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{{short description|Western Roman emperor from 457 to 461}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}} {{Infobox royalty | name = Majorian | image = Solidus Majorian Arles (obverse).jpg | caption = ''[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]]'' of Majorian, marked:<br />{{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|d·n·|DOMINUS NOSTER}} iulius maiorianus {{Abbreviation|p·f·|PIUS FELIX}} {{Abbreviation|aug·|AUGUSTUS}}}} | succession = [[Roman emperor]] | moretext = in the [[Western Roman Empire|West]] {{nwr|(unrecognized in the [[Eastern Roman Empire|East]])}} | reign = 28 December 457{{snd}}{{nowrap|2 August 461}} | predecessor = [[Avitus]] | successor = [[Libius Severus]] | regent = [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] | reg-type = [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern]] emperor | birth_date = {{circa}} November 420 | birth_place = [[Roman Gaul]] | death_date = 7 August 461 | death_place = [[Dertona]], Western Roman Empire | full name = {{langr|la|Iulius Valerius Maiorianus}}<ref>His full name is only given in the [https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sidoniuscarmina.html ''Carmen'' IV] of [[Sidonius Apollinaris]], all other documents refer to him as Julius Majorianus.</ref> | mother = Daughter of Majorianus, {{lang|la|[[magister militum]]}} | religion = [[Chalcedonian Christianity]] }} '''Majorian''' ({{langx|la|Iulius Valerius Maiorianus}}; {{circa|420}}{{snd}}7 August 461) was [[Western Roman emperor]] from 457 to 461. A prominent commander in the [[Late Roman army|Western military]], Majorian deposed [[Avitus]] in 457 with the aid of his ally [[Ricimer]] at the [[Battle of Placentia (456)|Battle of Placentia]]. Possessing little more than [[Roman Italy|Italy]] and [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]], as well as some territory in [[Hispania Tarraconensis|Hispania]] and northern [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], Majorian campaigned rigorously for three years against the Empire's enemies. In 461, he was murdered at [[Dertona]] in a conspiracy, and his successors until the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of the Empire]] in 476 were puppets either of [[barbarian]] generals or the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman]] court. After [[Battle of Garigliano (457)|defeating a Vandal attack on Italy]] in 457, Majorian intercepted the [[Visigoths]] in the [[Battle of Arelate]], defeating them and saving the city. Securing [[Septimania]], he reduced the Goths to [[Foederati|federate status]], returning Hispania to the empire. Meanwhile, [[Marcellinus (magister militum)|Marcellinus]] was convinced to recognise Majorian, reconquering [[Sicily]] in the emperor's name. Majorian then attacked the [[Burgundians]], reconquering [[Lugdunum]] and expelling them from the [[Rhône]] valley. Marching into Gaul, he reintegrated the [[Gallo-Romans]] and appointed [[Aegidius]] commander of the region, whilst [[Nepotianus (magister militiae)|Nepotianus]] invaded the [[Kingdom of the Suebi]] and reconquered [[Scalabis]]. In 460, Majorian entered Hispania and readied a fleet for an invasion of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. However, the [[Vandals]] bribed traitors into defection and destroyed the fleet in the [[Battle of Cartagena (461)|Battle of Cartagena]], forcing Majorian to return to Italy. During his reign, Majorian instituted reforms to reduce corruption, rebuild the state's institutions and preserve ancient monuments. This led to an antagonistic relationship with the [[Roman Senate]], which was exploited by Ricimer to behead Majorian upon his arrival in Italy in 461. The 6th-century writer [[Procopius]] asserted that Majorian "surpassed in every virtue all who have ever been emperors of the Romans", whilst [[Sidonius Apollinaris]], a contemporary of the emperor, stated, "That he was gentle to his subjects; that he was terrible to his enemies; and that he excelled in every virtue, all his predecessors who had reigned over the Romans." ==Early life== The life of Majorian and his reign are better known than those of the other Western Emperors of the same period. The most important sources are the chronicles that cover the second half of the 5th century—those of [[Hydatius]] and [[Marcellinus Comes]], as well as the fragments of [[Priscus]] and [[John of Antioch (chronicler)|John of Antioch]]. Besides these sources, which are useful also for the biographies of the other emperors, some peculiar sources are available that make Majorian's life known in some detail, both before and after his rise to the throne. The Gallo-Roman aristocrat and poet [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] was an acquaintance of the Emperor and composed a [[panegyric]] that is the major source for Majorian's life up to 459. As regards his policy, twelve of his laws have been preserved: the so-called ''{{lang|la|Novellae Maioriani}}'' were included in the Breviary of Alaric, compiled for [[Alaric II]] in 506, which helps to understand the problems that pressed Majorian's government.<ref name="mathisen">Mathisen.</ref> Majorian was probably born after 420, as in 458 he was described as a {{lang|la|iuvenis}} ('young man'). He belonged to the military aristocracy of the Roman Empire. His [[Maggiorano|grandfather]] of the same name reached the rank of {{lang|la|[[magister militum]]}} under Emperor [[Theodosius I]] and, as commander-in-chief of the Illyrian army, was present at his coronation at [[Sirmium]] in 379. The {{lang|la|magister militum}}'s daughter then married an officer, probably called Domninus,<ref>This identification, based on a passage in the work of [[Priscus]], is not universally accepted by the historians. See MacGeorge, p. 188, for a summary of the arguments in favour of the identification, and Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, "Domninus 3", ''[[Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire]]'', Volume 2, Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-20159-4}}, p. 373, for the arguments against it.</ref> who administered the finances of [[Aetius (general)|Aetius]], the most powerful general of the West. The couple gave the name ''Maiorianus'' to their child in honour of his influential grandfather, as was the custom for the firstborn son.<ref name="mathisen" /> It was under the same Aetius that Majorian started his military career.<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.198–200.</ref> He followed Aetius to Gallia, where he met two officers also under Aetius's command who were to play an important role in Majorian's life: the Suebic-Visigoth Ricimer<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.266–268.