Editing Maltese language

{{short description|Semitic language spoken mostly in Malta}}
{{redirect|Malti|people with the name|Malti (given name)}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Maltese
| nativename       = ''Malti''
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|mt|ˈmɐːltɪ|}}
| states           = [[Malta]]
| ethnicity        = [[Maltese people|Maltese]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|571,460|2}}
| date             = 2012
| ref              = e27
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2             = [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
| fam3             = [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
| fam4             = [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
| fam5             = [[Arabic]]
| fam6             = [[Maghrebi Arabic|Maghrebi]]
| fam8             = [[Siculo-Arabic|Sicilian]]
| ancestor         = [[Siculo-Arabic|Sicilian Arabic]]
* Old Maltese
| dia1             = [[Cottonera dialect|Cottonera]]
| dia2             = [[Gozitan dialects|Gozitan]]
| dia3             = [[Qormi dialect|Qormi]]
| dia4             = [[Żejtun dialect|Żejtuni]]
| dia5             = [[Maltralian|Australian]]
| dia6             = [[Central Rural Maltese|Central]]
| dia7             = [[Rural West Maltese|Western]]
| dia8             = [[Rural East Maltese|Eastern]]
| dia9             = [[Żurrieq dialect|Żurrieq]]
| dia10            = [[Port Maltese dialect|Port Maltese]]
| dia11            = [[Imgarri dialect|Mġarr]]
| dia12            = [[Xlukkajr dialect|Xlukkajr]]
| dia13            = [[Ghaxaq dialect|Għaxaq]]
| dia14            = [[Pantelleria#History|Qawsra]] {{Extinct}}
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Maltese alphabet]])<br/>[[Maltese Braille]]
| nation           = [[Malta]]<br/>[[European Union]]
| agency           = [[National Council for the Maltese Language]]<br/>{{lang|mt|Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ilsien Malti}}
| iso1             = mt
| iso2             = mlt
| iso3             = mlt
| glotto           = malt1254
| glottorefname    = Maltese
| lingua           = 12-AAC-c
| notice           = IPA
| map              = Idioma maltés.PNG
| image            = 
| imagecaption     = 
| ancestor2        = 
}}
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Keith speaking Maltese.webm|thumb|A Maltese speaker, recorded in Malta]]
'''Maltese''' ({{langx|mt|Malti|links=no}}, also {{lang|mt|L-Ilsien Malti}} or {{lang|mt|Lingwa Maltija}}) is a [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] language derived from [[Siculo-Arabic|late medieval Sicilian Arabic]] with [[Romance languages|Romance]] [[Stratum (linguistics)|superstrata]]. It is the only [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] predominantly written in the [[Latin script]]. It is spoken by the [[Maltese people]] and is the national language of [[Malta]], and is the only [[languages of the European Union|official]] Semitic and Afroasiatic language of the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of Malta |url=https://legislation.mt/eli/const/eng/pdf |website=Leġiżlazzjoni Malta |access-date=3 December 2017 |archive-date=15 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515163529/http://www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lom&itemid=8566&l=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to John L. Hayes, it descended from a [[Maghrebi Arabic|North African dialect]] of Colloquial Arabic which was introduced to Malta when the [[Aghlabid dynasty|Aghlabids]] captured it in 869/870 CE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hayes |first=John |date=2001 |title=THE INTEGRATION OF ROMANCE VOCABULARY IN MALTESE |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44742157 |journal=Romance Philology |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=393}}</ref> It is also said to have descended from Siculo-Arabic, which developed as a [[Maghrebi Arabic]] dialect in the [[Emirate of Sicily]] between 831 and 1091.<ref>{{cite book |title=So who are the 'real' Maltese |quote=The kind of Arabic used in the Maltese language is most likely derived from the language spoken by those that repopulated the island from Sicily in the early second millennium; it is known as Siculo-Arab. The Maltese are mostly descendants of these people. |date=September 13, 2014 |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/So-who-are-the-real-Maltese-.535578 |work=[[Times of Malta]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312063245/http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20140914/local/So-who-are-the-real-Maltese-.535578 |archive-date=2016-03-12}}</ref> As a result of the [[Norman invasion of Malta]] and the subsequent [[history of religion in Malta#Arrival of Christianity|re-Christianization of the islands]], Maltese evolved independently of [[Classical Arabic]] in a gradual process of Latinisation.<ref name="Borg">{{cite book |author1= Albert J. Borg |author2=Marie Azzopardi-Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tYf-fZ-izycC&pg=PR13 |title=Maltese |date=1997 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-02243-9 |page=xiii |quote=In fact, Maltese displays some areal traits typical of Maghrebine Arabic, although over the past 800 years of independent evolution it has drifted apart from Tunisian and Libyan Arabic}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Brincat|2005}}: "Originally Maltese was an Arabic dialect, but it was immediately exposed to Latinisation because the Normans conquered the islands in 1090, while Christianisation, which was complete by 1250, cut off the dialect from contact with Classical Arabic. Consequently Maltese developed on its own, slowly but steadily absorbing new words from Sicilian and Italian according to the needs of the developing community."</ref> It is therefore exceptional as a variety of historical Arabic that has no [[diglossia|diglossic]] relationship with Classical or [[Modern Standard Arabic]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&q=robert+d+hoberman+morphologies+of+Asia+and+Africa+Chapter+13&pg=PA257 |title=Morphologies of Asia and Africa |last=Hoberman |first=Robert D. |date=2007 |publisher=Eisenbrown |isbn=9781575061092 |editor-last=Kaye |editor-first=Alan S. |volume=1 |location=Winona Lake, Indiana |pages=258 |chapter=Chapter 13: Maltese Morphology |quote=Maltese is the chief exception: Classical or Standard Arabic is irrelevant in the Maltese linguistic community and there is no diglossia. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930180345/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257&lpg=PA257&dq=robert+d+hoberman+morphologies+of+Asia+and+Africa+Chapter+13&source=bl&ots=g5l67Yg1jh&sig=xKG6ccrdQbPeSXvT6yrMBZyjEfI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4xanIz8zWAhVJb1AKHTcZCmIQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=robert%20d%20hoberman%20morphologies%20of%20Asia%20and%20Africa%20Chapter%2013&f=false |archive-date=2017-09-30}}</ref> Maltese is thus [[List of ISO 639-1 codes|classified]] separately from the 30 varieties constituting the modern Arabic macrolanguage. Maltese is also distinguished from Arabic and other Semitic languages since its [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] has been deeply influenced by [[Romance languages]], namely [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&q=robert+d+hoberman+morphologies+of+Asia+and+Africa+Chapter+13&pg=PA257 |title=Morphologies of Asia and Africa |last=Hoberman |first=Robert D. |date=2007 |publisher=Eisenbrown |isbn=9781575061092 |editor-last=Kaye |editor-first=Alan S. |location=Winona Lake, Indiana |pages=257–258 |chapter=Chapter 13: Maltese Morphology |quote=yet it is in its morphology that Maltese also shows the most elaborate and deeply embedded influence from the Romance languages, Sicilian and Italian, with which it has long been in intimate contact.... As a result Maltese is unique and different from Arabic and other Semitic languages. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930180345/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257&lpg=PA257&dq=robert+d+hoberman+morphologies+of+Asia+and+Africa+Chapter+13&source=bl&ots=g5l67Yg1jh&sig=xKG6ccrdQbPeSXvT6yrMBZyjEfI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4xanIz8zWAhVJb1AKHTcZCmIQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=robert%20d%20hoberman%20morphologies%20of%20Asia%20and%20Africa%20Chapter%2013&f=false |archive-date=2017-09-30}}</ref>

The original Arabic base comprises around one-third of the Maltese vocabulary, especially words that denote basic ideas and the [[function words]],<ref>{{harvp|Brincat|2005}}: "An analysis of the etymology of the 41,000 words in Aquilina's Maltese-English Dictionary shows that 32.41% are of Arabic origin, 52.46% are from Sicilian and Italian, and 6.12% are from English. Although nowadays we know that all languages are mixed to varying degrees, this is quite an unusual formula. However, the words derived from Arabic are more frequent because they denote the basic ideas and include the function words."</ref> but about half of the vocabulary is derived from standard Italian and Sicilian;{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}} and English words make up between 6% and 20% of the vocabulary.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> A 2016 study shows that, in terms of basic everyday language, speakers of Maltese are able to understand less than a third of what is said to them in [[Tunisian Arabic]] and [[Libyan Arabic]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study |quote=To summarise our findings, we might observe that when it comes to the most basic everyday language, as reflected in our data sets, speakers of Maltese are able to understand less than a third of what is being said to them in either Tunisian or Benghazi Libyan Arabic. |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1 |access-date=23 September 2017 |page=1 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> which are Maghrebi Arabic dialects related to Siculo-Arabic,<ref>{{cite book |title=Maltese |last1=Borg |first1=Albert J. |last2=Azzopardi-Alexander |first2=Marie |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=0-415-02243-6}}</ref> whereas speakers of Tunisian Arabic and Libyan Arabic are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study |quote=Speakers of Tunisian and Libyan Arabic are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese. |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1 |access-date=23 September 2017 |page=1 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> This reported level of [[mutual intelligibility#Asymmetric intelligibility|asymmetric intelligibility]] is considerably lower than the [[mutual intelligibility]] found between mainstream varieties of Arabic.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study |quote=In comparison, speakers of Libyan Arabic and speakers of Tunisian Arabic understand about two-thirds of what is being said to them. |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1 |access-date=23 September 2017 |page=1 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Maltese has always been written in the [[Latin script]], the earliest surviving example dating from the [[late Middle Ages]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cantilena |url=https://vassallohistory.wordpress.com/history-of-the-maltese-language/the-cantilena |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208234852/https://vassallohistory.wordpress.com/history-of-the-maltese-language/the-cantilena/ |archive-date=2015-12-08 |date=2013-10-19}}</ref> It is the only standardised Semitic language written exclusively in the Latin script.<ref>{{cite book |title=Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ilsien Malti |quote=Fundamentally, Maltese is a Semitic tongue, the same as Arabic, Aramaic, Hebrew, Phoenician, Carthaginian and Ethiopian. However, unlike other Semitic languages, Maltese is written in the Latin alphabet, but with the addition of special characters to accommodate certain Semitic sounds. Nowadays, however, there is much in the Maltese language today that is not Semitic, due to the immeasurable Romantic influence from our succession of (Southern) European rulers through the ages. |url=http://www.kunsilltalmalti.gov.mt/eng |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106040314/http://www.kunsilltalmalti.gov.mt/eng |archive-date=2014-01-06}}</ref>

