Editing Macrotyloma uniflorum

{{Short description|Species of legume}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Horse Gram BNC.jpg
| image_caption = Horse gram seeds
| taxon = Macrotyloma uniflorum
| authority = ([[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lam.]]) [[Bernard Verdcourt|Verdc.]]
| synonyms = 
* ''Dolichos uniflorus'' <small>Lam.</small>
* ''Glycine uniflora'' <small>(Lam.) Dalzell</small>
* ''Kerstingiella uniflora'' <small>(Lam.) J.A.Lackey</small>
|synonyms_ref =<ref>{{cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:505875-1#synonyms |title=''Macrotyloma uniflorum'' (Lam.) Verdc. |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2017 |website=[[Plants of the World Online]] |publisher=Board of Trustees of the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]

|access-date=17 July 2020 }}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks = Varieties
| subdivision = 
* ''M. uniflorum'' var. ''benadirianum''
* ''M. uniflorum'' var. ''stenocarpum'' <small>(Brenan) Verdc.</small>
* ''M. uniflorum'' var. ''uniflorum''
* ''M. uniflorum'' var. ''verrucosum''
}}
'''''Macrotyloma uniflorum''''' ('''horsegram''', also known as '''horse gram''', '''kulthi bean''', '''gahat''', '''hurali''', or '''Madras gram'''<ref name="grin">{{cite web |title=Taxonomy - GRIN-Global Web v 1.10.5.0 |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=425415 |website=npgsweb.ars-grin.gov |access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref>) is a [[legume]] native to tropical southern Asia, known for its distinct taste and texture, widely used legume in many cuisines. It is also known for human consumption for its rich nutrients and reputed medicinal properties. It is commonly grown for horse feed, hence the name “horse gram”. Horse gram grown in parts of [[India]], as well as [[Nepal]], [[Malaysia]], [[Sri Lanka]], and is introduced to the [[West Indies]].<ref name="dpd-in">{{cite web|url=http://dpd.gov.in/Horse%20gram.pdf |title=Horse Gram |publisher=Government of India, Directorate of Pulses Development |date=3 April 2017}}</ref> It is consumed whole, sprouted, or ground. It is consumed in many parts of India and is also known as a superfood. Horse gram is also allowed to be eaten on some [[Fasting in Hinduism|Hindu fasting days]]. Medical uses of these legumes have been discussed and is described in the [[Ayurveda]].

==Description==
''Macrotyloma uniflorum'' is a perennial climbing plant with a [[rhizome]], growing to a height of about {{convert|60|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}. The stem sprouts from the rhizome each year. It is clad in varying amounts of whitish hairs and bears alternate, trifoliate leaves with petioles up to {{convert|7|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} long. The leaflets are obovate or elliptical, and up to {{convert|7|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} long. The flowers are borne in twos or threes in the leaf axils, and are typical of the bean family with banner, wings and keel. They are cream, yellowish or green, often with a purple blotch inside. These are followed by linear-oblong, upcurving pods up to {{convert|8|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} long, containing up to ten reddish-brown, speckled or black seeds.<ref name=Brink/> The seeds have a length of {{convert|3-6|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ProdTechPDF>Kumar D (2007) Production technology for horse gram in India, Central Arid Zone Research Institute. Evergreen Printers, Jodhpur, India, pp 1–27, http://www.cazri.res.in/publications/KrishiKosh/113-(PRODUCTION%20TECHNOGY%20).pdf</ref>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Macrotyloma Uniflorum young plant 01.jpg|Young plant
File:Macrotyloma Uniflorum flower 01.jpg|Flowers
File:Macrotyloma Uniflorum fruit 01.jpg|Young fruit
File:Macrotyloma Uniflorum dissected flower 01.jpg|Dissection of floral parts
</gallery>

==Distribution==
Horse gram is native to tropical southern Asia and has been found in archaeological sites in India, starting from 2500 BC.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Pearman |first1=Georgina |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |page=144 |isbn=0415927463}}</ref> The plant was probably first domesticated in India, and is now grown as a legume from India to Myanmar. Additionally, the crop is also grown for [[fodder]] and [[green manure]] in tropical countries in southeastern Asia, and in northern Australia.<ref name=Brink>{{cite book|author=Brink, Martin |title=Cereals and Pulses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dH6S9MwTupUC&pg=PA102 |year=2006 |publisher=PROTA |isbn=978-90-5782-170-7 |pages=102–104}}</ref> Generally, the major growing areas of ''Macrotyloma uniflorum'' are located in [[India]], [[Africa]] and [[Australia]].<ref name="Aditya2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Aditya |first1=J. P. |last2=Bhartiya |first2=Anuradha |last3=Chahota |first3=Rakesh K. |last4=Joshi |first4=Dinesh |last5=Chandra |first5=Nirmal |last6=Kant |first6=Lakshmi |last7=Pattanayak |first7=Arunava |date=2019-09-01 |title=Ancient orphan legume horse gram: a potential food and forage crop of future |journal=Planta |language=en |volume=250 |issue=3 |pages=891–909 |doi=10.1007/s00425-019-03184-5 |pmid=31115659 |s2cid=160009881 |issn=1432-2048|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019Plant.250..891A }}</ref>

