Editing Magar Kham language

{{Short description|Sino-Tibetan language of western Nepal.}}
{{cleanup lang|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Magar Kham
| altname          = Kham
| nativename       = मगर ढुट
| states           = [[Nepal]]
| ethnicity        = [[Magars|Magar]]
| speakers         = 69,000
| date             = 2011
| ref              = <ref name=2011census/>{{fv|date=December 2022}}
| speakers2        = L2: 28,000 (2011)<ref name=e25>{{e25}}</ref>
| speakers_label   = Speakers
| familycolor      = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2             = [[Tibeto-Burman]]
| fam3             = Himalayish
| script           = [[Devanagari]]
| iso3             = 
| lc1              = kif
| ld1              = Eastern Parbate Kham
| lc2              = kgj
| ld2              = Gamale Kham
| lc3              = kip
| ld3              = Sheshi Kham
| lc4              = kjl
| ld4              = Western Parbate Pang
| glotto           = kham1286
| glottorefname    = Kham
| notice           = IPA
| fam1             = [[Sino-Tibetan]]
| fam4             = [[Magaric languages|Magaric]]
| coordinates      = 28.563229, 82.848238
| map              = Map_of_Magar_Kham.jpg
}}

'''Magar Kham''' (मगर खाम), also known as '''''Kham''''', '''''Kham Magar''''', and '''''Khamkura''''', is the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] language variety of the [[Kham Magar|Northern Magar]] people of Nepal.<ref>Hitchcock, John T. (1966). The Magars of Banyan Hill. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.</ref><ref>Fischer, James F. (1986). Trans-Himalayan traders: Economy, society, and culture in northwest Nepal. Berkeley, CA: University of California.</ref><ref>Oppitz, Michael. (1991). Onkels tochter, keine sonst. Uncle’s Daughter, Nobody Else. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. </ref> The language is situated in the upper elevations of [[Baglung District|Baglung]], [[Eastern Rukum District|East Rukum]], and [[Rolpa District|Rolpa]] districts. Based on census data taken in 2011, the total population of Magar Kham is estimated to be about 69,000 speakers.<ref name=2011census>{{cite web|url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf|title=National Population and Housing Census 2011: Social Characteristics Tables (Caste/Ethnicity, Mother Tongue and Second Language)|work=Government of Nepal: National Planning Commission Secretariat – Central Bureau of Statistics|date=February 2014}}</ref>

== Language classification ==
Magar Kham is a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] language, and it is classified by David Bradley as “Central Himalayan,” and as being related to [[Magar language|Magar]] and [[Chepang language|Chepang]] and more distantly related to the [[Kiranti languages]]. George van Driem also classifies Magar Kham as “Para-Kiranti,” emphasizing that Magar Kham, [[Magar language|Magar]], and [[Chepang language|Chepang]] are united more by their differences from the Kiranti cluster than by their similarity to one another.<ref>Bradley, David. (1997). “Tibeto-Burman languages and classification.” In Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics No. 14: Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas, edited. by David Bradley, 1-72, Canberra: Australian National University. </ref><ref>van Driem, George. (2001). Languages of the Himalayas: An ethnographic handbook of the greater Himalayan region, vol. 2. Leiden: Brill.</ref> Within this cluster, Magar Kham possesses a number of unique grammatical features, and shares only 44% [[lexical similarity]] with Magar and 38% with Chepang.<ref name=":0">Watters, David E.. (2002). A grammar of Kham. Cambridge: Cambridge University. {{ISBN|0-521-81245-3}}</ref>

== Dialects ==
Magar Kham speakers generally refer to their [[dialect]] using the name of an important village or river in conjunction with the [[Nepali language|Nepali]] [[Instrumental case|instrumental]] suffix [-le] or the [[Genitive case|genitive]] suffix [-i]. Thus, it can be said that Magar Kham has as many dialects as there are villages and rivers in their native territory. The table below presents the major dialects of the Magar Kham language as they have been classified by David E. Watters.<ref name=":0" /> The [[ISO 639-3]] codes associated with each major dialect are presented in brackets.