==History==
{{See also|History of Malta}}
[[File:Il-Kantilena.png|thumb|upright=0.9|Oldest Maltese text: {{lang|it|[[Il-Kantilena]]}} by [[Pietru Caxaro]], 15th&nbsp;century]]
The origins of the Maltese language are attributed to the arrival, early in the 11th century, of settlers from neighbouring Sicily, where Siculo-Arabic was spoken, reversing the [[Fatimid Caliphate]]'s conquest of the island at the end of the 9th century.<ref name="harvp|Brincat|2005">{{harvp|Brincat|2005}}</ref> This claim has been corroborated by genetic studies, which show that contemporary [[Maltese people]] share common ancestry with Sicilians and [[Calabria|Calabrians]], with little genetic input from North Africa and the Levant.<ref>{{cite news |last=Felice |first=A. E. |date=2007-08-05 |title=Genetic origin of contemporary Maltese |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/genetic-origin-of-contemporary-maltese.9032 |newspaper=[[Times of Malta]] |df=dmy-all |access-date=2019-11-09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109022535/https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/genetic-origin-of-contemporary-maltese.9032 |archive-date=2019-11-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Capelli |first=C. |display-authors=etal |date=Mar 2006 |title=Population structure in the Mediterranean basin: a Y chromosome perspective |journal=[[Ann. Hum. Genet.]] |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=207–225 |doi=10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00224.x |pmid=16626331 |hdl=2108/37090 |s2cid=25536759 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

The [[Norman invasion of Malta|Norman conquest in 1091]], followed by the [[Islam in Malta#Medieval Period: 1091–1224|expulsion of the Muslims]], complete by 1249, permanently isolated the vernacular from its Arabic source, creating the conditions for its evolution into a distinct language.<ref name="harvp|Brincat|2005"/> In contrast to Sicily, where Siculo-Arabic became extinct and was replaced by [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], the vernacular in Malta continued to develop alongside Italian, eventually replacing it as official language in 1934, alongside English.<ref name="harvp|Brincat|2005"/> The first written reference to the Maltese language is in a will of 1436, where it is called {{lang|mt|lingua maltensi}}. The oldest known document in Maltese, {{lang|it|[[Il-Kantilena]]}} ({{lang|mt|Xidew il-Qada}}) by [[Pietru Caxaro]], dates from the 15th century.<ref name="Academy"/>

The earliest known Maltese dictionary was a 16th-century manuscript entitled "Maltese-Italiano"; it was included in the {{lang|it|Biblioteca Maltese}} of Mifsud in 1764, but is now lost.<ref name=agius/> A list of Maltese words was included in both the {{lang|la|Thesaurus Polyglottus}} (1603) and {{lang|la|Propugnaculum Europae}} (1606) of [[Hieronymus Megiser]], who had visited Malta in 1588–1589; [[Domenico Magri]] gave the etymologies of some Maltese words in his {{lang|la|Hierolexicon, sive sacrum dictionarium}} (1677).<ref name="Academy"/>

An early manuscript dictionary, {{lang|it|Dizionario Italiano e Maltese}}, was discovered in the {{lang|it|[[Biblioteca Vallicelliana]]|italic=no}} in Rome in the 1980s, together with a grammar, the {{lang|it|Regole per la Lingua Maltese}}, attributed to a French knight named Thezan.<ref name=agius>{{cite journal |last=Agius |first=D. A. |date=1990 |title=Reviewed Work: A Contribution to Arabic Lexical Dialectology by Al-Miklem Malti |journal=Bull. Br. Soc. Middle East. Stud. |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=171–180 |doi=10.1080/13530199008705515 |jstor=194709}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Cassola |first=A. |date=June 2012 |title=Italo-Maltese relations (ca. 1150–1936): people, culture, literature, language |url=https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/23994 |journal=Mediterr. Rev. |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |issn=2005-0836 |access-date=2021-08-21 |archive-date=2021-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821001150/https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/23994 |url-status=live }}</ref> The first systematic lexicon is that of [[Giovanni Pietro Francesco Agius de Soldanis]], who also wrote the first systematic grammar of the language and proposed a standard [[orthography]].<ref name=agius/>

The language declined heavily under the [[Crown Colony of Malta|British administration of Malta]], declining in use compared to English. Following the independence of Malta, language reforms under the [[Dom Mintoff]] government saw the language gain an increase in use, and today is used regularly in Malta.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/28346|title=Maltese colonial identity : Latin Mediterranean or British Empire?|first=Henry|last=Frendo|date=21 August 1988|publisher=Mireva Publications|isbn=9781870579018|via=www.um.edu.mt}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Self-contradictory|othersection|date=February 2024}}
''[[Ethnologue]]'' reports a total of {{sigfig|533,280|2}} Maltese speakers: {{sigfig|454,000|2}} in Malta and {{sigfig|79,280|2}} in the [[Emigration from Malta|diaspora]]. Most speakers also use English,<ref name=e27/> usually the local dialect known as [[Maltese English]].

The largest diaspora community of Maltese speakers is [[Maltese Australians|in Australia]], with 36,000 speakers reported in 2006 (down from 45,000 in 1996, and expected to decline further).<ref>"As at the 2006 Australian Census, the number of Australians speaking Maltese at home was 36,514, compared to 41,250 in 2001 and 45,243 in 1996. The 2006 figures represent a drop of 19.29% when compared with the 1996 figures. Given that many of those who speak Maltese at home are over the age of 60, the number of Maltese speakers will invariably go for a nosedive by 2016." Joseph Carmel Chetcuti, [http://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2010-03-02/opinions/why-its-time-to-bury-the-maltese-language-in-australia-271078/ Why It's time to bury the Maltese language in Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113165841/http://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2010-03-02/opinions/why-its-time-to-bury-the-maltese-language-in-australia-271078/ |date=2018-11-13 }}, Malta Independent, 2 March 2010.</ref>

The Maltese linguistic community in [[Tunisia]] originated in the 18th century. Numbering several thousand in the 19th century, it was reported to be only 100 to 200 people as of 2017.<ref>Nigel Mifsud, [https://www.tvm.com.mt/en/news/maltas-ambassador-meets-maltese-who-have-lived-their-whole-life-in-tunisia/ Malta's Ambassador meets Maltese who have lived their whole life in Tunisia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113165700/https://www.tvm.com.mt/en/news/maltas-ambassador-meets-maltese-who-have-lived-their-whole-life-in-tunisia/ |date=2018-11-13 }}, TVM, 13 November 2017.</ref>

==Classification==
Maltese is descended from Siculo-Arabic, a Semitic language within the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic family]].<ref>[[Merritt Ruhlen]]. 1991. ''A Guide to the World's Languages, Volume 1: Classification.'' Stanford.<br />David Dalby. 2000. ''The Linguasphere Register of the World's Languages and Speech Communities.'' Linguasphere Observatory.<br/>Gordon, Raymond G., Jr., ed. 2005. ''Ethnologue: Languages of the World''. 15th ed. Summer Institute of Linguistics.<br/>Alan S. Kaye & Judith Rosenhouse. 1997. "Arabic Dialects and Maltese", ''The Semitic Languages''. Ed. Robert Hetzron. [[Routledge]]. Pages 263–311.</ref> In the course of its [[History of Malta|history]], Maltese has been influenced by Sicilian, Italian, to a lesser extent by [[Norman language|Norman]], and, more recently, English. Today, the core vocabulary (including both the most commonly used vocabulary and [[function word]]s) is Semitic, with a large number of [[loanword]]s.{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}} Due to the Sicilian influence on Siculo-Arabic, Maltese has many language contact features and is most commonly described as a language with a large number of loanwords.{{sfnp|Borg|1997}}

Maltese has historically been classified in various ways, with some claiming that it was derived from ancient [[Punic language|Punic]] (another Semitic language) instead of Siculo-Arabic,<ref name="Academy">{{cite web |title=The Maltese Language Academy |url=https://akkademjatalmalti.org/ilsien-malti/l-istorja-tieghu/ |author=L-Akkademja tal-Malti |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923054701/http://www.akkademjatalmalti.com/page.asp?p=9023 |archive-date=2015-09-23}}</ref>{{sfnp|Vella|2004|p=263}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Punic-language |title=Punic language |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |year=2013 |access-date=25 June 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615054045/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/483501/Punic-language |archive-date=15 June 2013}}</ref> and others claiming it is one of the [[Berber languages]] (another language family within Afroasiatic).<ref name="Academy" /> Less plausibly, [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] classified it as [[regional Italian]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRGrRy7S750C&pg=PA80 |title=Malta |first=Sean |last=Sheehan |date=12 January 2017 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |access-date=12 January 2017 |via=Google Books |isbn=9780761409939}}</ref>

==Dialects==
{{Main|Żejtun dialect|Qormi dialect|Cottonera dialect|Maltralian}}Urban varieties of Maltese are closer to Standard Maltese than rural varieties,<ref name="isser">Isserlin. Studies in Islamic History and Civilization. BRILL 1986, {{ISBN|965-264-014-X}}</ref> which have some characteristics that distinguish them from Standard Maltese.
They tend to show some archaic features<ref name="isser" /> such as the realisation of {{angle bracket|kh}} and {{angle bracket|gh}} and the [[imāla]] of Arabic ā into ē (or ī especially in Gozo), considered archaic because they are reminiscent of 15th-century transcriptions of this sound.<ref name="isser" /> Another archaic feature is the realisation of Standard Maltese ā as ō in rural dialects.<ref name="isser" />
There is also a tendency to diphthongise simple vowels, e.g., ū becomes eo or eu.<ref name="isser" />
Rural dialects also tend to employ more Semitic roots and [[broken plurals]] than Standard Maltese.<ref name="isser" /> In general, rural Maltese is less distant from its Siculo-Arabic ancestor than is Standard Maltese.<ref name="isser" />

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Consonant phonemes{{sfnp|Hume|1996|p=165}}{{sfnp|Borg|1997|p=248}}
!
! colspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br/>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|m}}
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|n}}
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
|-
! [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|p}}    || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|b}}
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|t̪|t}} || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|d̪|d}}
| style="border-right: none;" |                   || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|k}}    || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|ɡ}}
| style="border-right: none;" |                   || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|ʔ}}    || style="border-left: none;" |
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| style="border-right: none;" |                  || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|t͡s}} || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|d͡z}}
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
| style="border-right: none;" |                  || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |                  || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |                  || style="border-left: none;" |
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|f}} || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|v}}
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|s}} || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|z}}
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|ʃ}} || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|ʒ}}
| style="border-right: none;" |                || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" | {{IPA link|ħ}} || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |                || style="border-left: none;" |
|-
! [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|r}}
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|l}}
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|j}}
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" | {{IPA link|w}}
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |      || style="border-left: none;" |
|}