==Cultivation==
Horse gram is drought tolerant<ref name="Bhardwa2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Bhardwaj |first1=Jyoti |last2=Chauhan |first2=Rohit |last3=Swarnkar |first3=Mohit Kumar |last4=Chahota |first4=Rakesh Kumar |last5=Singh |first5=Anil Kumar |last6=Shankar |first6=Ravi |last7=Yadav |first7=Sudesh Kumar |date=2013-09-23 |title=Comprehensive transcriptomic study on horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum): De novo assembly, functional characterization and comparative analysis in relation to drought stress |journal=BMC Genomics |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=647 |doi=10.1186/1471-2164-14-647 |issn=1471-2164 |pmc=3853109 |pmid=24059455 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and also withstands harsh environmental conditions such as [[salinity]] or metal stresses.<ref name="Prasad2015">Prasad, Saroj Kumar; Singh, Manoj Kumar (1 May 2015). "Horse gram- an underutilized nutraceutical pulse crop: a review". Journal of Food Science and Technology. 52 (5): 2489–2499. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-014-1312-z.</ref> Generally, Horse Gram is planted with low agronomic inputs and without weeding. Furthermore, the crop grows on a broad range of soil types with different [[pH]] ranges. Cultivation is also possible on soils with poor [[organic matter]] and [[nitrogen]] availability.<ref name=ProdTechPDF/> Horse gram thrives where the temperature is in the range of {{convert|20|to|30|°C}}. Frost temperatures are lethal.<ref name="Aditya2019"/> Due to the drought-resistance ''Macrotyloma uniflorum'' is grown in areas with low precipitation ({{convert|300 - 900|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}). In wetter areas, Horse gram is usually sown at the end of the rainy season to still facilitate cultivation. Nonetheless, ''Macrotyloma uniflorum'' does not tolerate [[Waterlogging (agriculture)|waterlogging]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brink |first=Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dH6S9MwTupUC&pg=PA102 |title=Cereals and Pulses |date=2006 |publisher=PROTA |isbn=978-90-5782-170-7 |language=en}}</ref>

The plant is not only cultivated as a monoculture, but also as an [[Intercropping|inter]]- or [[Multiple cropping|mixed]] crop together with [[peanut|groundnut]], [[sorghum]], [[sesame]], [[Guizotia abyssinica|niger]], [[maize]], [[finger millet]], [[pearl millet]], [[amaranth]], [[Dichanthium annulatum|marvel grass]] or [[kidney bean]]. Furthermore, ''Macrotyloma uniflorum'' can also be grown along with trees such as [[Azadirachta indica|neem]], [[Albizia procera|white siris]] or [[Acacia nilotica|babul]]. Both, grain and green [[forage]] yield are highly dependent on the growing region as well as the selected [[cropping system]]. Substantial yield differences in the various growing regions exist: In [[India]] green forage yield varies from 5 - 14 t/ha and in [[Australia]] approximately 4.4 t/ha are reported. Grain yield in [[India]] is around 0.13 – 1.2 t/ha and 1.1 – 2.2 t/ha in [[Australia]].<ref name="ProdTechPDF"/><ref name="Aditya2019"/><ref>Haq Nazmul (2011) Underutilized food legumes: potential for multipurpose uses. In: Pratap A, Kumar J (eds) Biology and breeding of food legumes. CAB International, UK, pp 335–336</ref>