=== Magar Kham varieties ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Gamal  Kham [kgj]<ref name=e25kgj/>
!Sheshi  Kham [kip]<ref name=e25kip/>
! colspan="2" |Parbate  Kham
|-
| rowspan="2" |Ghusbangi Kham
Tamali Kham
| rowspan="2" |Jangkoti Kham
Tapnangi Kham
!''Western  Parbate''

''Kham  [kjl]''<ref name=e25kjl/>
!''Eastern  Parbate''

''Kham  [kif]''<ref name=e25kif/>
|-
|Maikoti Kham

Takale Kham

Thabangi Kham

Wale Kham
|Nisel Kham

Bhujel Kham
|}

At the highest level in the table, Kham has been divided into Gamal Kham, Sheshi Kham, and Parbate Kham, which is further divided into Eastern and Western Parbate Kham. As previously stated, these four major dialects are mutually unintelligible and bear unique grammatical innovations indicative of different languages.<ref>Watters, David E.. (1998). The Kham language of west-central Nepal (Takale dialect). Ph.D. dissertation. Eugene, Oregon.</ref> For this reason, each of these dialects have been given its own [[ISO 639-3]] designation.

== Speakers ==
Based on the census data taken in 2011, the total population of Magar Kham speakers is estimated to be about 69,000 persons.<ref name=2011census/> The tables below presents the homeland population estimates by district and by dialect. It is estimated that about 15,000 Magar Kham speakers live in diaspora.{{cn|date=December 2022}}

=== Magar Kham population by district ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Province
!District
!Estimated Population
|-
|Gandaki
|Baglung
|5,000
|-
|Lumbini
|East Rukum
|17,000
|-
|Lumbini
|Rolpa
|29,000
|}

=== Magar Kham population by dialect/variety ===
According to ''[[Ethnologue]]'':
{| class="wikitable"
!Dialect
!ISO 639-3
!Native speakers (year)
!L2 speakers (year)
!Total speakers (year)
|-
|Gamal Kham
|kgj
|7,000 (2011)<ref name=e25kgj/>
|3,000 (2011)<ref name=e25kgj/>
|10,000 (2011)<ref name=e25kgj/>
|-
|Sheshi Kham
|kip
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|15,000 (2011)<ref name=e25kip/>
|-
|Eastern Parbate
|kif
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|5,000 (2011)<ref name=e25kif/>
|-
|Western Parbate
|kjl
|44,000 (2003)<ref name=e25kjl/>
|25,000 (2011)<ref name=e25kjl/>
|69,000 (2003–2011)<ref name=e25kjl/>
|-
|All varieties
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|99,000 (2003–2011)
|}
Estimates are based on the number of persons registering their mother tongue as either “Magar” or “Kham” within the territory of the northern Magars.{{cn|date=December 2022}}

== Language vitality ==
Although their homeland is fairly homogeneous, northern Magars are multilingual.<ref>Leman, Joseph D. (2019). “Sociolinguistic Profile of Maikoti Kham: A sociolinguistic study of the Kham language spoken in the area of Maikot village in East Rukum District of Nepal.” Journal of Language Survey Reports. SIL International.</ref><ref>Watters, Stephen. (2018). Linguistic identity and dialect diversity: A conundrum with regard to Magar Kham. Language and identity in multilingual, migrating world. SIL International.</ref> The national language of Nepali is spoken confidently by all individuals under 35 years old. In some communities (Sheshi and Eastern Parbate), parents have shifted to speaking Nepali with their children, and the speaker population is gradually decreasing. However, in all of East Rukum and in the Gam river valley of Rolpa, the language is being vigorously transmitted. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' has assigned the following [[Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale|EGIDS]] levels to each variety:
* Western Parbate Kham [kjl]: level 5 (Developing)<ref name=e25kjl>{{e25|kjl|Kham, Western Parbate}}</ref>
* Eastern Parbate Kham [kif]: level 6b (Threatened)<ref name=e25kif>{{e25|kif|Kham, Eastern Parbate}}</ref>
* Gamal Kham [kgj]: level 6a (Vigorous)<ref name=e25kgj>{{e25|kgj|Kham, Gamal}}</ref>
* Sheshi Kham [kip]: level 6b (Threatened)<ref name=e25kip>{{e25|kip|Kham, Sheshi}}</ref>

The [[UNESCO]] [[Endangered Languages Project]] has classified Gamal Kham as "Vulnerable."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/4378|website=[[Endangered Languages Project]]|title=Gamale Kham}}</ref>