[[File:Silta minn Vassalli.jpg|thumb|[[Mikiel Anton Vassalli|Vassalli]]'s ''Storja tas-Sultân Ċiru'' (1831), is an example of Maltese orthography in the 19th century, before the later standardisation introduced in 1924. Note the similarities with the various varieties of romanised Arabic.]]
Voiceless stops are only lightly aspirated and voiced stops are fully voiced. Voicing is carried over from the last segment in [[obstruent]] [[consonant cluster|clusters]]; thus, two- and three-obstruent clusters are either voiceless or voiced throughout, e.g. {{IPA|/niktbu/}} is realised {{IPA|[ˈniɡdbu]}} "we write" (similar assimilation phenomena occur in languages like French or Czech). Maltese has [[final-obstruent devoicing]] of voiced obstruents and word-final voiceless stops have [[no audible release]], making voiceless–voiced pairs phonetically indistinguishable in word-final position.{{sfnp|Borg|1997|pp=249–250}}

[[Gemination]] is distinctive word-medially and word-finally in Maltese. The distinction is most rigid [[intervocalic consonant|intervocalically]] after a stressed vowel. Stressed, word-final [[Syllable#open syllable|closed syllables]] with short vowels end in a long consonant, and those with a long vowel in a single consonant; the only exception is where historic {{IPA|*ʕ}} and {{IPA|*ɣ}} meant the [[compensatory lengthening]] of the succeeding vowel. Some speakers have lost length distinction in clusters.{{sfnp|Borg|1997|pp=251–252}}

The two nasals {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} assimilate for [[place of articulation]] in clusters.{{sfnp|Borg|1997|p=255}} {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are usually [[dental stop|dental]], whereas {{IPA|/t͡s d͡z s z n r l/}} are all alveolar. {{IPA|/t͡s d͡z/}} are found mostly in words of Italian origin, retaining length (if not word-initial).{{sfnp|Borg|1997|p=254}} {{IPA|/d͡z/}} and {{IPA|/ʒ/}} are only found in loanwords, e.g. {{IPA|/ɡad͡zd͡zɛtta/}} "newspaper" and {{IPA|/tɛlɛˈviʒin/}} "television".{{sfnp|Borg|1997|p=247}} The pharyngeal fricative {{IPA|/ħ/}} is velar ({{IPAblink|x}}), uvular ({{IPAblink|χ}}), or glottal ({{IPAblink|h}}) for some speakers.{{sfnp|Borg|1997|p=260}}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Vowel phonemes
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |[[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" |[[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" |[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!{{small|short}}
!{{small|long}}
!{{small|short}}
!{{small|long}}
!{{small|short}}
!{{small|long}}
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|
|{{IPA link|iː}}
|
|
|
|
|-
![[Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
|{{IPA link|ɪ}}
|{{IPA link|ɪː}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ʊ}}
|{{IPA link|ʊː}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}}
|{{IPA link|ɛː}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɔ}}
|{{IPA link|ɔː}}
|-
![[Near-open vowel|Near-open]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɐ}}
|{{IPA link|ɐː}}
|
|
|-
![[Diphthong|Diphthongs]]
| colspan="6" |{{IPA|/ɐɪ/ /ɐʊ/ /ɛɪ/ /ɛʊ/ /ɪʊ/ /ɔɪ/ /ɔʊ/}}
|}
Maltese has five short vowels, {{IPA|/ɐ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/}}, written ''a e i o u;'' six long vowels, {{IPA|/ɐː ɛː ɪː iː ɔː ʊː/}}, written ''a, e, ie, i, o, u,'' all of which (with the exception of ''ie'' {{IPA|/ɪː/}}) can be known to represent long vowels in writing only if they are followed by an orthographic ''għ'' or ''h'' (otherwise, one needs to know the pronunciation; e.g. ''nar'' (fire) is pronounced {{IPA|/nɐːr/}}); and seven [[diphthong]]s, {{IPA|/ɐɪ ɐʊ ɛɪ ɛʊ ɪʊ ɔɪ ɔʊ/}}, written ''aj'' or ''għi, aw'' or ''għu, ej'' or ''għi, ew, iw, oj,'' and ''ow'' or ''għu.''<ref name="Borg" />

===Historical phonology===
The Maltese consonant system has undergone several changes when compared to Classical Arabic:<ref>{{cite book| last=Puech |first=Gilbert |date=2017 |title= The Languages of Malta Chapter 2: Loss of emphatic and guttural consonants: From medieval to contemporary Maltese |url=https://www.academia.edu/82196652 |publisher=Language Science Press |isbn=978-3-96110-070-5}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="3" | Classical Arabic
!Letter
| {{lang|ar|ت|rtl=yes}} || {{lang|ar|ط|rtl=yes}} || {{lang|ar|ث|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|د|rtl=yes}} || {{lang|ar|ض|rtl=yes}} || {{lang|ar|ذ|rtl=yes}} || {{lang|ar|ظ|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|س|rtl=yes}} || {{lang|ar|ص|rtl=yes}}||{{lang|ar|ح|rtl=yes}} || {{lang|ar|خ|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|ع|rtl=yes}} || {{lang|ar|غ|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|ء‎|rtl=yes}}
|{{lang|ar|ق|rtl=yes}}
|{{lang|ar|ه|rtl=yes}}
|-
!Romanization
|t
|ṭ
|t̮
|d
|ḍ
|d̮
|ẓ
|s
|ṣ
|ḥ
|ḫ
|ʻ
|ğ
|ʼ
|q
|h
|-
!Pronunciation
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|{{IPA|/tˤ/}}
|{{IPA|/θ/}}
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|{{IPA|/dˤ/}}
|{{IPA|/ð/}}
|{{IPA|/ðˤ/}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
|{{IPA|/sˤ/}}
|{{IPA|/ħ/}}
|{{IPA|/x~χ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʕ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɣ~ʁ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔ/}}
|{{IPA|/q/}}
|{{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |Maltese
!Letter
| colspan="3" |T t
| colspan="4" |D d
| colspan="2" |S s
| colspan="2" |Ħ ħ
| colspan="2" |GĦ għ
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: #ccc;" |
|Q q
|H h
|-
!Pronunciation
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|/t/}}
| colspan="4" | {{IPA|/d/}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ħ/}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʕ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔ/}}
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |
|}
While many of these changes (chiefly the merger of [[Emphatic consonant|emphatic consonants]] with their non-[[Pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] counterparts) are the result of European influence, others (such as the merger of {{lang|ar|ق|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/q/}} into {{IPA|/ʔ/}}) are found in other [[varieties of Arabic]], and may be either independent developments or features of the [[Sicilian Arabic]] dialect which Maltese descends from.

==Orthography==

===Alphabet===
{{MOS|section|reason=punctuation and text styling in the table|date=October 2022}}
{{Main|Maltese alphabet|Maltese Braille}}
The modern system of Maltese orthography was introduced in 1924.<ref name="aurp">{{cite book |last=Auroux |first=Sylvain |title=History of the language sciences: an international handbook on the evolution of the study of language from the beginnings to the present| year=2000 |publisher=New York : Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-11-011103-3}}</ref>
Below is the Maltese alphabet, with [[help:IPA|IPA]] symbols and approximate English pronunciation:

{|class="wikitable"
!Letter !! Name !!IPA (letter name) !! Maltese example !! IPA (orthographically representing) !! Approximate English pronunciation
|-
|''' A a'''||a ||{{IPA|aː}}|| {{lang|mt|aħmar}} {{gloss|red}}||{{IPA|ɐ, aː, æː}}|| similar to 'u' in n'''u'''t in [[Received Pronunciation|RP]]; {{IPA|[aː]}} similar to f'''a'''ther in Irish English; {{IPA|[æː]}} similar to cat in American English, in some dialects it may be {{IPA|[ɒː]}} in some locations as in wh'''a'''t in some American English Dialects
|-
|''' B b '''|| be || {{IPA|beː}} || {{lang|mt|baħar}} {{gloss|sea}}||{{IPA|b}}||'''b'''ar, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to {{IPA|[p]}}.
|-
|''' Ċ ċ '''|| ċe ||{{IPA|t͡ʃeː}}|| {{lang|mt|ċavetta}} {{gloss|key}} ||{{IPA|t͡ʃ}}||'''ch'''urch (note: undotted 'c' has been replaced by 'k', so when 'c' does appear, it is to be spoken the same way as 'ċ')
|-
|''' D d '''||de ||{{IPA|deː}}|| {{lang|mt|dar}} {{gloss|home}} ||{{IPA|d}}||'''d'''ay, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to {{IPA|[t]}}.
|-
|''' E e '''|| e || {{IPA|eː}}|| {{lang|mt|erbgħa}} {{gloss|four}}||{{IPA|eː, ɛ, øː, ə}} || {{IPA|[e:]}} somewhat like f'''a'''ce in Northern England English {{IPA|[ɛ]}} '''e'''nd when short, it is often changed to {{IPA|[øː, œ]}} when following and more often when followed by a ''w'', when at the end in an unstressed syllable it is pronounced as schwa {{IPA|[ə, Vᵊ]}} comm'''a'''
|-
|''' F f '''|| effe ||{{IPA|ɛf(ː)ᵊ}}|| {{lang|mt|faħam}} {{gloss|coal}}||{{IPA|f}}||'''f'''ar
|-
|''' Ġ ġ '''|| ġe ||{{IPA|d͡ʒøː}}|| {{lang|mt|ġar}} {{gloss|neighbour}}||{{IPA|d͡ʒ}}||'''g'''em, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to {{IPA|[tʃ]}}.
|-
|''' G g '''||ge || {{IPA|geː}} || {{lang|mt|gawwija}} {{gloss|seagull}}||{{IPA|ɡ}}||'''g'''ame, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to {{IPA|[k]}}.
|-
|''' GĦ għ '''||[[ayin|ajn]] || {{IPA|ajn, æːn}} || {{lang|mt|għasfur}} {{gloss|bird}} ||{{IPA|(ˤ)ː}}, {{IPA|ħː}}||has the effect of lengthening and [[pharyngealization|pharyngealising]] associated vowels (''għi'' and ''għu'' are {{IPA|[i̞(ˤ)j]}} (may be transcribed as {{IPA|[ə(ˤ)j]}}) and {{IPA|[oˤ]}}). When found at the end of a word or immediately before 'h' it has the sound of a double 'ħ' (see below).
|-
|''' H h '''|| akka ||{{IPA|ak(ː)ɐ}} || {{lang|mt|hu}} {{gloss|he}} || ||not pronounced unless it is at the end of a word (such as ktibnih), even after adding the negating suffix (such as ma ktibnihx) or at the end of a verb even after adding pronomial suffixes (such as xebbaht) in which case it has the sound of 'ħ' (except for in hieni)
|-
|''' Ħ ħ '''|| ħe ||{{IPA|ħeː, heː, xe:}}|| {{lang|mt|ħanut}} {{gloss|shop}} ||{{IPA|ħ}}||no English equivalent; sounds similar to {{IPA|/h/}} but is articulated with a lowered [[larynx]].
|-
|''' I i '''||i ||{{IPA|iː}}|| {{lang|mt|ikel}} {{gloss|food}} ||{{IPA|i̞ː, iː, ɪ}}||{{IPA|[i̞ː]}} b'''i'''te (the way commonly realized in Irish English or {{IPA|[iː]}} in other words as b'''ee'''t but more forward) and when short as {{IPA|[ɪ]}} b'''i'''t, occasionally 'i' is used to display il-vokali tal-leħen (the vowel of the voice) as in words like ''l-iskola'' or ''l-iMdina'', in this case it takes the schwa sound.
|-
|''' IE ie '''|| ie ||{{IPA|iːᵊ, ɛː}}|| {{lang|mt|ieqaf}} {{gloss|stop}} ||{{IPA|ɛː, iːᵊ}}|| sounds similar to y'''ie'''ld or RP n'''ear''', or opened up slightly towards b'''e'''d or RP squ'''are'''
|-
|''' J j '''||je ||{{IPA|jə, jæ, jɛ}}|| {{lang|mt|jum}} {{gloss|day}} ||{{IPA|j}}||'''y'''ard
|-
|''' K k '''|| ke ||{{IPA|kə, kæ, kɛ}}|| {{lang|mt|kelb}} {{gloss|dog}} ||{{IPA|k}}||'''k'''ettle
|-
|''' L l '''|| elle ||{{IPA|ɛl(ː)ᵊ}}|| {{lang|mt|libsa}} {{gloss|dress}} ||{{IPA|l}}||'''l'''ine
|-
|''' M m '''|| emme ||{{IPA|ɛm(ː)ᵊ}}|| {{lang|mt|mara}} {{gloss|woman}} || {{IPA|m}} || '''m'''arch
|-
|''' N n '''|| enne ||{{IPA|ɛn(ː)ᵊ}}|| {{lang|mt|nanna}} {{gloss|granny}} ||{{IPA|n}}||'''n'''ext
|-
|''' O o '''||o ||{{IPA|oː}}|| {{lang|mt|ors}} {{gloss|bear}} ||{{IPA|o, ɔ, ɒ}} ||{{IPA|[o]}} as in somewhere between similar to Scottish English o in n'''o''' {{IPA|[ɔ]}} like 'aw' in [[Received Pronunciation|RP]] l'''aw''', but short or {{IPA|[ɒ]}} as in w'''a'''ter in some American dialects.
|-
|''' P p '''||pe ||{{IPA|peː, pə}}|| {{lang|mt|paġna}} {{gloss|page, sheet}} ||{{IPA|p}}||'''p'''art
|-
|''' Q q '''||qe ||{{IPA|ʔø, ʔ(ʷ)ɛ, ʔ(ʷ)æ, ʔ(ʷ)ə}}|| {{lang|mt|qattus}} {{gloss|cat}} ||{{IPA|ʔ}}||glottal stop, found in the Cockney English pronunciation of "bo'''tt'''le" or the phrase "uh-oh" {{IPA|/ʔʌʔoʊ/}}.
|-
|''' R r '''||erre ||{{IPA|ɛɹ(ː)ᵊ, æɹ(:)ᵊ, ɚ(ː)ᵊ}} or {{IPA|ɛr(ː)ᵊ, ær(:)ᵊ, ər(ː)ᵊ}}|| {{lang|mt|re}} {{gloss|king}} ||{{IPA|r, ɹ}} ||{{IPA|[r]}} as in General American English bu'''tt'''er, or [[International Phonetic Alphabet|ɹ]] '''r'''oad (r realization changes depending on dialect or location in the word.)
|-
|''' S s '''||esse ||{{IPA|ɛs(ː)ᵊ}}|| {{lang|mt|[[sliem]]}} {{gloss|peace}} ||{{IPA|s}}||'''s'''and
|-
|''' T t '''||te ||{{IPA|teː}}|| {{lang|mt|tieqa}} {{gloss|window}} ||{{IPA|t}}||'''t'''ired
|-
|''' U u '''||u ||{{IPA|uː, ʉ}}|| {{lang|mt|uviera}} {{gloss|egg cup}} || {{IPA|u, ʉ, ʊ}} || {{IPA|[u]}} as in General American English b'''oo'''t or in some dialects it may be realized as {{IPA|[ʉ]}} as in some American English realizations of st'''u'''dent, short ''u'' is {{IPA|[ʊ]}} p'''u'''t
|-
|''' V v '''||ve ||{{IPA|vøː, veː, və}}|| {{lang|mt|vjola}} {{gloss|violet}} ||{{IPA|v}}||'''v'''ast, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to {{IPA|[f]}}.
|-
|''' W w '''||ve doppja /u doppja/we ||{{IPA|vedɒp(ː)jɐ, uːdɒp(ː)jɐ, wøː}}|| {{lang|mt|widna}} {{gloss|ear}} ||{{IPA|w}}||'''w'''est
|-
|''' X x '''||xe || {{IPA|ʃə, ʃøː}}|| {{lang|mt|xadina}} {{gloss|monkey}} ||{{IPA|ʃ / ʒ}}||'''sh'''ade, sometimes as mea'''s'''ure; when doubled the sound is elongated, as in "Ca'''sh sh'''in" vs. "Ca'''sh''' in".
|-
|''' Ż ż '''||że/żeta ||{{IPA|zə, zø:, ze:t(ɐ)}}|| {{lang|mt|żarbun}} {{gloss|shoe}} ||{{IPA|z}}||ma'''z'''e, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to {{IPA|[s]}}.
|-
|''' Z z '''||ze ||{{IPA|t͡sə, t͡søː, t͡seːt(ɐ)}}|| {{lang|mt|zalza}} {{gloss|sauce}} ||{{IPA|t͡s / d͡z}}||pi'''zz'''a
|-
|}

Final vowels with grave accents (à, è, ì, ò, ù) are also found in some Maltese words of Italian origin, such as {{lang|mt|libertà}} {{gloss|freedom}}, {{lang|mt|sigurtà}} (old Italian: {{lang|it|sicurtà}} {{gloss|security}}), or {{lang|mt|soċjetà}} (Italian: {{lang|it|società}} {{gloss|society}}).

The official rules governing the structure of the Maltese language are recorded in the official guidebook {{lang|mt|Tagħrif fuq il-Kitba Maltija}} (English: ''Knowledge on Writing in Maltese'') issued by the {{lang|mt|Akkademja tal-Malti}} (Academy of the Maltese language). The first edition of this book was printed in 1924 by the Maltese government's printing press. The rules were further expanded in the 1984 book, {{lang|mt|iż-Żieda mat-Tagħrif}}, which focused mainly on the increasing influence of Romance and English words. In 1992 the academy issued the {{lang|mt|Aġġornament tat-Tagħrif fuq il-Kitba Maltija}}, which updated the previous works.<ref>{{cite book |title=Loan Verbs in Maltese: A Descriptive and Comparative Study |last=Mifsud |first=Manwel |year=1995 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-10091-6 |pages=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fO5kE8BKf7cC}}</ref>

The [[National Council for the Maltese Language]] (KNM) is the main regulator of the Maltese language (see Maltese Language Act, below). However, the academy's orthography rules are still valid and official.

===Written Maltese===
Since Maltese evolved after the [[Italo-Normans]] ended Arab rule of the islands, a written form of the language was not developed for a long time after the Arabs' expulsion in the middle of the thirteenth century. Under the rule of the [[Knights Hospitaller]], both French and Italian were used for official documents and correspondence. During the [[Crown Colony of Malta|British colonial period]], the use of English was encouraged through education, with Italian being regarded as the next-most important language.

In the late 18th century and throughout the 19th century, philologists and academics such as [[Mikiel Anton Vassalli]] made a concerted effort to standardise written Maltese. Many examples of written Maltese exist from before this period, always in the Latin alphabet, ''[[Il-Kantilena]]'' from the 15th century being the earliest example of written Maltese. In 1934, Maltese was recognised as an official language.

===Samples===
Maltese has both [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] vocabulary and words derived from [[Romance languages]], primarily [[Italian language|Italian]]. Words such as {{lang|mt|tweġiba}} (Arabic origin) and {{lang|mt|risposta}} (Italian origin) have the same meaning ("answer") but are both used in Maltese, rather like "answer" and "response" in English. Below are two versions of the same translations, one with vocabulary mostly derived from Semitic root words and the other using Romance [[loanword]]s (from the ''[http://europa.eu/eu-law/decision-making/treaties/pdf/treaty_establishing_a_constitution_for_europe/treaty_establishing_a_constitution_for_europe_mt.pdf Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229065750/http://europa.eu/eu-law/decision-making/treaties/pdf/treaty_establishing_a_constitution_for_europe/treaty_establishing_a_constitution_for_europe_mt.pdf |date=2015-12-29 }}'', see [https://op.europa.eu/mt/publication-detail/-/publication/3c32722f-0136-4d8f-a03e-bfaf70d16349 p. 17] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804014022/https://op.europa.eu/mt/publication-detail/-/publication/3c32722f-0136-4d8f-a03e-bfaf70d16349 |date=2020-08-04 }}):

{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Maltese (Semitic vocabulary)
!Maltese (Romance vocabulary)
|-
|
The Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail.
|{{lang|mt|L-Għaqda hija mibnija fuq is-siwi ta' għadir għall-ġieħ il-bniedem, ta' ħelsien, ta' għażil il-ġemgħa, ta' ndaqs bejn il-ġnus, tas-saltna tad-dritt{{efn|{{wikt-lang|mt|dritt}} (pl. {{wikt-lang|mt|drittijiet}}) is derived from Sicilian {{wikt-lang|scn|drittu}} (right).}} u tal-għadir għall-ħaqq tal-bniedem, wkoll il-ħaqq ta' wħud li huma f'minoranzi.{{efn|{{wikt-lang|mt|minoranza}} (pl. {{wikt-lang|mt|minoranzi}}) is derived from Italian {{wikt-lang|it|minoranza}} (minority).}} Dan is-siwi huwa mqassam bejn il-Pajjiżi{{efn|{{wikt-lang|mt|pajjiż}} (pl. {{wikt-lang|mt|pajjiżi}}) is derived from Sicilian {{wikt-lang|scn|pajisi}} (country).}} Msieħba, f'nies li tħaddan il-kotrija, li ma tgħejjibx, li ddann, li tgħaqqad u li tiżen indaqs in-nisa u l-irġiel.}}
|
{{lang|mt|L-Unjoni hija bbażata fuq il-valuri tar-rispett għad-dinjità tal-bniedem, il-libertà, id-demokrazija, l-ugwaljanza, l-istat tad-dritt u r-rispett għad-drittijiet tal-bniedem, inklużi d-drittijiet ta' persuni li jagħmlu parti minn minoranzi. Dawn il-valuri huma komuni għall-Istati Membri f'soċjetà fejn jipprevalu l-pluraliżmu, in-non-diskriminazzjoni, it-tolleranza, il-ġustizzja, is-solidarjetà u l-ugwaljanza bejn in-nisa u l-irġiel.}}
|}
Below is the [[Lord's Prayer]] in Maltese compared to other Semitic languages ([[Arabic]] and [[Syriac language|Syriac]]) with [[cognates]] highlighted:
{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Maltese<ref>{{Cite web |title=Missierna : Malta |url=https://www.wordproject.org/bibles/resources/our_father/m/Missierna%20_%20Malta.html |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=www.wordproject.org |archive-date=2023-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825162154/https://www.wordproject.org/bibles/resources/our_father/m/Missierna%20_%20Malta.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
!Standard Arabic (Romanised)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arabic Prayer-The Lord's Prayer |url=https://www.lords-prayer-words.com/lords_prayer_arabic.html |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=www.lords-prayer-words.com |archive-date=2023-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825162154/https://www.lords-prayer-words.com/lords_prayer_arabic.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
!Syriac (Romanised)<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Lord's Prayer |url=https://syriacorthodoxresources.org/Liturgy/Common/Abundbashmayo.html |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=syriacorthodoxresources.org |archive-date=2023-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610084344/https://syriacorthodoxresources.org/Liturgy/Common/Abundbashmayo.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|
Our Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come, thy will be done, on earth, as it is in heaven.