</ref> and the Gallo-Roman Aegidius.<ref>[[Priscus]], fragment 50.</ref> Majorian distinguished himself in the defence of the city of Turonensis (modern [[Tours]]) and in a [[Battle of Vicus Helena|battle near ''Vicus Helena'']]<ref>The exact location of ''Vicus Helena'' is unknown, but it was in Northern France, probably near modern [[Arras]] (Jan Willem Drijvers, ''Helena Augusta'', Brill, {{ISBN|90-04-09435-0}}, p. 12).</ref> (447 or 448) against the [[Franks]] under [[Chlodio]]. In the latter, Majorian fought at the head of his cavalry on a bridge, while Aetius controlled the roads leading to the battlefield:<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.207–227.</ref> {{blockquote|text=There was a narrow passage at the junction of two ways, and a road crossed both the village of Helena... and the river. [Aëtius] was posted at the cross-roads while Majorian warred as a mounted man close to the bridge itself...|sign=Sidonius Apollinaris|source=''Carmina'', V.207–227. Anderson tr.}} [[File:(Toulouse) théodosienne de la villa romaine de Chiragan - Musée Saint-Raymond Ra 82.jpg |thumb|left|[[Placidia]] was the younger daughter of Emperor [[Valentinian III]], who planned to marry her to Majorian (450 ''ca''.). As the powerful ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]] realised that this marriage would weaken his position, he sent Majorian away from his staff to private life, thus hindering the marriage.]] Around 450, the Western Roman Emperor [[Valentinian III]] considered the possibility of marrying his daughter [[Placidia]] to Majorian. Valentinian had two daughters but no sons, and therefore no heir to the throne. Having Majorian as son-in-law would have strengthened Valentinian in the face of other powerful generals and would have solved the problem of the succession. Furthermore, as Emperor, Majorian could have led the army himself, freed from the dangerous bond with a powerful general, such as Valentinian had been obliged to contract with Aetius.<ref name="O'Flynn, pp. 94–95">O'Flynn, pp. 94–95.</ref> The intention of this plan was to avoid the possibility that barbarian generals like [[Huneric]] or [[Attila]] should succeed to Aetius, but clashed with the plans of Aetius himself. The Roman general, in fact, planned to marry his own son [[Gaudentius (son of Aëtius)|Gaudentius]] to Placidia. He therefore opposed Valentinian's plan, and put an end to Majorian's military career, expelling him from his staff and sending him to his country estate.<ref name="O'Flynn, pp. 94–95"/> According to the poet Sidonius Apollinaris, the cause of the fall of Majorian was the jealousy of Aetius's wife, who feared that Majorian could overshadow Aetius's prestige.<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.290–300.</ref> It was only in 454 that Majorian was able to return to public life. In that year, Valentinian III killed Aetius with his own hands. Fearing that Aetius's troops might revolt, he called Majorian back to office to quell any dissent.<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.305–308.</ref> In the following year, Valentinian III was killed by two former officers of Aetius's staff. There was then a fight for the succession, as no heir existed. Majorian played the role of the candidate for the throne of [[Licinia Eudoxia]], Valentinian's widow, and of Ricimer, who reserved for himself a role similar to Aetius's.<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.312–314; John of Antioch, fragment 201.6.</ref> In the end, the new emperor was [[Petronius Maximus]], a senator involved in Valentinian's murder, who outmanoeuvred the other candidates. To strengthen his position, he obliged Licinia to marry him and promoted Majorian to the rank of {{lang|la|[[comes domesticorum]]}} (commander-in-chief of the imperial guard).<ref>It is however possible that Majorian was appointed {{lang|la|comes domesticorum}} by Valentinian when he was recalled back in service after Aetius's murder (Mathisen).</ref> ==Rise to the throne== ===The revolt against Avitus=== {{Main|Roman civil war of 456}} Petronius ruled only for a few weeks, as he was killed during the [[Vandals|Vandal]] [[sack of Rome (455)|sack of Rome]] (May 455). He was succeeded, not by Majorian, but by the Gallic-Roman noble [[Avitus]], who had the support of the [[Visigoths]]. Both Majorian, ''comes domesticorum'', and Ricimer, ''comes rei militaris'' of Italy, initially supported Avitus, but when the Emperor lost the loyalty of the Italian aristocracy, the two generals revolted against him. First Majorian and Ricimer killed [[Remistus]], the ''magister militum'' entrusted by Avitus with the defence of the capital, [[Ravenna]]. Then Ricimer defeated Avitus' troops near [[Piacenza|Placentia]], taking the Emperor himself prisoner, and obliging him to abdicate. Finally, Majorian caused Avitus' death, possibly starving him, in early 457.<ref>John of Antioch, fragment 202.</ref> ===Emperor of the West=== [[Avitus]] was dead and the Western throne without an emperor. It was thus for the Eastern Roman Emperor to choose the successor, but [[Marcian]] could do nothing, as he died on 27 January 457. His successor on the Eastern throne was the general [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]], who instead decided to rule alone.<ref>After the death of [[Libius Severus]] in 465, Leo waited two years to select a new colleague, [[Anthemius]].</ref> On 28 February, Majorian became ''[[magister militum]]'', while Ricimer became ''[[Patrikios|patricius]]'' and ''magister militum''.<ref name=fasti583>''[[Fasti vindobonenses priores]]'', 583.</ref> This was more likely an act of usurpation rather than an appointment made by Leo.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Barnes |first=T. D. |date=1983 |editor-last=Martindale |editor-first=J. R. |title=Late Roman Prosopography: Between Theodosius and Justinian |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1088953 |journal=Phoenix |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=248–270 |doi=10.2307/1088953 |jstor=1088953 |issn=0031-8299|url-access=subscription }}</ref> While the situation was in a precarious equilibrium, a troop of 900 [[Alemanni]] invaded Italy. They entered from [[Raetia]] and penetrated Italian territory down to [[Lake Maggiore]]. There they were intercepted and defeated in the [[Battle of Campi Cannini]] by the troops of ''comes'' Burco, sent by Majorian to stop them:<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.373–385.</ref> {{blockquote|text=The savage Alaman had scaled the Alps and had emerged, plundering the Roman land; he had sent 900 foemen to scour for booty... By this time you were Master [of Soldiers], and you sent forth Burco with a band of followers... Fortune brought about a triumph not through numbers but through their love of you... You fought with the authority of a Master but the destiny of an Emperor|sign=Sidonius Apollinaris|source=''Carmina'', V.373–385. Anderson tr.