== Pests ==
Yield-impacting dieseases are [[anthracnose]] (''[[Colletotrichum lindemuthianum]]''), the [[Leveillula taurica|yellow mosaic virus]] as well as [[powdery mildew]]. Other diseases affecting horse gram are [[Macrophomina phaseolina|dry root rot]] (''Macrophomina phaseolina''), [[Rust (fungus)|rusts]], [[Rhizoctonia solani|aerial blight]] (''Rhizoctonia solani'') and [[leaf spot]] (''[[Cercospora]]''). The [[Etiella zinckenella|pod borer]] (''Etiella zinckenella'') and the pod fly (''Melanagromyza obtusa'') are the most damaging insect pests.<ref name="ProdTechPDF"/><ref name="Aditya2019"/> Others are [[aphids]] (''[[Aphis craccivora]]''), [[hairy caterpillar]] (''Azazia rubicans''), [[Helicoverpa armigera|pod caterpillar]] (''Helicoverpa armigera''), [[American serpentine leaf miner]] (''Liriomyza trifolii''), [[thrips]], [[leaf hoppers]] and ''[[Callosobruchus]]'' as a storage pest.<ref name="ProdTechPDF"/><ref name="Aditya2019"/>

== Nutrition ==
[[File:Sa-horsegram.jpg|thumb|Horse gram seeds]]
Horse gram and [[moth bean]] are legumes of the [[tropics]] and [[subtropics]], grown mostly under dry-land agriculture. The chemical composition is comparable with more commonly cultivated [[legume]]s. Like other legumes, these are deficient in [[methionine]] and [[tryptophan]], though horse gram is an excellent source of [[iron]] and [[molybdenum]]. Comparatively, horse gram seeds have higher [[trypsin]] inhibitor and [[hemagglutinin]] activities and natural phenols than most bean seeds. Natural phenols are mostly [[phenolic acid]]s, namely, [[3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid|3,4-dihydroxybenzoic]], [[4-Hydroxybenzoic acid|4-hydroxybenzoic]], [[vanillic acid|vanillic]], [[caffeic acid|caffeic]], [[p-Coumaric acid|''p''-coumaric]], [[ferulic acid|ferulic]], [[syringic acid|syringic]] and [[sinapic acid|sinapic]] acids. Though both require prolonged cooking, a soak solution (1.5% [[Sodium bicarbonate|NaHCO<sub>3</sub>]] + 0.5% [[Sodium carbonate|{{chem|Na|2|CO|3}}]] + 0.75% [[citric acid]]) has been shown to reduce cooking time and improve protein quality.<ref>{{Cite journal |date= 1985|title=Objectives |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408398509527416 |journal=C R C Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1080/10408398509527416 |pmid=3899515 |issn=0099-0248 |last1=Kadam |first1=S. S. |last2=Salunkhe |first2=D. K. |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Horse gram seed contains [[carbohydrate]] (57.2% w/w), [[protein]] (22% w/w), [[dietary fiber]] (5.3% w/w), [[fat]] (0.50% w/w), [[calcium]] (287&nbsp;mg), [[phosphorus]] (311&nbsp;mg), [[iron]] (6.77&nbsp;mg) and [[calorie]]s (321 kcal) as well as vitamins like [[thiamine]] (0.4&nbsp;mg), [[riboflavin]] (0.2&nbsp;mg) and [[Vitamin B3|niacin]] (1.5&nbsp;mg) per 100 grams of dry matter. The nutritional content is partly dependent on soil conditions and the weather. The less appealing taste has led it to be not commonly eaten.<ref name="nut-remed-hg">{{cite journal |last1=Bhartiya |first1=A. |last2=Aditya |first2=J. P. |last3=Kant |first3=L. |year=2015 |title=Nutritional and Remedial Potential of an Underutilized Food Legume Horsegram (''Macrotyloma uniflorum''): A Review |journal = The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences | volume=25 | issue=4 | pages=908–920 | issn=1018-7081}}</ref>