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
The Taka dialect of Western Parbate Kham has 22 consonant phonemes while Gamal Kham possesses around 29 to 30 consonant phonemes.<ref name=":0" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" |[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!{{small|plain}}
!{{small|[[Sibilant consonant|sibilant]]}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|m̥}}<sup>2</sup>
| {{IPAlink|n̥}}<sup>2</sup>
|
|
| {{IPAlink|ŋ̊}}<sup>1</sup>
|
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
|
|
| {{IPAlink|ŋ}}
| 
|-
!  rowspan="3" | [[Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate]]
!<small> [[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|p}}
| {{IPAlink|t}}
| {{IPAlink|t͡s}}
|
| {{IPAlink|k}}
| {{IPAlink|ʔ}}<sup>2</sup>
|-
!<small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|b}}
| {{IPAlink|d}}
| {{IPAlink|d͡z}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ɡ}}
|
|-
!<small> [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|pʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|t͡sʰ}}
|
| {{IPAlink|kʰ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
!<small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|
| {{IPAlink|ɬ}}<sup>2</sup>
| {{IPAlink|s}}
| {{IPAlink|ç}}<sup>1</sup>
|
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
!<small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
|
| {{IPAlink|z}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
| {{IPAlink|ɾ}}<sup>3</sup>
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Approximant|Approx.]]
!{{small|[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPAlink|ɥ̊}}<sup>2</sup>
|
|
|
| {{IPAlink|ʍ}}<sup>2</sup>
|
|-
!{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPAlink|ɥ}}<sup>2</sup>
| {{IPAlink|l}}
|
| {{IPAlink|j}}
| {{IPAlink|w}}
|
|}

# These phonemes only appear in Ghusbang and Sheram<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wilde |first=Christopher P. |date=2017-06-01 |title=A Phonological Comparison of Gamale, Sheram and Ghusbang – Three Kham Varieties |url=http://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52398 |journal=Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=67–90 |issn=1836-6821}}</ref> dialect. All others appear in every Kham dialect.
# These [[phoneme]]s do not occur in Parbate Kham.<ref name=":0" />
# The [[Rhotic consonant|rhotic]] {{IPA|/ɾ/}} is realized as a [[trill consonant|trill]] {{IPA|[r]}} at the end of words. Otherwise, it is a [[flap consonant|flap]].

===Vowels===
Taka dialect of Western Parbate has 25 vowel phonemes.<ref name=":0" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="3" rowspan="2"| [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="6" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="font-size: x-small;"
! colspan="3" | [[roundedness|unrounded]]
! colspan="2" | [[roundedness|rounded]]
! colspan="3" | [[roundedness|unrounded]]
! colspan="3" | [[roundedness|rounded]]
|- style="font-size: x-small;"
! [[vowel length|short]] || [[vowel length|long]] || [[nasal vowel|nasal]]
! [[vowel length|short]] || [[vowel length|long]]
! [[vowel length|short]] || [[vowel length|long]] || [[nasal vowel|nasal]]
! [[vowel length|short]] || [[vowel length|long]] || [[nasal vowel|nasal]]
! [[vowel length|short]] || [[vowel length|long]] || [[nasal vowel|nasal]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPAlink|i}}<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPAlink|iː}}
| {{IPAlink|ĩː}}
| {{IPAlink|y}}
| {{IPAlink|yː}}
| colspan="3" |
| {{IPAlink|ɯ}}
| {{IPAlink|ɯː}}
| {{IPAlink|ɯ̃ː}}
| {{IPAlink|u}}<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPAlink|uː}}
| {{IPAlink|ũː}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPAlink|e}}<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPAlink|eː}}
| {{IPAlink|ẽː}}
| {{IPAlink|ø}}
| {{IPAlink|øː}}
| {{IPAlink|ə}}<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPAlink|əː}}
| {{IPAlink|ə̃ː}}
| colspan="3" |
| {{IPAlink|o}}<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPAlink|oː}}
| {{IPAlink|õː}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open mid]]
| colspan="3" | {{IPAlink|ɛ}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="5" |
| {{IPAlink|ɐ}}<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPAlink|ɐː}}
| {{IPAlink|ɐ̃ː}}
| colspan="6" |
|}
# These vowels occur in every dialect of Kham.

===Tone===
See [[vocal register]]s.

