Editing Marble

{{Short description|Type of metamorphic rock}}
{{about|the rock and material|the toy|Marble (toy)|other uses|Marble (disambiguation)}}
{{Lead too short|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox rock
|name=Marble
|type=Metamorphic
|image=Marmo z17.JPG
|caption=Marble
|composition=Mostly [[calcite]] or [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]]
|protolith=[[carbonate minerals]], [[Limestone]], [[Dolomite (rock)|Dolomite]]|fabric=Typically not foliated}}
'''Marble''' is a [[metamorphic rock]] consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly [[calcite]]  (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) or [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]] (CaMg(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure.<ref name="www.britannica.com">{{Cite web |title=Marble {{!}} Definition, Types, Uses, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/marble-rock |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=2023-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307064629/https://www.britannica.com/science/marble-rock |url-status=live }}</ref> It has a [[crystalline]] texture, and is typically not [[Foliation (geology)|foliated]] ([[Layered intrusion|layered]]), although there are exceptions. 

In [[geology]], the term ''marble'' refers to metamorphosed [[limestone]], but its use in [[stonemasonry]] more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone.<ref>Kearey, Philip (2001). ''Dictionary of Geology'', Penguin Group, London and New York, p. 163. {{ISBN|978-0-14-051494-0}}</ref> 

The extraction of marble is performed by quarrying. Marble production is dominated by four countries: [[China]], [[Italy]], [[India]] and [[Spain]], which account for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone.<ref name=":0" />

Because of its high hardness and strong wear resistance, and because it will not be deformed by temperature, marble is often used in [[Marble sculpture|sculpture]] and [[construction]].<ref name=":1" />

==Etymology==
[[File:Marbleboot.jpg|thumb|The [[Marble Boat]], a [[Pavilion|lakeside pavilion]] in the [[Summer Palace]] in [[Beijing]], China]]
[[File:Taj Mahal (Edited).jpeg|thumb|The [[Taj Mahal]] is clad entirely in marble]]

The word "marble" derives from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|μάρμαρον}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|mármaron}}),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imperialstonegroup.com/ancient-origins-of-marble|title= From Μάρμαρον to Marble: The Ancient Greek Origins of a Timeless Material| website= imperialstonegroup.com }}</ref> from {{lang|grc|μάρμαρος}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|mármaros}}), "crystalline rock, shining stone",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dma%2Frmaros μάρμαρος] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020231927/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=ma/rmaros |date=2021-10-20 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek–English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref><ref>[https://archive.today/20120720021233/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/marble?view=uk Marble, Compact Oxford English Dictionary]. Askoxford.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-30.</ref> perhaps from the verb {{lang|grc|μαρμαίρω}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|marmaírō}}), "to flash, sparkle, gleam";<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmarmai%2Frw μαρμαίρω] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020231925/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=marmai/rw |date=2021-10-20 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek–English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> [[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] has suggested that a "[[Pre-Greek]] origin is probable".<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 907.</ref>

This [[Stem (linguistics)|stem]] is also the ancestor of the [[English language|English]] word "marmoreal", meaning "marble-like."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of MARMOREAL|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/marmoreal|access-date=2020-06-18|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024005612/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/marmoreal|url-status=live}}</ref> While the English term "marble" resembles the [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|marbre}}, most other [[European languages]] (with words like "marmoreal") more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek.<ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of MARBLE |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/marble |website=www.merriam-webster.com |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=26 October 2022 |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026233400/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/marble |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Geology==

[[File:Catedraldemarmol.JPG|thumb|Folded and weathered marble at [[General Carrera Lake]], [[Chile]]|210x210px]]Marble is a rock resulting from [[metamorphism]] of [[sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] [[carbonate rock]]s, most commonly [[limestone]] or [[dolomite (rock)|dolomite]]. Metamorphism causes variable re-crystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate [[crystal]]s. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock ([[protolith]]) have typically been modified or destroyed.

Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure ([[Silicate minerals|silicate]]-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and [[Vein (geology)|vein]]s of many colored marble varieties, sometimes called [[Striation (geology)|striations]], are usually due to various mineral impurities such as [[clay]], [[silt]], [[sand]], [[iron oxide]]s, or [[chert]] which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to [[Serpentine group|serpentine]] resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with [[silica]] impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

== Chemistry ==

=== Degradation by acids ===
[[Acid]]s react with the calcium carbonate in marble, producing [[carbonic acid]] (which decomposes quickly to CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>O) and other soluble salts :<ref name="UFIIN">{{Cite web |title=Environmental degradation of marble |url=http://www.whatischemistry.unina.it/en/martmarmo.html |access-date=5 November 2021 |website=What is Chemistry? |publisher=University Federico II of Naples, Italy |archive-date=5 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105094636/http://www.whatischemistry.unina.it/en/martmarmo.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
:CaCO<sub>3</sub>(s) + 2H<sup>+</sup>(aq) → Ca<sup>2+</sup>(aq) + CO<sub>2</sub>(g) + H<sub>2</sub>O (l)

Outdoor marble statues, [[headstone|gravestones]], or other marble structures are damaged by [[acid rain]] whether by [[carbonation]], [[sulfation]] or the formation of "black-crust" (accumulation of calcium sulphate, nitrates and carbon particles).<ref name="UFIIN" /> Vinegar and other acidic solutions should be avoided in the cleaning of marble products.

=== Crystallization ===
Crystallization refers to a method of imparting a glossy, more durable finish on to a marble floor (CaCO<sub>3</sub>). It involves polishing the surface with an acidic solution and a steel wool pad on a flooring machine. The chemical reaction below shows a typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF<sub>6</sub>) and [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) taking place.

:CaCO<sub>3</sub>(s) +  MgSiF<sub>6</sub>(l) + 2HCl (l) → MgCl<sub>2</sub>(s) + CaSiF<sub>6</sub>(s) + CO<sub>2</sub>(g) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l)

The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF<sub>6</sub>) is bonded to the surface of the marble. This is harder, more glossy and stain resistant compared to the original surface.

The other often used method of finishing marble is to polish with oxalic acid (H<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), an organic acid. The resulting reaction is as follows:

:CaCO<sub>3</sub>(s) + H<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>(l) → CaC<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>(s) + CO<sub>2</sub>(g) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l)

In this case the calcium oxalate (CaC<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>) formed in the reaction is washed away with the slurry, leaving a surface that has not been chemically changed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Crystallization vs. Oxalic Acid Polishing |url=https://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/790119O/crystallization-vs-oxalic-acid-polishing.pdf |publisher=3M |access-date=2021-09-01 |archive-date=2021-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901231013/https://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/790119O/crystallization-vs-oxalic-acid-polishing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Microbial degradation ===
The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium ''[[Methylophaga murata]]'' was isolated from deteriorating marble in the [[Kremlin]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Doronina NV |author2=Li TsD |author3=Ivanova EG |author4=Trotsenko IuA. |date=2005 |title=Methylophaga murata sp. nov.: a haloalkaliphilic aerobic methylotroph from deteriorating marble |journal=Mikrobiologiia |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=511–9 |pmid=16211855}}</ref> Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from [[Milan Cathedral]]; black ''[[Cladosporium]]'' attacked dried [[acrylic resin]]<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Cappitelli F |author2=Principi P |author3=Pedrazzani R |author4=Toniolo L |author5=Sorlini C |year=2007 |title=Bacterial and fungal deterioration of the Milan Cathedral marble treated with protective synthetic resins |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=385 |issue=1–3 |pages=172–81 |bibcode=2007ScTEn.385..172C |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.06.022 |pmid=17658586}}</ref> using melanin.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Cappitelli F |author2=Nosanchuk JD |author3=Casadevall A |author4=Toniolo L |author5=Brusetti L |author6=Florio S |author7=Principi P |author8=Borin S |author9=Sorlini C |date=Jan 2007 |title=Synthetic consolidants attacked by melanin-producing fungi: case study of the biodeterioration of Milan (Italy) cathedral marble treated with acrylics |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=271–7 |bibcode=2007ApEnM..73..271C |doi=10.1128/AEM.02220-06 |pmc=1797126 |pmid=17071788}}</ref>

==Types and features==
{{Main|List of types of marble}}
[[File:Ephesus Celsus Library Façade.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Library of Celsus]] in [[Ephesus]], [[Turkey]]. Turkey is the largest marble exporter in the world.]]
[[File:Marble wall of Ruskeala.jpg|thumb|251x251px|Marble wall of [[Ruskeala]], [[Republic of Karelia]], [[Russia]]]]
[[File:Blue calcitic marble, Valentine Mine, Lewis County NY.jpg|thumb|A piece of blue [[Calcite|calcite marble]] from the [[Precambrian|Precambrian period]] in [[New York (state)|New York State]], United States]]