The carbohydrate-fraction of horse gram flour consists of [[Oligosaccharide|oligo-saccharides]] and [[starch]]es. The starches can be divided in terms of digestability in those that can be digested and uptaken in the [[small intestine]], and those that partly will fermented in the [[Colon (anatomy)|colon]] by the microflora. The latter ones, called [[resistant starch]]es, account for 43.4% of the carbohydrate content of horse gram flour. Oligo-saccharides such as [[raffinose]] and [[stachyose]] contribute to digestion difficulties. The fermentation in the colon often may lead to [[flatulence]] and [[diarrhoea]], given the high concentration of both, resistant starches and oligo-saccharides, for horse gram longer cooking times, and other treatments are needed.<ref name="Prasad2015"/>
Enzymatic treatments with [[xylanase]] has the goal to improve the functional and expansive properties of horse gram seeds in order to facilitate the use as an ingredient in the food industry. By following a [[Flash pasteurization|high temperature short time (HTST)]] treatment, the content of [[phytic acid]], [[tannin]]s and [[Protease inhibitor (biology)|protease-inhibitors]] could be reduced by 46%, 61% and 92% respectively. The flour resulting from this treatment had higher water- and oil-absorption capabilities. Those improvements in digestibility and processibility could make horsegram an interesting protein- and flour source for the food industry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sreerama |first1=Yadahally N. |last2=Sasikala |first2=Vadakkoot B. |last3=Pratape |first3=Vishwas M. |date=2008-06-01 |title=Nutritional implications and flour functionality of popped/expanded horse gram |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814607012150 |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=891–899 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.11.055 |pmid=26065750 |issn=0308-8146|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Breeding ==
Globally, southwest [[India]] and the [[Africa]]n continent are regarded as horse gram [[gene]]-rich regions.<ref name="Aditya2019"/> From the 1970s, [[germplasm]] of horse gram has been conserved.<ref name="Chahota2020">Chahota, Rakesh & Thakur, Nisha & Sharma, Reecha. (2020). Efficient Improvement in an Orphan Legume: Horsegram, Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdi, Using Conventional and Molecular Approaches. 10.1007/978-3-030-47306-8_12. }</ref> The ''US Department of Agriculture's ([[USDA]]) Germplasm Resources Information Network ([[Germplasm Resources Information Network|GRIN]])'' has preserved 35 accessions of horse gram, the ''Australian Tropical Crops and Forages Genetic Resources Centre'', has 38 accessions and the ''[[Kenya Agricultural Research Institute]] (KARI)'' has conserved 21 accessions.<ref name="Aditya2019"/>

A large amount of [[drought resistance]] genes exist in horse gram and grain yield enhancement represents the main breeding goal.<ref name="Aditya2019"/><ref name="Chahota2020" /><ref name="Bhardwa2013"/> Little attention has been given to the [[genome]] structure and organization of horse gram. The use of new genes for horse gram breeding could benefit from genetic data on numerous [[Phenotype|phenological]] and [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] features. These may impact agronomic methods and crop productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Katoch |first1=Megha |last2=Mane |first2=Rushikesh Sanjay |last3=Chahota |first3=Rakesh Kumar |date=2022 |title=Identification of QTLs Linked to Phenological and Morphological Traits in RILs Population of Horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.762604 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8821879 |pmid=35145543 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Many unfavorable traits such as late flowering, indeterminate twining growth habit, long and thin stem, thermo- and [[photosensitivity]] and a poor harvest index exist in horse gram.<ref name="Aditya2019" /> The digestability and processability improvements described in [[#Nutrition|Nutrition section]] implicitly suggest to consider the reduction of [[phytic acid]] content, [[tannin]]s and [[Protease inhibitor (biology)|protease-inhibitors]] as additional breeding goals.

==Medicinal uses==
Scientists from the [[Indian Institute of Chemical Technology]] have found that unprocessed raw horse gram seeds not only possess antihyperglycemic properties{{Citation needed|date=September 2020|reason=Need data used for analysis}}, but also have qualities which reduce [[insulin resistance]]. The scientists made{{Citation needed|date=September 2020|reason=Need data used for analysis}} a comparative analysis between horse gram seeds and their sprouts and found that the seeds have greater beneficial effects on the health of hyperglycemic individuals. The majority of [[antioxidant]] properties are confined to the seed coat and its removal would not do any good{{Citation needed|date=September 2020|reason=Need data used for analysis}}. Raw horse gram seed is rich in [[polyphenols]], [[flavonoids]], and proteins, major antioxidants present in fruits and other food materials. The seed has the ability to reduce postprandial [[hyperglycemia]] by slowing down carbohydrate digestion and reducing insulin resistance by inhibiting protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1 beta enzyme.<ref name="Mallikarjun 2013"/>{{Citation needed|date=September 2020|reason=News articles as scientific reference can not be relied upon }}

==Indian regional specifics==
In [[India]], it is also known as ''ulavalu, gahat, muthira, kulath'', ''khollu'' or ''kulthi''. It is used to make popular dishes like ''Kulitan Saaru, Kulitan Upkari, Kulitan Ghassi'' (coconut curry preparation), and an ''[[idli]]''-like preparation (but not fermented) called ''Kulitan Sannan''.