==Writing==
=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" border="0" width="100%" style="clear:both;"
|-bgcolor="#BECFEB" valign=center
! width="11%" | 
! width="11%" | 1
! width="11%" | 2
! width="11%" | 3
! width="11%" | 4
! width="11%" | 5
! width="11%" | 6
! width="11%" | 7
! width="11%" | 8
|-bgcolor="#DEE7F5" valign=center align="center"
! bgcolor="#BECFEB" | Deva.
|{{lang|kgj|[[:wiktionary:ज़|ज़]]}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wilde|first=Christopher P.|date=2016|title=Gamale Kham phonology revisited, with Devanagari-based orthography and lexicon|url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/109195|journal=Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society|language=en|issn=1836-6821}}</ref>
|{{lang|kgj|[[:wiktionary:झ़|झ़]]}}
|{{lang|kgj|[[:wiktionary:न्ह|न्ह]]}}
|{{lang|kgj|[[:wiktionary:म्ह|म्ह]]}}
|{{lang|kgj|[[:wiktionary:व़|व़]]}}
|{{lang|kgj|[[:wiktionary:ह्ल|ह्ल]]}}
|{{lang|kgj|[[:wiktionary:ह्व|ह्व]]}}
|{{lang|kgj|[[:wiktionary:ह्व़|ह्व़]]}}
|-bgcolor="#DEE7F5" valign=center align="center"
! bgcolor="#BECFEB" | trans.
|z
|zh
|nh
|mh
|ẏ
|hl
|hw
|hẏ
|-bgcolor="#DEE7F5" valign=center align="center"
! bgcolor="#BECFEB" | IPA
|{{IPAlink|z}}
|{{IPAlink|zV̤}}
|{{IPAlink|n̥}}
|{{IPAlink|m̥}}
|{{IPAlink|ɥ}}
|{{IPAlink|ɬ}}
|{{IPAlink|ʍ}}
|{{IPAlink|ɥ̊}}
|}

{|class="wikitable" align="center" width="250"
|-
!|क  || ख   || ग  ||  घ  ||   ङ  
|-align="center"
| {{IPA|/kə/}} || {{IPA|/kʰə/}} || {{IPA|/ɡə/}}|| {{IPA|/ɡə̤/}} ||{{IPA|/ŋə/}} 
|-
!|च  ||  छ ||  ज  ||  झ  ||   ञ 
|-align="center"
| {{IPA|/t͡sə/}} || {{IPA|/t͡sʰə/}} || {{IPA|/d͡zə/}} || {{IPA|/d͡zə̤/}} || {{IPA|/nə/}} 
|-
!|ट ||   ठ ||   ड ||   ढ ||   ण 
|-align="center" 
| {{IPA|/tə/}}|| {{IPA|/tʰə/}}|| {{IPA|/də/}}|| {{IPA|/də̤/}}|| {{IPA|/nə/}} 
|-
!|त ||   थ  ||  द ||  ध ||  न 
|-align="center" 
| {{IPA|/tə/}}|| {{IPA|/tʰə/}}|| {{IPA|/də/}}|| {{IPA|/də̤/}}||  {{IPA|/nə/}} 
|-
!|प ||   फ ||   ब ||  भ  ||    म 
|-align="center"
| {{IPA|/pə/}} || {{IPA|/pʰə/}} || {{IPA|/bə/}} || {{IPA|/bə̤/}} ||   {{IPA|/mə/}} 
|-
!| य || र || ल || व
|-align="center"
|{{IPA|/jə/}}|| {{IPA|/rə/}} || {{IPA|/lə/}} || {{IPA|/wə/}}
|-
!|     श  || ष ||   स  || ह
|-align="center"
|{{IPA|/çə/}} || {{IPA|/sə/}}||  {{IPA|/sə/}}||  {{IPA|/hə/}}
|-
! क्ष || त्र ||   ज्ञ
|-align="center"
|  {{IPA|/t͡sʰə/}} ||  {{IPA|/trə/}} || {{IPA|/ɡjə/}}
|-
|}

=== Vowels ===
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="text-align:center;border:1px solid #ccc;" summary="Parbate Kham transliteration system"
|+ style="font-weight:bold;" | Vowels for Parbate Kham<ref name=":0" />
|- valign="top" style="background:#ccc;"
!scope="col" width="33%" | Devanagari
!scope="col" width="33%" title="Roman"| Roman
!scope="col" width="34%" title="IPA"| IPA
|- valign="top"
|-
| {{lang|kjl|अ}} || a || ə ||
|- style="background:#eee;"
| {{lang|kjl|आ}} || ā || ɐ ||
|-
| {{lang|kjl|इ}} || i || i ||
|- style="background:#eee;"
| {{lang|kjl|इ़}} || ü || y ||
|-
| {{lang|kjl|ई}} || ī || iː ||
|- style="background:#eee;"
| {{lang|kjl|उ}} || u || u ||
|-
| {{lang|kjl|उ़}} || ï || ɯ ||
|- style="background:#eee;"
| {{lang|kjl|ऊ}} || ū || uː ||
|-
| {{lang|kjl|ए}} || e || e, ɛ ||
|- style="background:#eee;"
| {{lang|kjl|ए़}} || ø || ø ||
|- 
| {{lang|kjl|ऐ}} || ai || əj ||
|- style="background:#eee;"
| {{lang|kjl|ओ}} || o || o ||
|- 
| {{lang|kjl|औ}} || au || əw ||
|- style="background:#eee;"
| {{lang|kjl|ः}} || h, ḥ || V̤ ||
|-
| {{lang|kjl|ँ}} || ◌̃ || ◌̃ː ||
|- style="background:#eee;"
| {{lang|kjl|ं}} || ◌̃, ṅ, n, ṇ, ñ || ◌̃ː, ŋ, n ||
|-
| {{lang|kjl|ॱ}}, {{lang|kjl|.}} {{lang|kjl|°}}, {{lang|kjl|॰}}, {{lang|kjl|ऽ}} || ' || ◌ː ||
|- style="background:#eee;"
| {{lang|kjl|ॽ}} || ’ || ʔ ||
|}