}} This victory was celebrated as Majorian's own, and the ''magister militum'' was acclaimed Emperor by the army (perhaps on 1 April), six miles outside [[Ravenna]], at a place called ''ad Columellas'', "at the Little Columns".<ref name=fasti583 />{{refn|The date 1 April 457 is probably a mistake in the ''[[Fasti vindobonenses]]'' for the official proclamation of the eastern emperor Leo in the west (1 April 458).<ref name=":1"/>}} In his [[panegyric]] to Majorian, the poet [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] tells that Majorian initially refused the election:<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.9–12.</ref> {{blockquote|text=The world trembled with alarm while you were loath to permit your victories to benefit you, and because, overly modest, you grieved because you deserved the throne and because you would not undertake to rule what you had deemed worth defending|sign=Sidonius Apollinaris|source=''Carmina'', V.9–12. Anderson tr.}} Majorian was formally declared emperor on 28 December.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Arnold Hugh Martin |title=[[Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire]] |last2=Martindale |first2=J. R. |last3=Morris |first3=J. |date=1980 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-20159-9 |volume=2 |location=Cambridge |pages=702–703 |chapter=Maiorianus |author-link1=A. H. M. Jones |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/plre-ii/page/702/mode/1up}}</ref> Majorian assumed the consulate for the year 458; it was customary that a new Emperor took this magistracy on the first year started as Emperor.<ref name="mathisen" /> He apparently never obtained recognition from the eastern court, as almost all contemporary eastern sources refer to [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] as sole consul.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roger S. Bagnall |url=http://archive.org/details/bagnall-clre |title=Consuls of the later Roman Empire |date=1987 |publisher=American Philological Association by Scholars Press |isbn=978-1-55540-099-6 |pages=451 (s.a. 458)}}</ref> ==Foreign affairs== {{Campaignbox Campaigns of Majorian}} ===Defence of Italy=== In summer 457, a group of [[Vandals]], led by the brother-in-law of [[Genseric]], landed in [[Campania (Roman province)|Campania]], at the mouth of the [[Liri]] river, and started devastating and sacking the region. Majorian personally led the [[Late Roman army|Roman army]] to a [[Battle of Garigliano (457)|victory]] over the invaders near [[Sinuessa]] and followed the defeated Vandals, loaded with their booty, as far as their own ships, killing many of them including their commander.<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.385–440 and A. Loyen, ''Recherches historiques sur les panégiriques de Sidonine Apollinaire'', Paris 1942, pp. 76–77 and note 5. Cited in Savino, Eliodoro, ''Campania tardoantica (284–604 d.C.)'', Edipuglia, 2005, {{ISBN|88-7228-257-8}}, p. 84.</ref> After this event, Majorian understood that he had to take the initiative if he wanted to defend the heart of his Empire, the only territory he actually controlled. So he decided to strengthen its defences. First, he issued a law, the ''Novella Maioriani'' 8 known as ''De reddito iure armorum'' ("On the Return of the Right to Bear Arms"), concerning the personal right to bear arms; in 440, [[Valentinian III]] had already promulgated a law with the same name, ''Novella Valentiniani'' 9, after another attack of the Vandals. It is probably to this time that another law is to be dated, the ''Novella Maioriani'' 12 known as ''De aurigis et seditiosis'' ("Concerning Charioteers and Seditious Persons"), to quell the disorders that sprang up during the [[chariot races]]. Both these laws are now lost.<ref name="mathisen" /> He then strengthened the army, recruiting a large number of barbarian mercenaries, including [[Gepids]], [[Ostrogoths]], [[Rugii]], [[Burgundians]], [[Huns]], [[Bastarnae]], [[Suebi]], [[Scythians]] and [[Alans]].<ref>Gibbon.</ref> Finally, he rebuilt two fleets, probably those of Miseno and Ravenna, since the Vandals had a strong navy:<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.441–442.</ref> {{blockquote|text=Meanwhile you built on the two shores fleets for the upper and lower sea. Down into the water falls every forest of the Apennines|sign=Sidonius Apollinaris|source=''Carmina'', V.441–442. Anderson tr.}} ===Reconquest of Gaul=== {{Main|Gothic War (457–458)}} [[File:MajorianEmpire.png|thumb|upright=1.4|During his four-year reign Majorian reconquered most of Hispania and southern Gaul, meanwhile reducing the Visigoths, Burgundians and Suevi to federate status.]] After consolidating his position in Italy, Majorian concentrated on the recovery of [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]]. When news of the deposition of the Gallo-Roman emperor [[Avitus]] arrived in Gaul, the province refused to recognize Majorian as his successor. An important clue to this is an inscription found in [[Lugdunum]] (modern [[Lyon]]s) and dating to 458; according to Roman custom, the inscriptions were dated by writing the names of the consuls in office, who that year were supposed to be [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] and Majorian. This inscription, instead, records only the name of Eastern Emperor Leo I, showing that Majorian was not recognized at the time as the lawful Western Emperor.<ref>{{CIL|13|2363}}, to be compared to {{CIL|13|2359}}.</ref> Another clue is the fact that, at the death of Avitus, the citizens of Lugdunum sent an envoy to Leo, and not to Majorian, to ask for a reduction of taxation.<ref>[[Gregory of Tours]], ''Glory of the Confessors'' 62. Cited in Mathisen.</ref> Finally, there is a record of a [[Marcellan conspiracy|failed usurpation in Gaul, around this time]].<ref>[[Sidonius Apollinaris]] tells (''Letters'', I.11.6) that this usurpation regarded some Marcellus. The hypothesis that this Marcellus is to be identified with the semi-independent ''comes'' of Illyricum [[Marcellinus (magister militum)|Marcellinus]] has been rejected, as this conspiracy was to put Avitus back on the throne, or to oppose a Gallo-Roman noble to Majorian.</ref> In late 458, Majorian entered Gaul, with an army strengthened by barbarian units.<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.474–477.