɔɾaʎ iʃləʎ pakilləʎ eʃt mɾuð essək wãːnas
| early in the [m]onth of [[Bacchus]] [= October–November],<ref>The Aramaic text specifies the date as the 5th of the month of [[Cheshvan|Markheshvan]].</ref> this [[stele]], and this [tomb], 
|-
| align=right| 𐤩𐤠𐤲𐤭𐤦𐤳𐤠𐤨 𐤲𐤤𐤩𐤠𐤨 𐤨𐤰𐤣𐤨𐤦𐤯 𐤦𐤳𐤯 𐤤𐤮𐤷 𐤥𐤵𐤫[𐤠𐤷]
| laqriša-k qela-k kudkit išt ešλ wãn[aλ]
| lakʷɾiʃak kʷelak kuðkit iʃt eʃəʎ wãːnaʎ
| and the walls/inscription, and the area opposite(?) this to[mb]
|-
| align=right| 𐤡𐤷𐤯𐤠𐤭𐤥𐤬𐤣 𐤠𐤨𐤠𐤣 𐤪𐤠𐤫𐤤𐤩𐤦𐤣 𐤨𐤰𐤪𐤩𐤦𐤩𐤦𐤣 𐤳𐤦𐤩𐤰𐤨𐤠𐤩𐤦𐤣 𐤠𐤨𐤦𐤯 𐤫[𐤵𐤲𐤦𐤳] 
| pλtarwod ak-ad manelid kumlilid šilukalid ak-it n[ãqiš]
| pʎtaɾwɔð akað manelið kumlilið ʃilukalið akit nãːkʷiʃ
| belonging(?) to Manes, son of Kumlis from Silukas's clan; so if an[yone]
|-
| align=right| 𐤤𐤳𐤷 𐤪𐤭𐤰𐤷 𐤡𐤰𐤨 𐤤𐤳𐤷 𐤥𐤵𐤫𐤠𐤷 𐤡𐤰𐤨 𐤤𐤳𐤸𐤠𐤸 
| ešλ mruλ puk ešλ wãnaλ puk ešñañ
| eʃʎ mɾuʎ puk eʃʎ wãːnaʎ puk eʃɲaɲ
| to this stele or this tomb or these 
|-
| align=right| 𐤩𐤠𐤲𐤭𐤦𐤳𐤠𐤸 𐤡𐤰𐤨𐤦𐤯 𐤨𐤰𐤣 𐤦𐤳𐤯 𐤤𐤳𐤷 𐤥𐤵𐤫𐤠𐤷 𐤡𐤷𐤯𐤠𐤭𐤥𐤬[𐤣]
| laqrišañ puk-it kud išt ešλ wãnaλ pλtarwo[d]
| lakʷɾiʃaɲ pukit kuð iʃt eʃʎ wãːnaʎ pʎtaɾwɔð
| walls/inscription or to whatever belong[s](?) to this tomb—
|-
| align=right| 𐤠𐤨𐤯𐤦𐤫 𐤫𐤵𐤲𐤦𐤳 𐤲𐤤𐤩𐤷𐤨 𐤱𐤶𐤫𐤳𐤷𐤦𐤱𐤦𐤣 𐤱𐤠𐤨𐤪𐤷 𐤠𐤭𐤯𐤦𐤪𐤰𐤮
| ak-t-in nãqiš qelλ-k fẽnšλifid fak-mλ artimus
| aktin nãːkʷiʃ kʷelʎək fãnʃʎifið fakməʎ aɾdimus
| yea, if anyone to anything does damage, then to him [[Artemis]]
|-
| align=right| 𐤦𐤡𐤮𐤦𐤪𐤳𐤦𐤳 𐤠𐤭𐤯𐤦𐤪𐤰𐤨 𐤨𐤰𐤩𐤰𐤪𐤳𐤦𐤳 𐤠𐤠𐤭𐤠𐤷 𐤡𐤦𐤭𐤠𐤷𐤨 
| ipsimšiš artimu-k kulumšiš aaraλ piraλ-k
| ipsimʃiʃ aɾdimuk kulumʃiʃ a(ː)ɾaʎ piɾaʎk
| of the [[Ephesus|Ephesians]] and Artemis of [[Koloe (Lydia)|Coloe]] [will destroy] the yard and house, 
|-
| align=right| 𐤨𐤷𐤦𐤣𐤠𐤷 𐤨𐤬𐤱𐤰𐤷𐤨 𐤲𐤦𐤭𐤠𐤷 𐤲𐤤𐤩𐤷𐤨 𐤡𐤦𐤩𐤷 𐤥𐤹𐤡𐤠𐤲𐤶𐤫𐤯 
| kλidaλ kofuλ-k qiraλ qelλ-k pilλ wcpaqẽnt
| kʎiðaʎ kɔfuʎk kʷiɾaʎ kʷeləʎk piləʎ w̩tspakʷãnd
| land and water, property and estate that are his, She [Artemis] will destroy! 
|}