===Vowels for Gamal Kham===
{|border="2" class="wikitable" align="center" width="550"
|-
!Orthography||अ ||आ ||इ/ई ||उ/ऊ ||ए ||ऐ ||ओ ||औ ||अं || अः ||अँ ||ॱअ
|- align = center
|'''Roman'''||a ||ā ||i/ī ||u/ū || e || ai|| o || au || aṃ || aḥ || ã||a'
|- align = center
|[[International Phonetic Alphabet|'''IPA''']]||{{IPA link|ə}}||{{IPA link|ɐ}}||{{IPA link|i}}||{{IPA link|u}}||{{IPA link|e}}, {{IPAlink|ɛ}}||{{IPA link|ə}}{{IPA link|j}}||{{IPA link|o}}||{{IPA link|ə}}{{IPA link|w}} ||{{IPA link|ə̃}}||{{IPA link|ə̤}}||{{IPA link|ə̃}}||{{IPAlink|ə}}{{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-align="center"

|}

==Reconstruction==
Proto-Kham has been reconstructed by Watters (2002). Proto-Kham reconstructions from Watters (2002: 443–456) are given below.<ref name=":0" />
{{refbegin|20em}}
;A. Body parts
* *r-dzəŋ ~ *b-dzəŋ 'back'
* *yep 'back (upper)'
* *phuː 'belly'
* *dziːh 'blood'
* *klaŋ 'body'
* *s-rus 'bone'
* *nun 'breast'
* *sək 'breath'
* *r-mehsiŋ 'buttocks'
* *r-tso 'cheek'
* *r-na 'ear'
* *(ba)r-zut 'egg'
* *mik 'eye'
* *s-ŋa 'face'
* *sot 'fat'
* *r-sin 'fingernail'
* *kəŋ 'foot'
* *r-nihl 'gums'
* *r-ta 'guts'
* *muhl 'hair (body)'
* *p-tsem 'hair (head)'
* *kut 'hand'
** *r-la 'the under-arm area; side of the body'
* *s-r-ŋat 'head'
* *s-yiŋ 'heart'
* *b-rəhŋ 'horn'
* *sya 'animal'
* *r-khap 'jawbone'
* *kəl 'kidney'
* *p-sin 'liver'
* *yaːh 'mouth'
* *s-məŋ 'mustache'
* *r-dehŋ 'neck'
* *s-nat 'nose'
* *r-dzihs 'piss'
* *s-nis 'pus'
* *b-rəhm 'rib'
* *p-s-til 'saliva'
* *kli 'shit'
** *r-kək 'excrement in the intestine of a slaughtered animal'
* *s-pum 'shoulder'
* *r-sa 'sinew'
* *l-kota 'skin'
* *r-nahp 'snot'
* *r-meh 'tail'
* *r-pihl 'tears'
* *r-b-yah 'thigh (upper side)'
* *p-s-le 'tongue'
* *ha-p-sya 'tooth'
* *wohs 'vomit'
* *hwaŋ 'waist'
* *r-mil ~ *s-mil 'wind pipe'
* *kər 'wing'
;B. Pronouns/kinship terms/nouns referring to humans'
* *dahpa 'bachelor'
* *za 'child'
* *nan 'friend'
* *b-re 'husband'
* *dahme 'maiden'
* *r-min 'name'
* *r-mi; *ruː 'person'
** *s-lepa 'man, male human'
** *miːma 'woman, female human' < *mi 'person' + *ma 'female'
* *nana 'sister (older)'
* *nam 'sister (younger)'
* *nəŋ 'thou'
* *dzya 'wife'
;C. Foodstuff
* *bəhres 'bread'
* *tsip 'curry'
* *r-zəm 'food'
* *s-ŋən 'herbs'
* *raŋrəi 'millet'
* *r-mo 'mushroom'
* *hek 'parched grain'
* *tuk 'poison'
* *(ya)kaŋ 'rice (cooked)'
* *plima 'wheat'
;D. Animal names or animal products
* *səhr 'antelope'
* *nim 'bear'
* *r-pen 'bedbug'
* *b-zin 'bee'
* *bwa 'bird'
** *s-puŋ 'chick'
* *gəl 'boar (wild)'
* *b-s-rut 'bug'
* *s-raŋ 'cat'
* *har 'cow'
* *kaːh 'dog'
* *ŋah 'fish'
* *tek 'frog'
* *ra  'goat'
* *r-ta 'horse'
* *r-pəti 'leech'
* *la 'leopard'
* *syar 'louse'
* *s-p-yu; *s-p-ya 'monkey'
* *srəm 'otter'
* *b-rəhŋ 'pheasant'
* *wə 'pig'
* *bi 'rat'
* *luk 'sheep'
* *guhl 'snake'