</ref> The Emperor personally led the army, leaving Ricimer in Italy and choosing Aegidius and the ''magister militum Nepotianus'' as collaborators. The imperial army defeated the [[Visigoths]] under king [[Theodoric II]] at the [[Battle of Arelate]], forcing the Visigoths to abandon [[Septimania]] and withdraw west to [[Aquitania]]. The Roman victory was decisive: under the new treaty the Visigoths had to relinquish their vast conquests in [[Hispania]] and return to [[foederati|federate]] status. Majorian chose his trusted general Aegidius as the new ''[[magister militum]] per Gallias'' (military commander of Gaul) and sent an envoy to Hispania, to report the victory over the Visigoths and the new treaty with Theodoric II.<ref>[[Hydatius]], 197, ''s.a.'' 459; [[Gregory of Tours]], ''Historia Francorum'', II.11.</ref> With the help of his new ''foederati'', Majorian entered the [[Rhone Valley]], conquering its populations "some by arms and some by diplomacy".<ref name=priscus27>Priscus, fragment 27.</ref> He defeated the [[Burgundians]] and besieged and conquered the city of [[Lugdunum]]: the rebel city was heavily fined, while the [[Bagaudae]] were forced to join the Empire.<ref name="mathisen" /> Despite the fact that the Gallo-Roman aristocracy had sided with Avitus, Majorian wanted a reconciliation, not a punishment. With the intercession of Majorian's ''magister epistolarum'' Petrus, [[Sidonius Apollinaris]], the son-in-law of Avitus, was allowed to deliver a panegyric<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris' ''Carmen'' V.</ref> in honour of the Emperor (early January 459), receiving in reward the appointment to the rank of ''comes spectabilis''. Much more effective was, however, the granting of the tax remission that the citizens of Lugdunum had requested from Leo I.<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.574–585.</ref> ===Campaign in Hispania=== [[File:Roman Empire 460 AD.png|thumb|400px|The Roman Empire in 460 during the reign of Majorian.]] In the wake of the [[Vandals|Vandal]] [[sack of Rome (455)]], the Visigoths had conquered Hispania, formally in the name of the new Western Emperor [[Avitus]], actually controlling the territory themselves. Majorian planned to reconquer Hispania and use it as the base for the conquest of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. This rich province of the Western Empire, which provided for the very important [[grain supply to the city of Rome]], was in fact under [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandal control]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}} According to the historian [[Procopius]], Majorian, "who surpassed in every virtue all who ever were emperors of the Romans",<ref name="history_of_the_wars">Procopius, ''The Wars of Justinian'', Book Three, Chapter VII, (trans: A. Kaldellis) p. 159. {{ISBN|978-1-62466-170-9}}.</ref> wanted to know personally the military readiness of the Vandals and how the local populations would react to the Roman invasion. He dyed black his fair hair, for which he was famous, and went to [[Genseric]] claiming to be an envoy of the Western Emperor. Genseric tried to impress the enemy ambassador by showing him the arms collected in the warehouses and sent him back.<ref>[[Procopius]], VII.4–13.</ref> This story is probably only a legend of Italian folklore,<ref>MacGeorge, p. 214.</ref> but it is a clue to the care with which the expedition was prepared. Majorian collected information on the enemy and gathered a fleet of three hundred ships to support the army in the reconquest of Hispania and in the invasion of Africa.<ref name=mathisen /> It was probably during the preparation of this operation that Majorian sent the ''[[comes]]'' and ''[[patrikios|patricius]] Occidentis'' [[Marcellinus (magister militum)|Marcellinus]] to Sicily with an army of [[Huns]], to take the island back from the Vandals. Marcellinus was the ''comes rei militaris'' (governor) of [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], but he had become practically independent since the death of [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]], not recognizing the imperial authority. Majorian convinced him to accept him as Emperor and even to collaborate with his troops in the military recovery of the Empire.<ref name="jones241">[[Arnold Hugh Martin Jones]], ''The Later Roman Empire, 284–602'', JHU Press, 1986, {{ISBN|0-8018-3353-1}}, p. 241. MacGeorge, however, maintains that Marcellinus' return under the Western Emperor's rule is not attested, and thinks that Marcellinus was in Sicily either to take part independently in the campaign against the Vandals or, by order of the Eastern Emperor, to put pressure on Geiseric for the restitution of Empress Eudoxia and her daughters (pp. 46–48).</ref> The campaign started with an operation against the [[Suebi]] in North-Western Hispania, lasting the whole of 459, led by the ''magister militiae'' [[Nepotianus (magister militiae)|Nepotianus]] and the Gothic ''comes'' [[Sunieric]]. Majorian gathered the main part of the army in [[Liguria]], then entered [[Aquitaine]] and ''[[Novempopulania]]'' coming from Theodoric's court in [[Toulouse]] (May 460). Genseric, fearing the Roman invasion, tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal, since the economic investment he had done to prepare the campaign had been enormous.<ref>Priscus, fr. 36.1; Hydatius, ''Chron.'', p. 32.</ref> The Vandal king then decided to devastate [[Mauretania]] and Numidia, his own territory, by poisoning the water sources and burning the fields, because he thought that the Roman army would land there,<ref>Priscus, fr. 36.1.</ref> and also ordered his navy to prepare incursions in the waters near the probable invasion area.<ref name=priscus27 /> In the meantime, Majorian was conquering Hispania. While Nepotianus and Sunieric defeated the Suebi at ''Lucus Augusti'' (modern [[Lugo]]) and conquered ''Scallabis'' in [[Lusitania]] (modern [[Santarém, Portugal]]), the Emperor passed through ''Caesaraugusta'' ([[Saragossa]]), where he performed a formal imperial ''[[Adventus (ceremony)|adventus]]''.<ref>Roger Collins, ''Visigothic Spain, 409–711'', Blackwell Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-631-18185-7}}, p. 32.</ref> Finally he reached [[Carthaginiensis]], where his fleet, docked at ''Portus Illicitanus'' (near [[Elche]]), was destroyed by traitors paid by the Vandals:<ref>''[[Chronica gallica anno 511]]'', 634; [[Marius Aventicensis]], ''s.a.'' 460; [[Hydatius]], 200, ''s.a.'' 460.</ref> {{blockquote|text=While Majorian was campaigning in the province of Carthaginiensis the Vandals destroyed, through traitors, several ships that he was preparing for himself for a crossing against the Vandals from the shore of Carthaginiensis. Majorian, frustrated in this manner from his intention, returned to Italy.|sign=Hydatius|source=''Chronicle'', 200, ''s.a.'' 460.