=== Vocabulary ===
Examples of words in the bilingual:
: 𐤬𐤭𐤠 – '''ora''' – month; cf. Greek ὥρα (season, year, moment), Latin hora (hour), English hour
: 𐤩𐤠𐤲𐤭𐤦𐤳𐤠 – '''laqriša''' –  wall, walls (traditional translation); letters, inscription (?)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kelder |first=Jorrit |title=A new reading of Lydian laqrisa as 'words' or 'inscriptions' (?) |journal=Nouvelles assyriologiques brèves et utilitaires |volume= |issue=2 |date=June 2011 |pages=44–45 |url=https://www.academia.edu/773338 }}</ref>
: 𐤡𐤦𐤭𐤠 – '''pira''' – house; cf. Hitt. pēr/parn- 'house'
: 𐤲𐤦𐤭𐤠 – '''qira''' – field, ground, immovable property
: 𐤨 – '''-k''' (suffix) – and; cf. Greek τε, Latin -que = and

Other words with Indo-European roots and with modern cognates:
: 𐤲𐤦𐤳 – '''qiš''' – who; cf. Greek τίς, Latin quis, French qui
: 𐤡𐤭𐤠𐤱𐤭𐤮 – '''prafrs''' – community, brotherhood; cf. Latin frater, English brother, French frère
: 𐤹𐤦𐤥𐤳 – '''ciwš''' – god; cf. Greek Ζεύς, Latin deus, French dieu (god)
: 𐤠𐤷𐤠𐤮 – '''aλas''' – other; cf. Greek ἄλλος (other; is an element in words such as [[allogamy]], [[allomorph]], [[allopathic medicine|allopathy]], [[allotropy]]), Latin alius (other), alter (another, the other one, second), French autre

Only a small fraction of the Lydian vocabulary is clearly of Indo-European stock. Gusmani<ref name="gusmani1980" /> provides lists of words that have been linked to [[Hittite language|Hittite]], various other Indo-European languages, and [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]].

===Lydian words still in use===

Labrys (Greek: λάβρυς, lábrys) is the term for a symmetrical double-bitted axe originally from [[Crete]] in Greece, one of the oldest symbols of Greek civilization. The priests at [[Delphi]] in classical Greece were called Labryades (the men of the double axe). 
The term ''[[labrys]]'' "double-axe" is not found in any surviving Lydian inscription, but on the subject, [[Plutarch]] states that "the Lydians call the axe ''labrys''" (Λυδοὶ γὰρ ‘λάβρυν’ τὸν πέλεκυν ὀνομάζουσι).<ref>{{cite book | title = [[Moralia]]|isbn=978-1-4179-0500-3|volume=4|page=235|author= Plutarch|author-link= Plutarch|translator=Frank Cole Babbitt|publisher= [[Kessinger Publishing]]|year=2005}}</ref>