Give us this day our daily bread and forgive us our trespasses as we

forgive those who trespass against us;

and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.

Amen
| lang="mt" style="font-style: italic;" | Missier'''na''', '''li''' inti '''fis-smewwiet''', '''jitqaddes ismek''', tiġi saltnatek, '''ikun''' li trid int, kif '''fis-sema''', hekkda f'''l-art'''.
'''''Ħobżna''' ta' kuljum '''agħtina''' '''llum'''. '''Aħfrilna''' '''dnubietna''', bħal'''ma''' '''naħfru''' lil min hu ħati '''għalina'''''.

'''U la ddaħħalniex fit-tiġrib''', iżda eħlisna mid-deni.

'''Ammen'''
| lang="ar-Latn" style="font-style: italic;" |
''ʔabāna'', '''alla''ḏ''i''' '''fī as-samāwāt''', li-'''yataqaddas ismuka''', li-'''yaʔti''' malakūtuka, '''li-takun''' ma''šī''ʔatuka, kamā '''fī as-samāʔi''' ka''ḏ''ālika ''ʕa''lā '''al-ar''ḍ'''''.

'''''ḵ''ubzana''' kafāfanā '''''ʔaʕṭi''nā''' '''alyawm''', wa '''a''ḡ''fir lanā''' '''''ḏ''unūbanā''', kamā '''na''ḡ''firu''' na''ḥ''nu ''ʔ''ay''ḍ''an lil-muḏnibīn '''''ʔ''ilaynā.'''

'''wa lā tud''ḵ''ilna fī tajāriba''', lākin najjinā min a''š-š''irrīr.

'''''ʔā''mīn'''
| lang="syc-Latn" style="font-style: italic;" | Abun, '''d-bashmayo''', '''nithqadash''' '''shmokh''', '''tithe''' malkuthokh, nehwe sebyonokh aykano '''d-bashmayo''' oph bar`o.
''hab lan lahmo d-sunqonan '''yowmono''' washbuq lan hawbayn '''wahtohayn'''''

aykano doph hnan shbaqan l-hayobayn lo ta`lan l-nesyuno elo paso lan '''men''' bisho

'''Amin'''
|}

==Vocabulary==
Although the original vocabulary of Maltese was [[Siculo-Arabic]], it has incorporated a large number of borrowings from [[Romance language|Romance]] sources ([[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[French language|French]]) and, more recently, [[Germanic language|Germanic]] ones (from [[English language|English]]).{{sfnp|Friggieri|1994|p=59}}

The historical source of modern Maltese vocabulary is 52% Italian/Sicilian, 32% Arabic/Siculo-Arabic, and 6% English, with some of the remainder being French.{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}}<ref>[http://www.translationsmalta.com/page.aspx?pid=22 About Malta]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}; GTS; retrieved on 2008-02-24</ref> Today, most [[function word]]s are Arabic, so despite only making up about a third of the vocabulary, they are the most used when speaking the language. In this way, Maltese is similar to [[English language|English]], a [[Germanic language]] that has been strongly influenced by [[Norman French]] and Latin (58% of English vocabulary).

As a result of this, Romance language-speakers (and to a lesser extent English speakers) can often easily understand more technical ideas expressed in Maltese, such as {{lang|mt|Ġeografikament, l-Ewropa hi parti tas-superkontinent ta' l-Ewrasja}} ('Geographically, Europe is part of the supercontinent of Eurasia'), while not understanding a single word of a basic sentence such as {{lang|mt|Ir-raġel qiegħed fid-dar}} ('The man is in the house'), which would be easily understood by any Arabic speaker.

===Arabic===
At that time Malta was thoroughly Arabized. The conquerors brought to the island the vulgar (colloquial) variant of Arabic, not the classical one (Classical Arabic); therefore, the Maltese language differs from Classical Arabic in the same way as the Arabic dialects differ from Classical Arabic. The Maltese language also comprises a considerable number of [[Maghrebi Arabic|Maghrebi]] features,<ref>[https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/28326/1/THE%20MALTESE%20AND%20THE%20ARABIC%20DIALECTS.pdf The Maltese And The Arabic Dialects: Introduction An Approach From Linguistic Geography, by Reinhold Kontzi]</ref> but in other ways, it can be closer to other Arabic dialects, or closer to Classical Arabic than to the other dialects as in the word {{lang|mt|ra}} ('to see'). Arabic supplies between 32%{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}} and 40%<ref name="autogenerated2" /> of the language's vocabulary.

{{harvtxt|Żammit|2000}} found that 40% of a sample of 1,821 [[Classical Arabic|Quranic Arabic]] roots were found in Maltese, considerably lower than that found in the [[Moroccan Arabic|Moroccan]] (58%) and [[Lebanese Arabic|Lebanese]] (72%) varieties of Arabic.{{sfnp|Żammit|2000|pp=241–245}} An analysis of the etymology of the 41,000 words in Aquilina's ''Maltese–English Dictionary'' shows that 32% of the Maltese vocabulary is of Arabic origin,{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}} although another source claims 40%.<ref name="autogenerated2" /><ref>Compare with approx. 25–33% of Old English or Germanic words in Modern English.</ref> Usually, words expressing basic concepts and ideas, such as {{lang|mt|raġel}} (man), {{lang|mt|mara}} (woman), {{lang|mt|tifel}} (boy), {{lang|mt|dar}} (house), {{lang|mt|xemx}} (sun), and {{lang|mt|sajf}} (summer), are of Arabic origin. Moreover, {{lang|fr|[[belles-lettres]]}} in Maltese aim to maximise their use of vocabulary belonging to this group.<ref name="isser" />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Maltese
! Moroccan
!Egyptian
!Hejazi
! Standard Arabic
! English
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|iva}} (ijwa, ija, iwa)
| {{lang|ary|iyeh}}
| {{lang|arz|aywa}} 
| {{lang|acw|īwa}}
| {{lang|ar|نعم}} ({{transliteration|ar|naʕam}}) 
| yes
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|fejn}}
| {{lang|ary|fīn}}, {{lang|ary|wīn}}
| {{lang|arz|fēn}}
| {{lang|acw|fēn}}
|{{lang|ar|أين}} ({{transliteration|ar|'ayn}}) 
|where
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|xiex}}
| {{lang|ary|šnu}}, {{lang|ary|'āš}}
|{{lang|arz|'ēh}}
| {{lang|acw|'ēš}}
|{{lang|ar|ماذا}} ({{transliteration|ar|māḏā}}) 
|what
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|għaliex}}
| {{lang|ary|ʕlāš}}, {{lang|ary|ʕlayāš}}
|{{lang|arz|lēh}}
|{{lang|acw|lēš}}
|{{lang|ar|لماذا}} ({{transliteration|ar|limāḏā}}) 
|why
|-
|{{wikt-lang|mt|ġewwa}}
|{{lang|ary|el-dāḵil}}
|{{lang|arz|gowwa}}
|{{lang|acw|juwwa}}
|{{lang|ar|داخل}} ({{transliteration|ar|dāḵil}})
|inside
|-
|{{wikt-lang|mt|barra}}
|{{lang|ary|barra}}
|{{lang|arz|barra}}
|{{lang|acw|barra}}
|{{lang|ar|خارج}} ({{transliteration|ar|ḵārij}})
|outside
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|ġab}}
| {{lang|ary|jāb}}
| {{lang|arz|gāb}}
| {{lang|acw|jāb}}
| {{lang|ar|أحضر}} ({{transliteration|ar|'aḥḍara}}), {{lang|ar|جاء بـ}} ({{transliteration|ar|jā'a bi-}})
| to bring
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|saqsa}}, {{wikt-lang|mt|staqsa}}*
|  {{lang|ary|saqṣa}}, {{lang|ary|sāl}}
|{{lang|arz|sa'al}}
|{{lang|acw|sa'al}}
| {{lang|ar|سأل}} ({{transliteration|ar|sa'ala}}) 
| to ask
|-
|{{wikt-lang|mt|raqad}}
|{{lang|ary|nʕas}}, {{lang|ary|rqad}}
|{{lang|arz|nām}}
|{{lang|acw|nām}}, {{lang|acw|ragad}}
|{{lang|ar|نام}} ({{transliteration|ar|nāma}}), {{lang|ar|رقد}} ({{transliteration|ar|raqada}})
|to sleep
|-
|{{wikt-lang|mt|ra}}
|{{lang|ary|šāf}}
|{{lang|arz|šāf}}
|{{lang|acw|šāf}}
|{{lang|ar|رأى}} ({{transliteration|ar|ra'ā}})
|to see
|-
|{{wikt-lang|mt|ried}}, {{wikt-lang|mt|xtaq}}**
|{{lang|ary|ḥabb}}, {{lang|ary|bḡa}}
|{{lang|arz|ʕāyez}}
|{{lang|acw|biḡi}}
|{{lang|ar|أراد}} ({{transliteration|ar|'arāda}})
|to want
|-
|{{wikt-lang|mt|ħdax}}
|{{lang|ary|ḥdāš}}
|{{lang|acw|ḥidāšar}}
|{{lang|acw|iḥdaʕaš}}
|{{lang|ar|أَحَدَ عَشَرَ}} ({{transliteration|ar|'aḥada ʕašara}})
|eleven
|-
|{{wikt-lang|mt|tnax}}
|{{lang|ary|tnāš}}
|{{lang|acw|itnašar}}
|{{lang|acw|iṭnaʕaš}}
|{{lang|ar|اِثْنَا عَشَرَ}} ({{transliteration|ar|iṯnā ʕašara}})
|twelve 
|}
Notes: * from Arabic {{lang|ar|استقصى}} ({{transliteration|ar|istaqṣā}}) "to investigate", ** from Arabic {{lang|ar|اشتاق}} ({{transliteration|ar|ištāqa}}) "to yearn for ".