** *daŋ 'python, constricting snake'
* *p-s-yap 'squirrel (flying)'
* *s-kyar 'woodpecker'
* *p-sən 'wool'
;E. Natural objects or phenomena; the inanimate landscape; vegetable and mineral kingdoms
* *r-plah 'ashes'
* *kər 'branch'
* *r-pup 'cave'
* *la 'day'
** *tshyam 'a certain day'
* *b-rih 'dirt'
* *r-gəm 'earth'
* *rihm 'evening'
* *ehŋ 'field'
** *baŋ 'a field, meadow, bowl shaped valley'
* *meh 'fire'
* *p-set 'fruit'
* *tshi 'grass'
* *kuŋ 'hole'
* *dzəhŋ 'iron'
* *s-la 'leaf'
* *r-nahm 'low country'
* *p-s-ya + *hwot 'moon'
* *goŋ 'mountain'
* *rik; *mun 'night'
* *r-wa 'rain'
* *bəih 'river'
* *yem 'road'
* *s-rin 'root'
* *sa + *pik 'salt'
* *nup 'set (sun)'
* *saŋ 'shadow'
* *nəm 'sky'
* *mihkut 'smoke' < *meːh 'fire' + *ku 'smoke'
* *r-pom 'snow'
* *səro 'star'
* *r-dzuht 'stick'
* *luŋ 'stone'
* *nəmi(y) 'sun'
* *b-zu 'thorn'
* *siŋ 'tree'
* *riːh 'water'
** *rihmun 'cooking water' < *riːh 'water' + *mun 'warm'
* *rəhm 'weed'
;F. Artifacts and social organization
* *r-wan 'arrowhead'
* *r-wa 'axe'
* *r-beh(k) 'basket'
* *li 'bow'
* *tshəm 'bridge'
* *pəsi(-s) 'broom'
* *kwa 'cloth'
* *yahm 'door'
* *b-rihŋ 'drum'
* *'gor 'circle'
* *muhthap 'hearth' < *muh 'burn' + *thap 'hearth'
* *zihm 'house'
** *r-bəŋ 'lower storey of house; cattle byre'
* *khor 'knife'
* *gur 'load'
* *tən 'sleeping mat'
* *b-lo 'large bamboo mat'
* *tshum 'mortar'
* *r-gəp 'a small needle'
* *r-khap 'a large needle'
* *b-zəhn 'net'
* *r-gum 'pillow'
* *gohr 'plow'
* *b-dza 'pot'
* *p-sip 'sheath'
* *tsihŋ 'snare'
* *gel 'spirit'
* *naŋkhar; *nam 'village'
* *ehn 'work'
* *kum 'yoke'
;G. Spatial/directional
* *glahŋ 'across'
* *chin 'behind'
* *khar 'center'
* *me 'down'
* *s-ŋa 'front'
* *thək 'upright'
* *a-sniŋ 'year'
** *rta-sniŋ 'last year'
** *pərniŋ 'next year'
;H. Numerals and quantifiers
* *tə 'one'
* *nehs 'two'
* *sohm 'three'
* *b-zi 'four'
* *r-ŋa 'five'
;I. Verbs of utterance, body position or function
* *sən; *so 'awaken'
* *klik 'cry'
* *eh 'defecate'
* *si 'die'
* *b-yi 'fart'
* *sas 'laugh'
** *p-s-rat 'to play'
** *b-s-res 'toy, plaything'
* *nah 'rest'
* *tsuŋ 'sit'
* *r-ŋəhl; *em; *ruk ~ *ru-t 'sleep'
** *s-ip 'to put to sleep'
* *p-tshis 'sneeze'
* *s-paŋ 'speak'
* *tsyahŋ 'stand'
* *kəlet 'tickle'
* *r-dzihs 'urinate'
* *who-t 'vomit' < CAUS. of wohs 'to spurt out'
* *gəhr 'weep'
;J. Verbs of motion
* *kles 'arrive'
* *rə-t 'bring'
* *plu-s 'climb'
* *huŋ 'come'
* *plu-s 'emerge'
** *s-plu-t 'cause to emerge, expel'
* *te-s 'fall'
* *s-bur 'fly'
* *z-ba 'go'
* *b-la 'graze'
* *mohŋ 'hide'
* *zok 'run'
;K. Verbs of emotion, cognition, perception
* *r-məŋ 'dream'
* *p-tshet 'fear'
* *s-meŋ 'forget'
* *that 'hear'
** *thas 'to be heard, audible'
* *sən 'know'
* *r-ses 'something, to know how'
* *r-sək 'proud'
* *rəhŋ 'see'
** *p-tsyu 'to look'
* *s-ŋər; *s-nəm 'smell'
* *b-ris 'tingle'
;L. Stative verbs with human patients
* *məhŋ 'drunk'