Another possibly Lydian [[loanword]] may be ''[[tyrant]]'' "absolute ruler",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tyrant|title = Tyrant &#124; Etymology, origin and meaning of tyrant by etymonline}}</ref> which was first used in [[Ancient Greek]] sources, without negative connotations, for the late 8th century or early 7th century BCE. It is possibly derived from the native town of King [[Gyges of Lydia]], founder of the [[Mermnad dynasty]], which was Tyrrha in [[classical antiquity]] and is now [[Tire, Turkey]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The story of civilization|volume=2|page=[https://archive.org/details/storyofcivilizat00dura_3/page/122 122]|author=Will Durant|author-link=Will Durant|isbn=978-1-56731-013-9|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=1997|url=https://archive.org/details/storyofcivilizat00dura_3/page/122}}</ref> Yet another is the element [[molybdenum]], borrowed from [[Ancient Greek]] ''{{lang|grc-Latn|mólybdos}}'', "lead", from [[Mycenaean Greek]] ''mo-ri-wo-do'', which in Lydian was ''mariwda-'' "dark".<ref name="melchert">{{cite web | author=Melchert, Craig | url=http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/molybdos.pdf | title=Greek mólybdos as a Loanword from Lydian | publisher=[[University of North Carolina]] at [[Chapel Hill, North Carolina|Chapel Hill]] | year= | accessdate=2011-04-23 | archive-date=2008-10-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012125202/http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/molybdos.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>
All of those loanwords confirm a strong cultural interaction between the Lydians and the Greeks since the Creto-[[Mycenaean era]] (2nd millennium BCE).

== Lydian poetry ==
In his seminal decipherment of Lydian texts Littmann noted that at least five of them show two poetical aspects:<ref>Littmann (1916), pp. 58-62.</ref>

* First, [[assonance]]: all lines have the same vocal ('''''o''''', or '''''a''''', or '''''i''''') in the last syllable. One of the longest inscriptions, 19 lines, has in each line an '''''o''''' in the last syllable.{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|pp=256-257 (inscription #14)}} Littmann sensationally labeled these assonances "the earliest rhyme in the history of human literature",<ref>Littmann (1916), p. 61.</ref> though the word '[[rhyme]]' is slightly misleading because the consonants in the last syllables do vary (''... fact'''ot''' / ... tas'''ok''' / ... arkt'''oλ''''', etc.).
* Secondly, the poetic texts apparently show a [[metre (poetry)|metre]]: lines have twelve (sometimes eleven or ten) syllables with a [[caesura]] before the fifth or sixth syllable from the end. The twelve-syllable lines often sound like [[anapestic tetrameter]]s.<ref name="eichner1986" />

Also, partly in order to achieve assonance and metre ("''[[List of Latin phrases (M)|metri causa]]''"), in poetic texts word order is more free than in prose.

[[Martin Litchfield West|Martin West]], after comparing historical metres in various Indo-European languages, concluded that the Lydian metres seem to be compatible with reconstructed common Proto-Indo-European metres.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=West |first1=Martin Litchfield |title=Indo-European Metre |journal=Glotta |date=1973 |volume=51 |issue=3/4 |pages=161–187 |jstor=40266268 }}</ref> The Lydians probably borrowed these metres from the Greeks; however, the assonance was a unique innovation of their own.

Only one text{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p=254 (inscription #10)}} shows mixed character: a poetical middle part is sandwiched in between a prose introduction and a prose conclusion.<ref>Buckler (1924), pp. 17-23.</ref> Analogous to the bilingual text the introduction tells who built the monument (a certain Karos), and for whom (both his son and his ancestors), while the final sentence of the original inscription may be the usual curse for those who would dare to damage it. The poetic middle part seems to claim that the monument was built after consulting a divine oracle, cited between Lydian "quotation marks" ▷...▷, and continues with an appeal to pay as much respect to the builder as to the venerable forefathers.<ref name="yakubovich" />

It is remarkable that clear examples of rhyme (like the stock expression ''aaraλ piraλ-k'', 'house and yard', cf. German 'Haus und Hof') and [[alliteration]] ('''''k'''λidaλ '''k'''ofuλ-k '''q'''iraλ '''q'''elλ-k'', 'land and water, property and estate') are absent in the poetical texts, but do occur in the prose bilingual.