The following table compares additional cognates in Maltese and some other varieties of Arabic (all forms are written phonetically, as in the source):<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kaye |first1=Alan S. |title=The Semitic Languages |last2=Rosenhouse |first2=Judith |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |editor-last=Hetzron |editor-first=Robert |pages=263–311 |chapter=Arabic Dialects and Maltese}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Maltese
! [[Egyptian Arabic|Cairene]]
! [[Levantine Arabic|Damascene]]
! [[Mesopotamian Arabic|Iraqi]]
! Negev<br />(bedouin)
! Yemenite<br />(Sanaani)
! Moroccan
! Standard Arabic
! English
|-
| {{lang|mt|qalb}} {{IPA|/ʔalp/}}
| {{lang|arz|'alb}} 
| {{lang|apc|'aleb}} 
| {{lang|acm|galeb}}
| {{lang|avl|galb}}
| {{lang|ayn|galb}}
| {{lang|ary|qalb}}
| {{lang|ar|قلب}} ({{transliteration|ar|qalb}}) {{IPA|/qalb/}}
| heart
|-
| {{lang|mt|waqt}} {{IPA|/waʔt/}}
| {{lang|arz|wa't}} 
| {{lang|apc|wa'et}} 
| {{lang|acm|waket}}
| {{lang|avl|wagt}}
| {{lang|ayn|wagt}}
| {{lang|ary|waqt}}
| {{lang|ar|وقت}} ({{transliteration|ar|waqt}}) {{IPA|/waqt/}}
| time
|-
| {{lang|mt|qamar}} {{IPA|/ʔamar/}}
| {{lang|arz|'amar}} 
| {{lang|apc|'amar}}
| {{lang|acm|qamar}}
| {{lang|avl|gumar}}
| {{lang|ayn|gamar}}
| {{lang|ary|qmar}}
| {{lang|ar|قمر}} ({{transliteration|ar|qamar}}) {{IPA|/qamar/}}
| moon
|-
| {{lang|mt|kelb}} {{IPA|/kelp/}}
| {{lang|arz|kalb}} 
| {{lang|apc|kaleb}} 
| {{lang|acm|čaleb}}
| {{lang|avl|čalb}} 
| {{lang|ayn|kalb}}
| {{lang|ary|kalb}}
| {{lang|ar|كلب}} ({{transliteration|ar|kalb}}) {{IPA|/kalb/}}
| dog
|}
Siculo-Arabic dialect which was spoken in Sicily and Malta is the [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|ancestor]] of the Maltese language,{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}} some Siculo-Arabic words are still used in modern [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] (a Romance language spoken in Sicily):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Maltese
! [[Siculo-Arabic]]<br />(in [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]])
! Arabic text
! English
|-
|{{wikt-lang|mt|bebbuxu}}
|{{wikt-lang|scn|babbaluci}}
|{{lang|ary|ببوش|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ary|babbūš}}) 
(a Berber word)
|snail
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|ġiebja}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|gebbia}}
| {{lang|ar|جابية|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ar|jābiya}})
| cistern
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|ġunġlien}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|giuggiulena}}
| {{lang|ar|جلجلان|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ar|juljulān}})
| sesame seed
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|sieqja}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|saia}}
| {{lang|ar|ساقية|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ar|sāqiya}})
| canal
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|kenur}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|tannura}}
| {{lang|ar|تنور|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ar|tannūr}})
| oven
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|żagħfran}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|zaffarana}}
| {{lang|ar|زعفران|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ar|zaʿfarān}})
| [[saffron]]
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|żahra}} (less common than {{wikt-lang|mt|fjura}}, borrowed from Sicilian)
| {{wikt-lang|scn|zagara}}
| {{lang|ar|زهرة|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ar|zahra}})
| blossom
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|żbib}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|zibbibbu}}
| {{lang|ar|زبيب|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ar|zabīb}})
| raisins
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|zokk}} (borrowed through Sicilian)
| {{wikt-lang|scn|zuccu}}
| {{lang|ar|ساق|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ar|sāq}})
| tree trunk
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|tebut}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|tabbutu}}
| {{lang|ar|تابوت|rtl=yes}} ({{transliteration|ar|tābūt}})
| coffin
|}

The Maltese language has merged many of the original Arabic consonants (in particular the [[emphatic consonant]]s) with others common to European languages. Thus, original [[Arabic language|Arabic]] {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/ð/}}, and {{IPA|/dˤ/}} all merged into Maltese {{IPA|/d/}}. The vowels, meanwhile, separated from the three in Classical Arabic ({{IPA|/a i u/}}) into five, as is more typical of many European languages ({{IPA|/a ɛ i o u/}}). Some unstressed short vowels have been elided. The common Arabic greeting {{transliteration|ar|as salāmu 'alaykum}} is cognate with {{lang|mt|is-sliem għalikom}} in Maltese (lit. "the peace for you", peace be with you), as are similar greetings in other Semitic languages (e.g. {{lang|he-Latn|shalom ʿalekhem}} in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]).

=== Romance (Sicilian and Italian) ===
An analysis of the etymology of the 41,000 words in Aquilina's ''Maltese–English Dictionary'' shows that words of Romance origin make up 52% of the Maltese vocabulary,{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}} although other sources claim from 40%<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/languages/maltese.shtml |title=Languages across Europe – Maltese, Malti |website=BBC |access-date=12 January 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913054653/http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/languages/maltese.shtml |archive-date=13 September 2017}}</ref> to 55%. Romance vocabulary tends to deal with more complex concepts. Most words come from [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and thus exhibit Sicilian phonetic characteristics, such as {{IPA|/u/}} rather than Italian {{IPA|/o/}}, and {{IPA|/i/}} rather than Italian {{IPA|/e/}} (e.g. {{lang|mt|tiatru}} not {{lang|it|teatro}} and {{lang|mt|fidi}} not {{lang|it|fede}}). Also, as with Old Sicilian, {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (English ''sh'') is written ''x'' and this produces spellings such as: {{lang|mt|ambaxxata}} {{IPA|/ambaʃːaːta/}} ('embassy'), {{lang|mt|xena}} {{IPA|/ʃeːna/}} ('scene'; compare Italian {{lang|it|ambasciata}}, {{lang|it|scena}}).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Maltese
! [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]]
! [[Italian language|Italian]]
! [[English language|English]]
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|skola}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|scola}}
| {{wikt-lang|it|scuola}}
| school
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|gvern}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|cuvernu}}
| {{wikt-lang|it|governo}}
| government
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|repubblika}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|ripùbblica}}
| {{wikt-lang|it|repubblica}}
| republic
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|re}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|re}}
| {{wikt-lang|it|re}}
| king (''Germanic'')
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|natura}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|natura}}
| {{wikt-lang|it|natura}}
| nature
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|pulizija}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|pulizzìa}}
| {{wikt-lang|it|polizia}}
| police
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|ċentru}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|centru}}
| {{wikt-lang|it|centro}}
| centre
|-
| {{wikt-lang|mt|teatru}}
| {{wikt-lang|scn|tiatru}}
| {{wikt-lang|it|teatro}}
| theatre
|}

A tendency in modern Maltese is to adopt further influences from English and Italian.
Complex Latinate English words adopted into Maltese are often given Italian or Sicilian forms,{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}} even if the resulting words do not appear in either of those languages. For instance, the words ''evaluation'', ''industrial action'', and ''chemical armaments'' become {{lang|mt|evalwazzjoni}}, {{lang|mt|azzjoni industrjali}}, and {{lang|mt|armamenti kimiċi}} in Maltese, while the Italian terms are {{lang|it|valutazione}}, {{lang|it|vertenza sindacale}}, and {{lang|it|armi chimiche}} respectively. (The origin of the terms may be narrowed even further to [[British English]]; the phrase ''[[industrial action]]'' is meaningless in the United States.) This is comparable to the situation with English borrowings into the [[Italo-Australian dialect]]. English words of Germanic origin are generally preserved relatively unchanged.

Some influences of [[African Romance]] on the Arabic and [[Berber languages|Berber]] spoken in the [[Maghreb]] are theorised; these may then have passed into Maltese.{{Sfn|Kossmann|2013|p=75}} For example, in [[calendar]] [[month]] names, the word {{lang|mt|furar}} 'February' is only found in the Maghreb and in Maltese – proving the word's ancient pedigree. The region also has a form of another Latin month in {{lang|mt|awi/ussu}} < {{lang|la|augustus}}.{{Sfn|Kossmann|2013|p=75}} This word does not appear to be a loan word through Arabic, and may have been taken over directly from Late Latin or African Romance.{{Sfn|Kossmann|2013|p=75}} Scholars theorise that a Latin-based system provided forms such as {{lang|mt|awi/ussu}} and {{lang|mt|furar}} in African Romance, with the system then mediating Latin/Romance names through Arabic for some month names during the Islamic period.{{Sfn|Kossmann|2013|p=76}} The same situation exists for Maltese which mediated words from [[Italian language|Italian]], and retains both non-Italian forms such as {{lang|mt|awissu/awwissu}} and {{lang|mt|frar}}, and Italian forms such as {{lang|mt|april}}.{{Sfn|Kossmann|2013|p=76}}

===Berber===
Like the [[Maghrebi Arabic|Maghrebi Arabic dialects]], Maltese has a significant vocabulary derived from [[Berber languages]]. Whether these words entered Maltese by being inherited from [[Siculo-Arabic]] or were directly loaned from Berber languages is not yet known. These include:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hull |first=Geoffrey |date=2019 |title=Exploring the Berber element in Maltese |url=https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/52367 |language=en |access-date=2023-08-26 |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826093027/https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/52367 |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Maltese
! Berber languages
! English
|-
| ''gremxula''
| ''azrem ašal'', lit. 'land worm', ([[Kabyle language|Kabyle]])
| lizard
|-
|''fekruna''
|''tifakrunin'' ([[Jerba Berber|Jerbi]]), ''ifekran'' ([[Shilha language|Tashelhiyt]]), ''ifkran'' (Kabyle)
|turtle
|-
| ''geddum''
| ''aqadum'', lit. 'face, frown' (Kabyle)
| chin
|-
| ''gendus''
| ''gandūz'', lit. 'young calf' (Jerbi)
| ox, bull
|-
|''gerżuma''
|''ageržum'' ([[Mozabite language|Mozabite]], Tashelhiyt)
|throat
|-
|''tfief''
|''tilfaf'' ([[Ouargli language|Ouargli]]), ''tifāf, tilfāf, tiffāf'' ([[Tarifit]])
|sow thistle (''[[Sonchus oleraceus]]'')
|-
|''tengħud''
|''talaɣūda'' ([[Tunisian Arabic]]), ''telɣūda'' ([[Algerian Arabic]])
|spurge (''[[Euphorbia]]'')
|-
|''kosksu''
|''kuskesu, kuskus'' (Kabyle)
|couscous, small round pasta
|-
|''fartas''
|''aferḍas'' (Ouargli, Kabyle)
|bald
|-
|''għaffeġ''
|‘''affež'' (Algerian Arabic), ''effeẓ'' (Ouargli, Mozabite)
|to crush, to squash
|-
|''żrinġ''
|''tažrant'' (Jerbi)
|frog
|-
|''żrar''
|''zrar'' (Mozabite, Ouargli), ''azrar'' (Kabyle, [[Nafusi language|Nafusi]])
|gravel
|-
|''werżieq''
|''wárẓag'' ([[Mrazig]])
|cicada, lit. screamer, shrieker
|-
|''buqexrem''
|''buqišrem'' (Kabyle)
|vervain ([[Verbena officinalis]])
|-
|''fidloqqom''
|''fudalɣem'' (Kabyle)
|borage ([[Borage|Borago officinalis]])
|-
|''żorr''
|''uzur'' (Kabyle), ''uzzur'' (Tarifit)
|rude, arrogant
|-
|''lellex''
|''lelleš'' (Mozabite)
|to shine, to glitter
|-
|''pespes''
|''bbesbes'' (Ouargli)
|to whisper
|-
|''teptep''
|''ṭṭebṭeb'' (Ouargli)
|to blink, to twinkle
|-
|''webbel''
|''webben'' (Mozabite)
|to induce, to tempt
|}