* *sot 'fat'
* *kre 'hunger'
* *na 'ill'
* *so 'itchy'
* *tshaŋ 'pure'
* *tsos 'thirst'
;M. Stative verbs with non-human patients
* *pək 'bad'
* *li 'be'
* *p-se 'bear fruit'
* *s-ta-s 'become'
* *ka 'bitter'
* *pak 'broken'
* *mom 'bud'
* *p-set 'bud'
* *r-pu-s 'burst'
* *zihm; *gim 'cold'
* *s-ta 'collapsed'
* *s-kluŋ 'detach'
* *thəŋ 'dried'
* *yək 'full'
* *p-tsa 'good'
* *s-len 'greasy'
* *piŋ 'green'
* *gis < *s-lis 'heavy'
* *s-gwaŋ 'hole'
* *b-rah 'hot'
* *wyi 'leak'
* *bom 'light'
* *s-lo; *b-re 'long'
* *dzöhl 'loose'
* *mah 'lost'
* *s-dem ~ *them 'low'
* *khət 'matched'
* *sahr 'new'
* *gyahm 'red'
* *mihn 'ripe'
* *tsik 'rotten'
* *lum 'round'
* *p-tsha 'sharp'
* *tun 'short'
* *zim 'small'
* *b-sir 'sour'
* *tuk 'spicy'
* *sli-s 'stale'
* *b-rehk 'sweet'
* *ruhŋ 'thick'
* *plek 'thin'
** *wa 'to be thin (esp. of boards)'
* *mun 'warm'
* *pal 'white'
** *plaŋ 'bright, illuminated'
;N. Action verbs with human agent
* *s-po 'beat'
* *ŋih 'beg'
* *kəi 'bite'
* *s-mut 'blow'
** *phut 'to blow with bellows'
* *r-lap 'bore'
* *s-kle(t) 'break'
* *hip 'burn'
* *r-duhp 'butt'
* *ləhŋ 'buy'
** *b-lot 'to lend to someone'
** *b-los 'to borrow'
* *guhr 'carry'
* *kloh 'catch'
* *kwa-t 'clothe'
* *r-sat 'comb'
* *phin 'cook'
** *mihn 'to cook until done'
** *tso 'to boil'
* *kəp 'cover'
* *pəl 'cut'
** *kri 'to cut meat'
* *p-syah 'dance'
* *goh 'dig'
* *gəp 'draw water'
* *zya 'eat'
** *kəi 'to eat things which require chewing'
* *hat 'extract'
* *z-dət 'find'
* *z-dup 'gather'
* *ya 'give'
* *p-set 'grind'
* *r-guh 'guard'
* *tup 'hammer'
* *tsho 'herd'
* *phok 'husk'
* *lut 'insert'
* *tak 'install'
* *r-then 'kick'
* *saht 'kill'
* *kek 'ladle'
* *b-rihm 'lay wall'
* *lep 'lick'
* *dzət 'make'
* *pek 'milk'
* *z-bra-t 'mix'
* *pho-t 'open'
* *phok 'pay'
* *tik 'pick up'
* *s-krəp 'pin closed'
* *p-tsil 'pinch'
* *p-sut 'plug'
* *tek 'press'
* *dzəhk 'put'
** *nat 'to set down, place'
* *ra-s 'release'
* *phit 'remove from fire'
* *tsep 'ride'
* *s-ŋo 'roast'
* *b-zu 'rub'
** *p-sil 'to scrub'
* *s-lom 'scald'
* *sim 'scoop'
* *s-pik 'scrape'
** *pur 'to scratch'
* *s-nan 'seize'
* *p-yet 'sell'
* *s-priŋ 'send'
* *ruhp 'sew'
* *p-yen 'shave'
* *gap 'shoot'
* *s-tən 'show'
* *kok 'skin, peel'
* *phyak 'snap'
* *tshim 'soak'
* *was 'sow seed'
* *khəl 'spin wool'
* *p-si 'split firewood'
* *tser 'squeeze'
* *ku 'steal'
** *rok 'to ransack, rummage'
* *r-wal 'stir'
* *on 'stop'
* *sit 'sweep'
* *p-sik ~ *p-sis 'teach'
* *p-tsit 'tear'
* *khya 'throw'
* *s-ki 'tie'
* *s-to 'trade'
* *kil 'twist'
* *s-krup 'unfold'
* *bohk 'uproot'
* *tse 'wash'
** *r-za 'to wash hair'
* *rəhk 'weave'
** *rihn 'to set up a loom'
* *hul 'whet'
{{refend}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* '''Dictionary:''' (Takale dialect) Watters, David E. 2004. [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/254728900 A dictionary of Kham]: Taka dialect (A Tibeto-Burman language of Nepal). Kirtipur: Tribhuvan University.