}} In autumn 460 Majorian, deprived of the fleet that was necessary for the invasion, cancelled the attack on the Vandals and received the ambassadors of Gaiseric,<ref>According to Hydatius, the peace talks took place after late November, which could indicate that Majorian had tried to recover the losses and keep pushing the attack, to desist only because of the arrival of winter of for economic reasons (Oppedisano 2009, p. 545).</ref> with whom he agreed to conclude peace, which probably included the recognition of the ''de facto'' occupation of Mauretania by the Vandals.<ref>The treaty has not been preserved: from Priscus' fragment (fr. 36.2) it is possible to deduce it was not favourable to the Romans, even if another fragment (fr. 38) makes it clear that the Vandals did not receive recognition of their power over Sicily; it is possible that this treaty was based on the one signed in 442 (Ch. Courtois, ''Les Vandales et l’Afrique'', Paris 1955, p. 199).</ref> He disbanded his costly troops,<ref name="Priscus, fr. 36.2">Priscus, fr. 36.2.</ref> and moved to [[Arelate]] to spend the winter,<ref name=gallica>''[[Chronica gallica anno 511]]''.</ref> while he expected to be welcome with dissent in Italy.<ref>Sidonius Apollinares, ''Epistulae'' 1.11.5.</ref> ==Domestic policy== Majorian's domestic policy is known thanks to some of the laws he issued, the so-called ''Novellae Maioriani'', that were included in a collection of [[Roman law]] called the Breviary of Alaric, requested from some Gallo-Roman jurists in 506 by the Visigothic king [[Alaric II]] .<ref name="mathisen" /><ref>Clyde Pharr, ''The Theodosian code and novels, and the Sirmondian constitutions'', The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2001, {{ISBN|1-58477-146-1}}, pp. 551–561.</ref> The preserved laws are: * ''Novella Maioriani'' 1, ''De ortu imperii domini Majoriani Augusti'', "The Beginning of the Reign of Our Lord Majorian Augustus", opening speech of his reign, addressed to the [[Roman Senate]] (given in [[Ravenna]], on 11 January 458); * ''Novella Maioriani'' 2, ''De indulgentiis reliquorum'', "On the Remission of Past-Due Accounts" (given in Ravenna, on 11 March 458, to [[Caecina Decius Basilius|Basilius]], [[Praetorian prefect of Italy]]); * ''Novella Maioriani'' 3, ''De defensoribus civitatum'', "The Defenders of the Municipalities", on the office of ''defensor civitatum'' (given in Ravenna, on 8 May 458, also in the name of [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]]); * ''Novella Maioriani'' 4, ''De aedificiis pubblicis'', "Public Buildings", on the preservation of the monuments of Rome (given in Ravenna, on 11 July 458, to Aemilianus, ''[[praefectus urbi]]'' of Rome, also in the name of Leo I); * ''Novella Maioriani'' 5, ''De bonis caducis sive proscriptorum'', "On Abandoned Property and That of Proscribed Persons" (given in Ravenna, on 4 September 458, to Ennodius,<ref name="ennodius">This Ennodius was a relative of the poet and bishop [[Magnus Felix Ennodius]] (474–521).</ref> ''comes privatae largitionis'', also in the name of Leo I); * ''Novella Maioriani'' 6, ''De sanctimonialibus vel viduis et de successionibus earum'', "Holy Maidens, Widows, and Their Succession" (given in Ravenna, on 26 October 458, to Basilius, Praetorian prefect of Italy, also in the name of Leo I); * ''Novella Maioriani'' 7, ''De curialibus et de agnatione vel distractione praediorum et de ceteris negotiis'', "[[Curiales]], Their Children and The Sale of Their Landed Estates" (given in Ravenna, on 6 November 458, to Basilius, Praetorian prefect of Italy, also in the name of Leo I); * ''Novella Maioriani'' 8, ''De reddito iure armorum'', "On the Return of the Right to Bear Arms", whose text is lost; * ''Novella Maioriani'' 9, ''De adulteriis'', "Adultery", confirming that the adulterers are to be put to death (given in Arelate, on 17 April 459, to Rogatianus, governor of Suburbicarian Tuscany, also in the name of Leo I); * ''Novella Maioriani'' 10, about the right of the Roman senators and of the Church to keep the goods received in a will, whose text is lost; * ''Novella Maioriani'' 11, ''De episcopali iudicio et ne quis invitus clericus ordinetur vel de ceteris negotiis'', "Episcopal Courts; No Person Shall Be Ordained A Cleric Against His Will; Various Matters", (given in Arelate, on 28 March 460, to [[Ricimer]], also in the name of Leo I); * ''Novella Maioriani'' 12, ''De aurigis et seditiosis'', "Charioteers and Seditious Persons", whose text is lost. ===Fiscal policy and coinage=== [[File:Tremissis - Visigoti per Maggioriano - RIC X 3747-9.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Tremissis]] minted by a Visigothic king in the name of Majorian. These coins were minted in [[Arelate]] between 457 and 507 and showed the corrupted name <span style="font-variant:small-caps">iviivs haiorianvs</span>. Even if their style was close to the Roman originals, Visigothic coins contained less precious metal; it was probably for this reason that Majorian issued a law obliging the tax collectors to accept golden coins at their nominal value, with the exception of the "Gallic" coin, of lesser value.<ref>''Novella Maioriani'' 7.14, 6 November 458, cited in Mathisen.</ref>]] Majorian understood that he could reign effectively only with the support of the senatorial aristocracy, whom he wanted to return to its pristine political prominence. At the same time, he planned to reduce the abuses perpetrated by the senators, many of whom cultivated their local interests disregarding the imperial policies, even refusing to pay taxes and keeping for themselves the taxes they had exacted. This fiscal evasion had a cascade effect that affected the small landowners, the citizens and the local civil magistrates.<ref name="mathisen" /> For example, the [[Decurion (administrative)|decurions]] had to personally compensate the imperial treasury for all taxes not exacted. Sometimes, oppressed by the debts accumulated in this way, the decurions abandoned their status, a problem which was previously addressed by Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] (361–363). Majorian also cancelled tax arrears, knowing that fiscal policy could not be effective if taxpayers had to pay large accumulated arrears.<ref name="mathisen" /> On 11 March 458, Majorian issued a law entitled ''De indulgentiis reliquorum'', "On the Remission of Past-Due Accounts" (''Novella Maioriani'' 2). This law remitted all the tax arrears of the landowners. This same law explicitly prohibited public administrators, who had a record of keeping the collected money for themselves, from collecting taxes. This task was to be reserved to the governors alone. Another law issued to reorganise the tax system was issued on 4 September of the same year, and was entitled ''De bonis caducis sive proscriptorum'', "On Abandoned Property and That of Proscribed Persons" (''Novella Maioriani'' 5): the ''[[comes]] privatae largitionis'' Ennodius was to admonish the provincial judges against defrauding the imperial treasure by keeping for themselves a part of the money collected.