===English===
English loanwords, which are becoming more commonplace, may constitute up to 20% of Maltese vocabulary,<ref name="autogenerated2" /> though other sources claim as little as 6%.{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}} This percentage discrepancy is due to the fact that a number of new English loanwords are sometimes not considered part of the official Maltese vocabulary, hence they are not included in certain dictionaries.{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}} Also, English loanwords of Latinate origin are very often Italianized, as discussed above. English loanwords are generally transliterated, although standard English pronunciation is virtually always retained. Below are a few examples:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Maltese
! English
|-
| futbol
| football
|-
| baskitbol
| basketball
|-
| klabb
| club
|-
| friġġ
| fridge
|}
"Fridge" is a common [[clipping (morphology)|shortening]] of "refrigerator". "Refrigerator" is a Latinate word which could be imported into Maltese as ''rifriġeratori'', whereas the [[Italian language|Italian]] word is ''frigorifero'' or ''refrigeratore''.

=== Calendar ===
The days of the week (Maltese: ''jiem il-ġimgħa'') in Maltese, which are derived from Arabic, are referred to by number which is also typical in other Semitic languages, Days of the week are commonly preceded by the word ''nhar'' meaning 'day'.
{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Maltese
!Literal
|-
|Sunday
|''Il-Ħadd''
|first [day]
|-
|Monday
|''It-Tnejn''
|second [day]
|-
|Tuesday
|''It-Tlieta''
|third [day]
|-
|Wednesday
|''L-Erbgħa''
|fourth [day]
|-
|Thursday
|''Il-Ħamis''
|fifth [day]
|-
|Friday
|''Il-Ġimgħa''
|[[Friday prayer|gathering]] [day]
|-
|Saturday
|''Is-Sibt''
|[[Sabbath]] [day]
|}
The months of the year (Maltese: {{lang|mt|xhur is-sena}}) in Maltese are mostly derived from [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], though {{lang|mt|Frar}} and {{lang|mt|Awwissu}} may be derived from [[African Romance]] via [[Siculo-Arabic]].
{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Maltese
|-
|January
|''Jannar''
|-
|February
|''Frar''
|-
|March
|''Marzu''
|-
|April
|''April''
|-
|May
|''Mejju''
|-
|June
|''Ġunju''
|-
|July
|''Lulju''
|-
|August
|''Awwissu''
|-
|September
|''Settembru''
|-
|October
|''Ottubru''
|-
|November
|''Novembru''
|-
|December
|''Diċembru''
|}

=== Time ===
{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Maltese
|-
|today
|''illum''
|-
|yesterday
|''ilbieraħ''
|-
|tomorrow
|''għada''
|-
|second
|''sekonda''
|-
|minute
|''minuta'' (archaic: ''dqiqa'')
|-
|hour
|''siegħa''
|-
|day
|''jum'' or ''ġurnata''
|-
|week
|''ġimgħa''
|-
|month
|''xahar''
|-
|year
|''sena''
|}

=== Question words ===
{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Maltese
!Example
!Translation
|-
|What (standalone)
|''Xiex''
|''Xiex?''
|What?
|-
|What (preceding)
|X'
|''X' għamilt?''
|What did you do?
|-
|Who
|''Min''
|''Min hu dak?''
|Who is he?
|-
|How
|''Kif''
|''Kif inti llum?''
|How are you today?
|-
|Where
|''Fejn''
|''Fejn sejjer?''
|Where are you going?
|-
|Where (from)
|''Mnejn''
|''Mnejn ġie?''
|Where did he come from?
|-
|Why
|''Għala, Għaliex, Għalxiex, Ilgħala''
|''Għala telaq?''
|Why did he leave?
|-
|Which
|''Liem, Liema''
|''Liem wieħed hu tajjeb?''
|Which one is good?
|-
|When
|''Meta''
|''Meta ħa titlaq?''
|When will you leave?
|-
|How Much
|''Kemm''
|''Kemm jiswa dan?''
|How much does this cost?
|}

=== Sample phrases ===
{| class="wikitable"
!English<ref>{{Cite web |title=Learn Maltese with uTalk |url=https://utalk.com/en/store/maltese |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=utalk.com |language=en |archive-date=2024-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508144110/https://utalk.com/en/store/maltese |url-status=live }}</ref>
!Maltese
|-
|Hello.
|Ħelow.
|-
|Yes.
|Iva.
|-
|Yes, please.
|Iva, jekk jogħġbok.
|-
|No.
|Le.
|-
|No thanks.
|Le grazzi.
|-
|Please.
|Jekk jogħġbok.
|-
|Thank you.
|Grazzi.
|-
|Thank you very much.
|Grazzi ħafna.
|-
|You're welcome.
|M'hemmx imniex.
|-
|I'd like a coffee please.
|Nixtieq kafè, jekk jogħġbok.
|-
|Two beers please.
|Żewġ birer, jekk jogħġbok.
|-
|Cheers!
|Evviva!
|-
|Excuse me.
|Skużani.
|-
|What time is it?
|X'ħin hu?
|-
|Can you repeat that please?
|Tista' tirrepeti jekk jogħġbok?
|-
|Please speak more slowly.
|Jekk jogħġbok tkellem iktar bil-mod.
|-
|I don't understand.
|Mhux qed nifhem/ Ma fhimtx.
|-
|Sorry.
|Skużani.
|-
|Where are the toilets?
|Fejn huma t-toilets?
|-
|How much does this cost?
|Kemm jiswa dan? / Kemm tiswa din?
|-
|Welcome!
|Merħba!
|-
|Good morning.
|Bonġu.
|-
|Good afternoon.
|Il-wara nofsinhar it-tajjeb.
|-
|Good evening.
|Is-serata t-tajba.
|-
|Goodnight.
|Il-lejl it-tajjeb.
|-
|Goodbye.
|Saħħa/ Ċaw.
|}

==Grammar==
Maltese grammar is fundamentally derived from [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic]], although [[Romance languages|Latin]] and [[English language|English]] noun pluralisation patterns are also used on borrowed words.

===Adjectives and adverbs===
[[Adjective]]s follow [[noun]]s. There are no separately formed native [[adverb]]s, and word order is fairly flexible. Both nouns and adjectives of [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] origin take the definite article (for example, {{lang|mt|It-tifel il-kbir}}, lit. "The boy the elder"="The elder boy"). This rule does not apply to adjectives of Romance origin.

===Nouns===
Nouns are pluralised and also have a [[dual grammatical number|dual]] marker. Semitic plurals are complex; if they are regular, they are marked by ''-iet''/''-ijiet'', e.g., ''art'', ''artijiet'' "lands (territorial possessions or property)" (cf. Arabic ''-at'' and Hebrew ''-ot''/''-oth'') or ''-in'' (cf. Arabic ''-īn'' and Hebrew ''-im''). If irregular, they fall in the ''pluralis fractus'' ([[broken plural]]) category, in which a word is pluralised by internal vowel changes: ''ktieb'', ''kotba'' " book", "books"; ''raġel'', ''irġiel'' "man", "men".

Words of Romance origin are usually pluralised in two manners: addition of ''-i'' or ''-jiet''. For example, ''lingwa'', ''lingwi'' "languages", from Sicilian ''lingua'', ''lingui''.

Words of English origin are pluralised by adding either an "-s" or "-jiet", for example, ''friġġ'', ''friġis'' from the word ''fridge''. Some words can be pluralised with either of the suffixes to denote the plural. A few words borrowed from English can amalgamate both suffixes, like ''brikksa'' from the English ''brick'', which can adopt either collective form ''brikks'' or the plural form ''brikksiet''.

====Derivation====

As in [[Arabic]], nouns are often derived by changing, adding or removing the vowels within a [[triliteral root]]. These are some of the patterns used for nouns:<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/TeachYourselfMalteseJosephAquilina/page/n49/ | title=Teach Yourself Maltese Joseph Aquilina }}</ref>

* CaCiC – ''xadin'' (monkey), ''sadid'' (rust)
* CCiC – ''żbib'' (raisin)
* CaCCa – ''baqra'' (cow), ''basla'' (onion)
* CeCCa – ''werqa'' (leaf), ''xewqa'' (wish)
* CoCCa – ''borka'' (wild duck), ''forka'' (gallows)
* CaCC – ''qalb'' (heart), ''sajd'' (fishing)
* CeCC – ''kelb'' (dog), ''xemx'' (sun)
* CCuCija – ''tfulija'' (childhood), ''xbubija'' (maidenhood)
* CCuCa – ''rtuba'' (softness), ''bjuda'' (whiteness)
* CaCCaC – ''tallab'' (beggar), ''bajjad'' (whitewasher)

The so-called mimated nouns use the [[prefix]] ''m-'' in addition to [[vowel]] changes. This pattern can be used to indicate [[Location (geography)|place]] [[name]]s, [[tool]]s, [[abstraction]]s, etc. These are some of the patterns used for mimated nouns:

* ma-CCeC – ''marden'' (spindle)
* mi-CCeC – ''minkeb'' (elbow), ''miżwed'' (pod)
* mu-CCaC – ''musmar'' (nail), ''munqar'' (beak)

===Article===
The [[proclitic]] ''il-'' is the [[definite article]], equivalent to "the" in English and "al-" in Arabic.