*In [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], horse gram, called ఉలవలు (''ulavalu'') in Telugu, is prescribed for jaundice or as a diuretic, and as part of a weight-loss diet. It is considered helpful for iron deficiencies. ''Ulavacharu'' (horse gram soup) is popular dish in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, it is served with cooked rice in some of the Telugu-speaking people's weddings and ceremonies.<ref>Kashid, R. R., & Talekar, S. M. (2021). Horse Gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum): Nutraceutical Pulse Crop: A Review. [https://wjpr.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/article_issue/1622798919.pdf]</ref>
*In [[Darjeeling]] and [[Sikkim]], horse gram called गहत (''gahat'') in Nepali is considered a medicinal food. It is given to children suffering from [[mumps]]. Water in which gahat is soaked is taken by people suffering from [[kidney stones]] in the belief that this dissolves the crystals. Gahat's use is specially reserved for the cold winters, when its heat-producing properties are most useful.
*In [[Kerala]], horse gram, called മുതിര (''muthira'') in Malayalam is used in special kinds of dishes.
*In [[Tamil Nadu]], horse gram, called கொள்ளு (''kollu'') in northern districts and காணம் (''kaanam'') in southern districts is commonly used in Tamil dishes, including ''kollu'' chutney, ''{{lang|ta|kollu porial}}, ''kollu avial'', ''kollu sambar'' and ''kollu rasam''.
*In [[Maharashtra]] and [[Goa]], horse gram is called हुलगा/हुलगे/कुलीथ (''hulage/hulaga/kulith'') in Marathi and कुुली (''kulith'') in Konkani is often used to make ''{{lang|kok|aamati, kulith usal, pithla}}'' and ''shengule/shevanti''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=UM-EDwAAQBAJ&q=kulith&pg=PA3 Shah, R. (2018). What About My Calcium?. CircleOHealth]</ref>
*In [[Karnataka]] cuisine, ಹುರಳಿಸಾರು (''huraḷi saaru'') is more popular, because of ಹುರಳಿ (''huraḷi'') is a main ingredient. ''Huraḷi'' is also used in preparations such as ''usali'', chutney, ''bassaru'', and ''upsaaru'' or ''upinsaru'' (particularly in the Old Mysore Regions Mandya and Chamrajnagara Districts).
*In [[South Canara]] region of Karnataka, in [[Tulu language|Tulu]], it is also called ''kudu'' (ಕುಡು).
*In [[Odisha]] it is known by the name କୋଳଥ (Koḷatha).
*''Gahat'' or ''kulath'' is a major ingredient in the food of Pahari region of [[northern India]].
* In [[Himachal Pradesh]], ''kulath'' is used to make ''[[khichdi]]''. In [[Uttarakhand]], it is cooked in a round iron saute pan (''[[kadhai]]'') to prepare ''ras'', a favorite of most [[Kumauni people|Kumaonis]]. In Garhwal region, another more elaborate dish is ''phanu'' which is made in a ''kadhai'' with roughly ground ''gahat'' (previously soaked overnight) boiled over several hours. Towards the end, some finely chopped greens (''palak'' or spinach, ''rai'', tender radish leaves, or ''dhania'' (coriander leaves) if nothing else is available) are added to complete the dish. Served with boiled rice, ''{{lang|gbm|jhangora}}'' (a millet-like grain, used as a staple by poorer Garhwalis only a decade ago and now a prized health-food).

In [[Myanmar]] (Burma), horse gram is known as ''pe bazat'' ({{lang|my|ပဲပိစပ်}}) in [[Burmese language|Burmese]]. It is commonly used in making ''[[pon ye gyi]]'', a fermented bean paste used in traditional [[Burmese cuisine]].

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Mallikarjun 2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/diet-and-nutrition/raw-horse-gram-good-for-diabetics/article4651090.ece|title=Raw horse gram good for diabetics|first=Y.|last=Mallikarjun|website=The Hindu|date=April 25, 2013|access-date=May 31, 2017}}</ref>
}}

== External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikispecies}}
* {{cite journal |author=Fuller, D.Q. & Murphy, C. |title=The origins and early dispersal of horsegram (''Macrotyloma uniflorum''), a major crop of ancient India |journal=[[Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution]] |volume=65 |pages=285–305 |year=2018 |issue=1 |doi=10.1007/s10722-017-0532-2|bibcode=2018GRCEv..65..285F |s2cid=9543710 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1561149/ }}
* {{cite journal |author=Kadam SS, Salunkhe DK |title=Nutritional composition, processing, and utilization of horse gram and moth bean |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition]] |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |year=1985 |pmid=3899515 |doi=10.1080/10408398509527416}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1899077}}

[[Category:Phaseoleae]]
[[Category:Edible legumes]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]