<ref name="mathisen" /> [[File:Medaglione contorniato di maiorano con fantino.JPG|thumb|[[Contorniate]] depicting emperor Majorian]] The Emperor was also interested in repairing the backbone of the imperial administration. On 8 May 458, Majorian issued a law entitled ''De defensoribus civitatum'', "The Defenders of the Municipalities" (''Novella Maioriani'' 3), to re-establish the office of the {{Ill|Defensor civitatis|es|4=fr}}. This city magistrate represented the interests of the citizens in trials against the public administration, particularly in fiscal matters; this magistracy was still in existence, but actually ineffective, since it was often held by the same officials who cheated the population.<ref name="mathisen" /> Another law was issued on 6 November to strengthen the magistracy of the [[Decurion (administrative)|decurion]]s. ''De curialibus et de agnatione vel distractione praediorum et de ceteris negotiis'', "Decurions, Their Children and The Sale of Their Landed Estates" (''Novella Maioriani'' 7), was issued to forgive past abuses perpetrated by the decurions. This forbade them from leaving their status (going into hiding or marrying slave or tenant farmers) or alienating their own properties.<ref name="mathisen" /> Majorian minted coins in [[gold]], [[silver]] and [[bronze]]. Gold coinage was minted in great quantities. On these coins the Emperor is depicted, with few exceptions, with a [[combat helmet]], a spear, a shield, and a [[chi-rho]], looking towards the right; this typology was derived from a rare type minted in [[Ravenna]] for [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] and used in great quantities only by Majorian, it was dropped by his successors. The first series of [[Solidus (coin)|solidi]] were probably minted in Ravenna, and bear on the obverse the joint portrait of Majorian and [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]], thus celebrating the mutual recognition of the two Roman emperors. The [[Mint (coin)|mints]] of Ravenna and [[Milan]] issued both solidi and [[tremissis|tremisses]] from the beginning of Majorian's reign.<ref name="mathisen" /><ref name=vagi>Vagi, David, ''Coinage and history of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.–A.D. 480'', Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|1-57958-316-4}}, p. 567.</ref> No series of [[semissis|semisses]] are attested for these two mints, probably because the semisses were typically minted by the mint of [[Rome]] and this mint was not active under Majorian, who never visited the ancient capital of his Empire during his four years of rule. The minting of solidi is attested for the mint of [[Arelate]] in 458, a fact compatible with the presence of Majorian in Gaul in that year. This mint was again active in 460, when the Emperor returned from his campaign in Hispania. The [[Visigoths]] minted some reproductions of his solidi, modelled after the issues of the [[Arelate]] mint: as Arelate issued only solidi, the Visigoths used those designs also for the tremissis.<ref name="mathisen" /><ref name="vagi"/> Silver coinage was issued almost exclusively by the Gallic mints; it has been suggested that these series were not issued by Majorian, but by [[Aegidius]] after the Emperor's death, to mark the fact that he did not recognize his successor, [[Libius Severus]]. Majorian also produced great quantities of [[nummus|nummi]] of great weight, mostly minted at Ravenna and Milan, and some [[contorniate]]s, mostly in Rome, but probably also in Ravenna.<ref name="mathisen" /><ref name=vagi /> ===Natalist policies=== The diffusion of Christianity in the Empire caused some social changes within the aristocratic families. In several wealthy families, daughters were obliged to take religious vows and never marry, so that the family wealth would not be dispersed in dowries. Majorian thought that this behaviour was harmful to the State, because it reduced the number of Roman children, and because it caused the girls to start illicit affairs. On 26 October 458, the Emperor addressed a law, the ''Novella Maioriani'' 6, to the [[Praetorian prefect of Italy]], [[Caecina Decius Basilius]].<ref name="autogenerated110">''Novella Maioriani'' 6.1–3, cited in Grubbs, p. 110.</ref> This law, titled ''De sanctimonialibus vel viduis et de successionibus earum'' ("Holy Maidens, Widows, and Their Succession"), imposed a minimum age of 40 for taking religious vows, considering that at this age the sexual drives of the initiated would be dormant. The law also granted women who had been forced to take religious vows, and were subsequently disinherited, the same rights on the legacy of parents as their brothers and sisters.<ref name="autogenerated110"/> In order to solve this same problem of the decline of the Roman population, in particular compared with the growth of the barbarians allocated within the imperial boundaries, Majorian addressed the problem of young women widowed and without children who never remarried because of the influence of the clergy, to whom they destined their goods in their will. The young widows were prohibited from taking religious vows.<ref name="autogenerated232">''Novella Maioriani'' 6.5–8, cited in Grubbs, pp. 232–234.</ref> By the same measure, departing in this from the policy of the Eastern Empire, Majorian insisted that a marriage without dowry and pre-wedding exchange of gifts (first from the bride's family to the groom, then in the opposite direction) was invalid; he simultaneously ended the practice of requesting pre-wedding gifts of a value considerably higher than the dowry.<ref>''Novella Maioriani'' 6.9–103, cited in Grubbs, p. 119.</ref> ===Relationship with the senatorial aristocracy=== [[File:Tremissis Avitus-RIC 2402.jpg|thumb|300px|Avitus, the predecessor of Majorian on the imperial throne, had alienated the support of the Roman senatorial aristocracy by appointing members of the Gallo-Roman aristocracy, of which he was a part, to the most important offices of the imperial administration. He was overthrown by Majorian, who did not repeat the error and rotated the main offices between representatives of the two aristocracies.]] When Majorian took power by deposing [[Avitus]], the province of Gaul, where Avitus' power was based, did not recognize the new Emperor. When Majorian re-conquered the province, he chose to forgive this rebellion. The reason was that Majorian understood that one of the mistakes of his predecessor was to promote and trust only the senatorial aristocracy of Gaul, the region he came from, favouring it over the senatorial aristocracy of Italy.