The Maltese article becomes ''l-'' before or after a vowel.
* ''l-omm'' (the mother)
* ''rajna l-Papa'' (we saw the Pope)
* ''il-missier'' (the father)

The Maltese article [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilates]] to a following non-ġ [[coronal consonant]] (called ''konsonanti xemxin'' "[[sun letter|sun consonants]]"), namely:
* Ċ ''iċ-ċikkulata'' (the chocolate)
* D ''id-dar'' (the house)
* N ''in-nar'' (the fire)
* R ''ir-razzett'' (the farm)
* S ''is-serrieq'' (the saw)
* T ''it-tifel'' (the child)
* X ''ix-xemx'' (the sun)
* Ż ''iż-żarbuna'' (the shoe)
* Z ''iz-zalzett'' (the sausage)

===Verbs===
Verbs show the Semitic [[triliteral]] pattern, in which a verb is [[grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] with [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]], [[suffix]]es, and [[infix]]es (for example ''ktibna'', Arabic ''katabna'', Hebrew ''kathabhnu'' (Modern Hebrew: katavnu) "we wrote"). An example is the Semitic root X-M-X ('sun'), for example ''xemx'' (sun), ''xmux'' (suns), ''xemxi'' (sunny), ''xemxata'' (sunstroke), ''nixxemmex'' (I sunbathe), ''ma xxemmixtx'' (I didn't sunbathe), ''tixmix'' (the act of sunbathing). 

Maltese also features the [[agglutination]] of verb suffixes indicating direction of action, for example ''agħmilhomli'' "make them for me"← ''agħmel'' "make" in the imperative + ''hom'' from ''huma'' "them" + ''li'' suffix indicating first person singular and ''ħasletielu'' "she washed it for him"←''ħaslet'' "she washed" from the verb ''ħasel'' "to wash" + ''ie'' the object + ''lu'' suffix indicating third person masculine singular.

The two [[grammatical tense|tenses]] are present and perfect. The Maltese verb system incorporates Romance verbs and adds Maltese suffixes and prefixes to them, for example; ''iddeċidejna'' "we decided" ← ''(i)ddeċieda'' "decide", a Romance verb + ''-ejna'', a Maltese first person plural perfect marker.

==Media==
{{Main|Languages of Malta#Media|l1=Language in the media in Malta}}
As Malta is a multilingual country, the use of Maltese in the mass media is shared with other European languages, namely [[English language|English]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]. The majority of television stations broadcast from Malta in English or Maltese, although broadcasts from [[Italy]] in Italian are also received on the islands. Similarly, there are more Maltese-language radio programs than English ones broadcast from Malta, but again, Italian broadcasts are also picked up. Coverage in newspaper periodicals is generally equally split between Maltese and English.

Maltese is little used on the internet and few websites are written in the language. In a survey of Maltese cultural websites conducted in 2004 on behalf of the Maltese government, 12 of 13 were in English only and the remaining one was multilingual but did not include Maltese.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/minerva/html/dok/malta.doc |title=Country report for MINERVA Plus in 2005 |work=Multilingual issues in Malta |access-date=2008-02-24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227064644/http://mek.oszk.hu/minerva/html/dok/malta.doc |archive-date=2008-02-27}}</ref> In 2011, only 6.5 per cent of Maltese internet users reported employing Maltese online, which may be a consequence of the lack of online support for the language.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Camilleri |first=Ivan |date=May 16, 2011 |title=Maltese language hardly used on the internet |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/Maltese-language-hardly-used-on-the-internet.365554 |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=Times of Malta |language=en-gb |archive-date=2023-03-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323233339/https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/Maltese-language-hardly-used-on-the-internet.365554 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Code-switching==
The Maltese population, being fluent in both Maltese and English, displays [[code-switching]] (referred to as [[Maltenglish]]) in certain localities and between certain social groups.{{sfnp|Brincat|2005}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Malta|Languages}}
* [[Languages of Malta]]
* [[Maltese people]]

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|}}
* {{cite book |last=Aquilina |first=Joseph |year=1965 |title=Teach Yourself Maltese |publisher=English University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Azzopardi |first=C. |year=2007 |title=Gwida għall-Ortografija |location=Malta |publisher=Klabb Kotba Maltin}}
* {{cite book |last=Borg |first=Alexander |year=1997 |chapter=Maltese Phonology |pages=245–285 |editor-last=Kaye |editor-first=Alan S. |title=Phonologies of Asia and Africa |publisher=Eisenbrauns |volume=1 |isbn=9781575060194}}
* {{cite book |last1=Borg |first1=Albert J. |last2=Azzopardi-Alexander |first2=Marie |year=1997 |title=Maltese |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-02243-9}}
* {{cite journal |last=Brincat |first=Joseph M. |year=2005 |issue=27 |title=Maltese – an unusual formula |journal=MED Magazine |url=http://macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/February2005/27-LI-Maltese.htm |access-date=22 February 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050905023705/http://www.macmillandictionary.com/med-magazine/February2005/27-LI-Maltese.htm |archive-date=5 September 2005}}
* Bugeja, Kaptan Pawlu, ''Kelmet il-Malti'' (Maltese—English, English—Maltese Dictionary). Associated News Group, Floriana. 1999.
* {{cite journal |last=Friggieri |first=Oliver |year=1994 |title=Main Trends in the History of Maltese Literature |journal=[[Neohelicon]] |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1007/BF02093244 |s2cid=144795860}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hume |first=Elizabeth |year=1996 |title=Coronal Consonant, Front Vowel Parallels in Maltese |journal=[[Natural Language & Linguistic Theory]] |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=163–203 |doi=10.1007/bf00133405 |s2cid=170703136}}
* {{cite book |last=Kossmann |first=Maarten |title=The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber |work=Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics |publisher=Brill |year=2013 |isbn=9789004253094 }}
* {{cite book |last=Mifsud |first=M. |author2=A. J. Borg |year=1997 |title=Fuq l-għatba tal-Malti |location=Strasbourg |publisher=[[Council of Europe]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Vassalli |first=Michelantonio |title=Grammatica della lingua Maltese |url=https://archive.org/details/grammaticadella00vassgoog |year=1827 |publisher=Stampata per l'autore}}
* {{cite book |last=Vella |first=Alexandra |title=Aspects of Multilingualism in European Language History |editor=Kurt Braunmüller and Gisella Ferraresi |series=Hamburg Studies on Multiculturalism |year=2004 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-1922-0 |pages=263 |chapter=Language contact and Maltese intonation: Some parallels with other language varieties}}
* {{cite book |last=Żammit |first=Martin |editor-first=Manwel |editor-last=Mifsud |title=Proceedings of the Third International Conference of Aida |year=2000 |isbn=978-99932-0-044-4 |pages=241–245 |chapter=Arabic and Maltese Cognate Roots |publisher=Association Internationale de Dialectologie Arabe |location=Malta}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==

{{Refbegin|}}
* (it) Giovan Pietro Francesco Agius de Soldanis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FviLm_AB_AoC Della lingua punica presentemente usata da maltesi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430040527/https://books.google.com/books?id=FviLm_AB_AoC |date=2023-04-30 }}'', per Generoso Salomoni alla Piazza di S. Ignazio. Si vendono in Malta, 1750
* (it) Antonio Emanuele Caruana, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QnFGatQjpccC Sull'origine della Lingua Maltese] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412070833/https://books.google.com/books?id=QnFGatQjpccC |date=2023-04-12 }}'', Malta, Tipografia C. Busuttil, 1896
* (it) Giovanni Battista Falzon, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oG49AQAAMAAJ Dizionario Maltese-Italiano-Inglese] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412070833/https://books.google.com/books?id=oG49AQAAMAAJ |date=2023-04-12 }}'', G. Muscat, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec4NAAAAQAAJ 1845 (1 ed.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404120627/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec4NAAAAQAAJ |date=2023-04-04 }}, 1882 (2 ed.)
* (it) Giuseppe Nicola Letard, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ed8OAAAAQAAJ Nuova guida alla conversazione italiana, inglese e maltese ad uso delle scuole] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430040601/https://books.google.com/books?id=ed8OAAAAQAAJ |date=2023-04-30 }}'', Malta, 1866–75
* (it) Fortunato Panzavecchia, ''[https://archive.org/details/grammaticadella01panzgoog Grammatica della Lingua Maltese]'', M. Weiss, Malta, 1845 
* (it) Michele Antonio Vassalli, ''[https://archive.org/details/grammaticadella00vassgoog Grammatica della lingua Maltese]'', 2 ed., Malta, 1827 
* (it) Michele Antonio Vassalli, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uO1LAAAAcAAJ Lexicon Melitense-Latino-Italum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412070834/https://books.google.com/books?id=uO1LAAAAcAAJ |date=2023-04-12 }}'', Roma, Fulgonius, 1796
* (it) Francesco Vella, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLYNAAAAQAAJ Osservazioni sull'alfabeto maltese] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430040600/https://books.google.com/books?id=hLYNAAAAQAAJ |date=2023-04-30 }}'', 1840
* (it) Francesca Morando, ''Il-lingwa Maltija. Origine, storia, comparazione linguistica e aspetti morfologici'', Prefazione di Joseph M. Brincat, Palermo, Edizioni La Zisa, 2017, ISBN 978-88-9911-339-1
* (en) S. Mamo, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DcwNAAAAQAAJ English-Maltese Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430040602/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcwNAAAAQAAJ |date=2023-04-30 }}'', Malta, A. Aquilina, 1885 
* (en) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M-k9AAAAYAAJ A Short Grammar of the Maltese Language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412070836/https://books.google.com/books?id=M-k9AAAAYAAJ |date=2023-04-12 }}'', Malta, 1845
* (en) C. F. Schlienz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DcwNAAAAQAAJ Views on the Improvement of the Maltese Language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430040602/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcwNAAAAQAAJ |date=2023-04-30 }}'', Malta, 1838 
* (en) Francesco Vella, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9eI9AAAAYAAJ Maltese Grammar for the Use of the English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412070835/https://books.google.com/books?id=9eI9AAAAYAAJ |date=2023-04-12 }}'', Glaucus Masi, Leghorn, 1831
* (en) Francesco Vella, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JgmIXQP58ccC Dizionario portatile delle lingue Maltese Italiana, Inglese. pt. 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430040604/https://books.google.com/books?id=JgmIXQP58ccC |date=2023-04-30 }}'', Livorno, 1843
* (en) Joseph Aquilina, ''Teach Yourself Maltese'', English University Press, 1965
* (en) Geoffrey Hull, ''The Malta Language Question: A Case Study in Cultural Imperialism'', Said International, Valletta, 1993
* (mt) Vicenzo Busuttil, ''[https://archive.org/details/DiziunariuMillMaltiGhallInglis/page/n5/mode/2up Diziunariu mill Inglis ghall Malti]'', 2 parts, N. C. Cortis & Sons, Malta, 1900
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=mt}}
{{Wiktionary category}}
*{{Wikivoyage inline|Maltese phrasebook|Maltese|a phrasebook}}
*[https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/351 Maltese languages and literatures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201123323/https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/351 |date=2023-02-01 }} collection of L-Università ta' Malta

{{Varieties of Arabic}}
{{Semitic languages}}
{{Maltese dialects}}
{{Languages of Sicily}}
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