==See also==
{{Portal|Asia}}
*[[Lydian script]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|title = Lydisches Wörterbuch. Mit grammatischer Skizze und Inschriftensammlung |author= Roberto Gusmani |publisher= Ergänzungsband 1-3, [[Heidelberg]] | year= 1980–1986 |language=German}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gusmani |first1=Roberto |title=Lydisches Wörterbuch |date=1964 |publisher=C. Winter |oclc=582362214 |url=https://archive.org/details/gusmani-lydisches-worterbuch-1964 |language=de }}
* {{cite book|title = The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages|isbn=978-0-521-56256-0|author= Craig Melchert|chapter=Lydian|pages=601–607| editor=Roger D. Woodard |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] | year= 2004 }}
*{{cite book | author=Fortson, Benjamin W. | title=Indo-European Language and Culture : An Introduction|isbn=978-1-4051-0316-9| publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing|Blackwell Textbooks in Linguistics]] | year=2004 | location= [[Malden, Massachusetts]] }}
*{{cite book|first=Raphaël|last=Gérard|title=Phonétique et morphologie de la langue lydienne|isbn=978-90-429-1574-9|publisher=[[Peeters Publishers]]|year=2005|location=[[Louvain-la-Neuve]]|language=French}}
* {{cite book|last=Shevoroshkin|first=V.|title=The Lydian Language|location=Moscow|year=1977}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite web | title=Digital etymological-philological Dictionary of the Ancient Anatolian Corpus Languages (eDiAna) | url=http://www.ediana.gwi.uni-muenchen.de | publisher=[[Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München]]}}
*[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/anatol/lydian/lydco.htm Lydian Corpus]
*[http://www.palaeolexicon.com Palaeolexicon - Word study tool of Ancient languages, including a Lydian dictionary]
*[https://babaev.tripod.com/archive/grammar21.html The Grammar of the Lydian Language] by Cyril Babaev (Retrieved 2021-02-01)
{{refend}}
* [https://sardisexpedition.org/ The Archaeological Exploration of Sardis] (Sardis Expedition Project) (Retrieved 2021-02-13)

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kearns |first1=John Michael |title=A Greek Genitive from Lydia |journal=Glotta |date=1994 |volume=72 |issue=1/4 |pages=5–14 |jstor=40266977 }}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1163/9789004461598_007 |chapter=Language Contact between Lydian and Greek or the Origin of Lydian K |title=Linguistic and Cultural Interactions between Greece and Anatolia |year=2021 |pages=116–130 |isbn=978-90-04-46159-8 |s2cid=242888186 |last1=Oettinger |first1=Norbert }}
* {{cite book |last1=Payne |first1=Annick |last2=Wintjes |first2=Jorit |chapter=The Lydian Language |pages=63–72 |jstor=j.ctvc5pfx2.8 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvc5pfx2.8 |title=Lords of Asia Minor: An Introduction to the Lydians |date=2016 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-10568-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Payne |first1=Annick |last2=Wintjes |first2=Jorit |chapter=Lydian Inscriptions |pages=73–86 |jstor=j.ctvc5pfx2.9 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvc5pfx2.9 |title=Lords of Asia Minor: An Introduction to the Lydians |date=2016 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-10568-2 }}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.13130/1972-9901/15416 |year=2021 |last1=Payne |first1=Annick |title=Hesychius' Lydian Glosses I |journal=Atti del Sodalizio Glottologico Milanese |volume=2019 |issue=14 n.s |pages=173–185 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ricl |first1=Marijana |title=Current Archaeological and Epigraphic Research in the Region of Lydia |journal=Collection de l'Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l'Antiquité |date=2013 |volume=1277 |issue=2 |pages=189–195 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ista_0000-0000_2013_act_1277_2_3751 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |title=Lydian Etymological Notes |journal=Historische Sprachforschung |date=2005 |volume=118 |pages=75–91 |jstor=40849242 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Yakubovich |first=Ilya |title=The place of Lydian in the Anatolian family through the lens of recent research |trans-title=Статус лидийского среди анатолийских языков под призмой недавних исследований |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |volume=20 |issue=3–4 |date=2023 |pages=191–221 |url=https://www.jolr.ru/files/(325)jlr2022-20-3-4(191-221).pdf }}
{{refend}}

{{Anatolian languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lydian Language}}
[[Category:Lydian language]]
[[Category:Anatolian languages]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Asia]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 8th century BC]]