<ref name="mathisen" /><ref name="ennodius" /> Majorian, instead, decided to gain the favour of the wealthy and noble families of the recovered province by involving them in the imperial administration, together with the Italian aristocracy that had supported him since the beginning. For evidence of this policy, one can point to the origins of the high civil servants of his administration, in particular of the [[Roman consul|consuls]], whom the Emperor appointed jointly with his Eastern colleague.<ref name="mathisen" /><ref name="ennodius" /> In the first year (458) Majorian reserved the honour for himself, as was usual for the ''[[augustus|augusti]]'', while in the second year he appointed his former colleague and powerful ''[[magister militum]]'', [[Ricimer]]. Then, for the year 460, he choose the Gallic senator [[Magnus (consul 460)|Magnus]], and for the next year the Italian senator [[Severinus (consul 461)|Severinus]]. Magnus had been appointed [[Praetorian prefect of Gaul]] in 458, while the [[Praetorian prefect of Italy]] was [[Caecina Decius Basilius]], who was the patron of the Gallic senator (and poet) [[Sidonius Apollinaris]], while the ''comes privatae largitionis'', Ennodius, was related to a family with interests in [[Arelate]].<ref name="mathisen" /><ref name="ennodius" /> Majorian also showed great respect towards the Roman senate, as suggested by the message he addressed to it on the eve of his coronation: he promised the senators he would not take into account the accusations of informers, which were much feared as they might be used by the Emperor to cause the fall of influential figures.<ref name=novella1>''Novella Maioriani'' 1, ''De ortu imperii domini Majoriani Augusti'', "The Beginning of the Reign of Our Lord Majorian Augustus".</ref> He followed through on his promises, as told by Sidonius Apollinaris, who had been anonymously accused of the authorship of a pamphlet against some influential figures: during a dinner together, Majorian defused the risky situation with a witticism.<ref>This event took place in 461, and is recorded in a letter (''Letters'', I.11.2–15) of Apollinaris to a friend (Mathisen).</ref> ===Conservation of the monuments of Rome=== [[File:Portrait of Majorian, Frontispiece BN lat. 4404.png|thumb|200px|Majorian from a 9th-century copy of the [[Breviary of Alaric]]]] From the beginning of the 4th century, the monuments of Rome, and more generally all buildings of some value that were in a state of neglect for various reasons, were increasingly used as quarries for valuable building materials. This practice, in fact, was cheaper and more convenient than import from remote locations, which was sometimes rendered difficult or impossible by the control of the sea by the [[Vandals]].<ref>Paolo Delogu, ''Le invasioni barbariche nel meridione dell'impero: Visigoti, Vandali, Ostrogoti'', Rubettino, p. 336.</ref> Roman officials conceded upon petition the use for construction of marble, stone and brick recovered from demolition of ancient monuments: {{blockquote|text=Hence the occasion now arises that also each and every person who is constructing a private edifice through the favoritism of the judges who are situated in the City, does not hesitate to take presumptuously and to transfer the necessary materials from the public places, although those things which belong to the splendor of the cities ought to be preserved by civic affection, even under the necessity of repair.|sign=''Novella Maioriani'' 4|source=Clyde Pharr (ed.), ''The Theodosian code: and Novels'' The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2001 {{ISBN|1-58477-146-1}}, pp. 553–554.}} To cope with this phenomenon, Majorian promulgated a law, ''Novella Maioriani'' 4, ''De aedificiis pubblicis'' ("Public Buildings"), in Ravenna on 11 July 459, addressed to Aemilianus, ''[[praefectus urbi]]'' of Rome. The punishment for judges who had allowed the destruction of ancient public buildings was 50 pounds of gold, while their subordinates were whipped and had both hands amputated. Those who had removed materials from public buildings were to return them. The Senate had the power to decide whether there were extreme conditions that justified the demolition of an old building and, if it decided for the demolition, the Emperor still had the right to order that the resulting materials should be used to decorate other public buildings.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}} ==Fall and death== [[File:As Majorian-RIC 2646v.jpg|thumb|250px|[[As (coin)|As]] coin of Majorian.]] Just as [[Avitus]]'s fate had been decided by the betrayal by [[Ricimer]] and Majorian and by the dismissal of his German guard, so the fate of Majorian himself was decided by the disbandment of his army and a plot organized by Ricimer. In fact, while the Emperor was busy away from Italy, the barbarian ''[[patrikios|patricius]] et [[magister militum]]'' had gathered around himself the aristocratic opposition to his former comrade with whom, just a few years earlier, he had cultivated dreams of power. Majorian's legislation had shown that he intended to intervene decisively on issues that plagued the empire, even if they countered the interests of influential aristocrats.<ref name="mathisen" /><ref>Hydatius, 210.</ref> After spending the winter and the spring after the defeat in the Vandal campaign at [[Arelate]],<ref name=gallica /> Majorian left during summer with a small guard (probably ''domestici''),<ref name="Priscus, fr. 36.2"/> probably with the intention to reach Rome.<ref>Hydatius, ''Chron.'', p. 32; Priscus, fr. 36.2.</ref> He did not try to cross the Alps, as he had done in 458, but moved from Arelate along the [[via Aurelia]], in Southern Gallia and Liguria, only to change direction and move towards the north: he had probably received news that Ricimer was coming to meet him, and wanted to reach [[Dertona]] and from there take the [[via Aemilia]] towards [[Ravenna]].<ref>S. Giorcelli, "Epigrafia e coincidenze della storia: l’imperatore Maioriano, Dertona e una presunta nuova iscrizione cristiana", ''Rivista di storia, arte, archeologia per le province di Alessandria e Asti'', 107 (1998), pp. 173–188.</ref> However Ricimer intercepted him in Dertona (not far from [[Piacenza]], where Avitus had been killed) on 2 August, and had him arrested and deposed.<ref name=":0" /> The Emperor was deprived of his dress and diadem, and beaten.<ref>John of Antioch 226. Sergei Mariev, [https://dn721905.ca.archive.org/0/items/cfhb-11.1-nicetae-choniatae-historia/CFHB%2047_Ioannis%20Antiocheni%20fragmenta%20quae%20supersunt%20omnia.pdf ''Ioannis Antiocheni fragmenta quae supersunt omnia''], p. 415, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin & New York (2008)</ref> After five days, on 7 August, Majorian was beheaded near the river [[Staffora|Iria]].