* '''Dictionary:''' (Gamal dialect) [[wikt:Category:Gamale Kham language|List of Gamale Kham words]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary.
* '''Grammar:''' Watters, David E.. (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=EcD8uNFBFHAC&dq=Grammar+kham&pg=PP1 A grammar of Kham.] Cambridge: Cambridge University.
* '''Verbal Morphology:''' (Gamal dialect) Moore, Glen M.. (2020). [https://www.academia.edu/43135051/A_Description_of_Selected_Aspects_of_Gamale_Kham_Verbal_Morphology A Description of Selected Aspects of Gamale Kham Verbal Morphology.] 
* '''Verbal Morphology:''' Rempt, Boudewijn. (1994). [http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/rempt1994verbal.pdf The verbal agreement system of four Khām languages]. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 17. 1-59.
* '''Phonology:''' (Gamal dialect) Wilde, Christopher P. (2017). [[hdl:10524/52398|A Phonological Comparison of Gamale, Sheram and Ghusbang – Three Kham Varieties]]. JSEALS Volume 10.1.
* '''Sociolinguistic Study:''' Watters, Stephen. (2018). [https://www.academia.edu/39125708/Linguistic_Identity_and_Dialect_Diversity_A_Conundrum_with_Regard_to_Magar_Kham Linguistic identity and dialect diversity: A conundrum with regard to Magar Kham.] Language and identity in a multilingual, migrating world. SIL International.
* '''Sociolinguistic Study:''' (Western Parbate dialect): Leman, Joseph D. (2019). [https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/86060 “Sociolinguistic Profile of Maikoti Kham: A sociolinguistic study of the Kham language spoken in the area of Maikot village in East Rukum District of Nepal.”] Journal of Language Survey Reports. SIL International.

== External links ==

* [https://my.bible.com/bible/2495/LUK.1.NKham '''YouVersion Bible:''' (Takale dialect)]
* [https://magarkham.org/en/nt-bible '''PDF Bible:''' (Takale dialect)] 
* '''YouTube documentary:''' https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9CNs1KQUPfA
* '''YouTube Channels:'''
** [https://www.youtube.com/user/Lugumyals Lugumyals]
** [https://www.youtube.com/c/lajimbudha Lajimbudha]
** https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3VmS8h3KatE80fRD2_YKFQ
** https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCm7nYKAwSsj9niUcs6TQK2w

{{incubator|kip|lang=Sheshi Kham}}

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Greater Magaric languages}}
{{Languages of Nepal}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kham Language}}
[[Category:Languages of Nepal]]
[[Category:Magaric languages]]
[[Category:Sino-Tibetan languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Gandaki Province]]
[[Category:Languages of Lumbini Province]]
[[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]]