<ref>John of Antioch, fragment 203; Marcellinus, ''sa'' 461; ''[[Fasti vindobonenses priores]]'', No 588. [[Victor of Tonnena]] erroneously claims that Majorian reached Rome and was killed there, and puts this event in 463 (''Chronica'', ''s.a.'' 463). Malalas (375 Dindorf) reports a strange version in which Ricimer was killed because of Majorian's betrayal in favour of Gaiseric.</ref><ref name=":0" /> The city of [[Tortona]] now hosts, in the church of St. Matthew, a building traditionally identified as the "mausoleum of Majorian";<ref>[http://www.comune.tortona.al.it/Database/urp/tortona/tortona2.nsf/pagine/DA680647AA36E2A2C1256C2C004ED0C3?OpenDocument "Mausoleo di Maiorano (Sec. I a.C.)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515151033/http://www.comune.tortona.al.it/Database/urp/tortona/tortona2.nsf/pagine/DA680647AA36E2A2C1256C2C004ED0C3?OpenDocument |date=15 May 2006 }}, ''Città di Tortona'';</ref> however, [[Magnus Felix Ennodius|Ennodius]] complains that Majorian did not receive an appropriate burial.<ref>Ennodius, ''Carmina'', 2.135 Vogel.</ref> Ricimer spread the news that Majorian had died of natural causes,<ref>This is the version reported by both Procopius (''Bellum Vandalicum'' 1.7.14, does not mention the Emperor's return from Hispania and said that Majorian died of [[dysentery]]) and Teophanes, who, however, records also the version of the death caused by Ricimer (Fik Meijer, ''Emperors Do not Die in Bed'', Routledge, 2004, {{ISBN|0-415-31201-9}}, p. 155; Stewart Irvin Oost, "D. N. Libius Severus P. F. Aug.", ''Classical Philology'' 65 [1970], pp. 228–240).</ref> then waited for three months before placing on the imperial throne a person he believed he could manipulate. He finally chose [[Libius Severus]], a senator of no political distinction, probably selected to please the Italian senatorial aristocracy. The new emperor was not recognized by the Eastern Emperor [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]], nor by any of the generals who had served under Majorian: not by [[Aegidius]] in [[Gaul]], not by [[Marcellinus (magister militum)|Marcellinus]] in [[Sicily]] and [[Illyria]], and not by [[Nepotianus (magister militiae)|Nepotianus]] in [[Hispania]].<ref name="jones241" /><ref>O'Flynn, p. 111.</ref> ==Legacy== According to historian [[Edward Gibbon]], Majorian "presents the welcome discovery of a great and heroic character, such as sometimes arise, in a degenerate age, to vindicate the honour of the human species".<ref name=gibbon_extinction>[[Edward Gibbon]], ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', Chapter XXXVI, "Total Extinction Of The Western Empire".</ref> The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' likewise calls him "the only man to hold that office [i.e. the imperial throne] in the 5th century who had some claim to greatness."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|title=Majorian|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Majorian|access-date=21 September 2017|date=9 August 2007}}</ref> ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==Sources== ===Primary sources=== * [[Hydatius]], ''Chronicle'' * [[John of Antioch (chronicler)|John of Antioch]], ''Historia chronike'' * [[Jordanes]], ''[[Getica]]'' * [[Marcellinus Comes]], ''Annales'' * [[Priscus]], ''History'' * [[Procopius]], ''Vandal War'' * [[Sidonius Apollinaris]], ''Carmina''; ''Letters''. Translation: Anderson, W.B., ''Sidonius. Poems and Letters'', 2 vols. (Loeb, 1936–1965). ===Secondary sources=== * Edward Gibbon, ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', Chapter XXXVI “Total Extinction Of The Western Empire”. * Judith Evans Grubbs, ''Women and the Law in the Roman Empire'', Routledge, 2002, {{ISBN|0-415-15240-2}}. * Penny MacGeorge, ''Late Roman Warlords'', Oxford University Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-19-925244-0}}. * Ralph W. Mathisen, [https://web.archive.org/web/20220311020402/https://www.roman-emperors.org/major.htm "Julius Valerius Maiorianus (18 February/28 December 457 – 2/7 August 461)"], ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''. * John Michael O'Flynn, ''Generalissimos of the Western Roman Empire'', University of Alberta, 1983, {{ISBN|0-88864-031-5}}. * Fabrizio Oppedisano, “Il generale contro l'imperatore. La politica di Maioriano e il dissidio con Ricimero,” ''Athenaeum'' 97 (2009) pp. 543–561. * Fabrizio Oppedisano, ''L'impero d'Occidente negli anni di Maioriano'', Roma : «L’Erma» di Bretschneider, 2013, {{ISBN|978-88-913-0285-4}}. ===Further reading=== * Ralph W. Mathisen, “Resistance and Reconciliation: Majorian and the Gallic Aristocracy after the Fall of Avitus,” ''Francia'' 7 (1979) pp. 597–627. * Gerald E. Max, ''Majorian Augustus''. PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, 1975. * Gerald E. Max, “Political Intrigue during the Reigns of the Western Roman Emperors Avitus and Majorian,” ''Historia'' 28 (1979) pp. 225–237. * Gerald E. Max, “Procopius' Portrait of the Emperor Majorian: History and Historiography,” ''Byzantinische Zeitscrift'', Sonderdruck Aus Band 74/1981, pp. 1–6. * Meyer, Helmut, “Der Regierungsantritt Kaiser Majorians,” ''Byzantinische Zeitschrift'' 62 (1969) pp. 5–12. * Stewart I. Oost, “Aëtius and Majorian,” ''Classical Philology'' 59 (1964) pp. 23–29. * Fabrizio Oppedisano, “Maioriano, la plebe e il defensor civitatis,” ''Rivista di filologia e di istruzione classica'' 139 (2011), pp. 422–448. * Ferdinando Angeletti, “La Novella Maiorani IV: Piccolo antico esempio di tutela del patrimonio culturale” in ''Storiadelmondo'' N. 89 (2019) ==External links== {{Commons category-inline|Maiorianus|Majorian}} {{s-start}} {{s-reg}} {{s-bef | before=[[Avitus]]}} {{s-ttl | title=Western [[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]] | years=457–461}} {{s-aft | after=[[Libius Severus]]}} {{s-bef | before= [[Constantinus (consul 457)|Constantinus]]|before2=[[Rufus (consul 457)|Rufus]]}} {{s-ttl | title= [[List of late imperial Roman consuls|Roman consul]] | years=458 |regent1=[[Leo I (emperor)|Leo Augustus]] }} {{s-aft | after= [[Ricimer]]|after2=[[Patricius (Caesar)|Patricius]] }} {{s-end}} {{Roman emperors}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:5th-century births]] [[Category:461 deaths]] [[Category:5th-century murdered monarchs]] [[Category:5th-century Western Roman emperors]] [[Category:5th-century western Roman consuls]] [[Category:Deaths by decapitation]] [[Category:Executed Roman emperors]] [[Category:Julii]] [[Category:Last of the Romans]] [[Category:Magistri militum]] [[Category:Murdered Roman emperors]] [[Category:Valerii]] [[Category:5th-century Romans]] [[Category:5th-century Christians]] [[Category:Natalist politicians]] [[Category:Comites domesticorum]]
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