=== Examples of notable marble varieties and locations ===
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
! Marble !! Color!! Location!! Country
|-
| [[Sivec|Bianco Sivec]]
| white
| near [[Prilep]] (Прилеп), [[Pelagonia Statistical Region|Pelagonia]] (Пелагониски)
| [[North Macedonia]]
|-
| [[Carrara marble]]
| white or blue-gray
| [[Carrara]], [[Tuscany]]
| [[Italy]]
|-
| [[Statuario marble]]
| white, golden, black
| [[Carrara]],  [[Apuan Alps]]
| [[Italy]]
|-
| [[Creole marble]]
| white and blue/black
| [[Pickens County, Georgia]]
| [[United States]]
|-
| [[Etowah marble]]
| pink, salmon, rose
| [[Pickens County, Georgia]]
| United States
|-
| [[Hanbaiyu marble]]
| white
| [[Quyang County]], [[Hebei]]
| [[China]]
|-
| [[Makrana marble]]
| white
| [[Makrana]], [[Nagaur district]], [[Rajasthan]]
| [[India]]
|-
| [[Georgia Marble Company|Murphy marble]]
| white
| [[Pickens County, Georgia|Pickens]] and [[Gilmer County, Georgia|Gilmer]] Counties, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
| United States
|-
| [[Nero Marquina marble]]
| black
| [[Markina-Xemein]], [[Bizkaia]], [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque County]]
| [[Spain]]
|-
| [[Parian marble]]
| pure-white, fine-grained
| Island of [[Paros]] (Πάρος), [[South Aegean]] (Νοτίου Αιγαίου)
| [[Greece]]
|-
| [[Pentelic marble]]<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/450431/Pentelic-marble Pentelic marble] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114235736/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/450431/Pentelic-marble |date=2014-11-14 }}, ''Britannica Online Encyclopaedia''. Britannica.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-30.</ref>
| pure-white, fine-grained semitranslucent
| [[Mount Pentelicus]] (Πεντελικό όρος), [[Attica]] (Ἀττική)
| Greece
|-
| Prokonnesos marble
| white
| [[Marmara Island]], [[Sea of Marmara]]
| [[Turkey]]
|-
| [[Ruskeala|Ruskeala marble]]
| white
| near [[Ruskeala]] (Рускеала), [[Karelia]] (Карелия)
| [[Russia]]
|-
| [[Rușchița marble]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digi24.ro/stire/RAPORT-DE-TARA-Domul-din-Milano-a-fost-reconstruit-cu-marmura-de-Ruschita_96970|title=RAPORT DE ȚARĂ. Domul din Milano a fost reconstruit cu marmură de Rușchița|access-date=2013-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514071707/http://www.digi24.ro/stire/RAPORT-DE-TARA-Domul-din-Milano-a-fost-reconstruit-cu-marmura-de-Ruschita_96970|archive-date=2013-05-14|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| white, pinkish, reddish
| [[Poiana Ruscă Mountains]], [[Caraș-Severin County]]
| [[Romania]]
|-
| [[Swedish green marble]]
| green
| near [[Kolmården]], [[Södermanland]]
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| [[Sylacauga marble]]
| white
| [[Talladega County, Alabama]]
| United States
|-
| [[Venčac]] marble
| white
| Venčac mountain near [[Aranđelovac]]
| [[Serbia]]
|-
| [[Vermont Marble Museum|Vermont marble]]
| white
| [[Proctor, Vermont]]
| United States
|-
| [[Wunsiedel Marble|Wunsiedel marble]]
| white
| [[Wunsiedel]], [[Bavaria]]
| [[Germany]]
|-
| [[Yule Marble|Yule marble]]
| uniform pure white
| near [[Marble, Colorado]]
| United States
|}

=== Features ===
Marble is a rock composed of [[calcium]] and [[magnesium carbonate]], mostly white and pink.<ref name="www.britannica.com"/> Common marble varieties are granular limestone or [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]]. The [[hardness]] of marble is very high, because the internal structure of the rock is very uniform after long-term natural aging, and the [[Stress (mechanics)|internal stress]] disappears, so the marble will not be deformed due to temperature, and has strong wear resistance. It is a popular building material.

The following table is a summary of the features of marble.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Geology – rocks and minerals |url=https://rocksminerals.flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/rocks/marble.html |access-date=2023-03-24 |website=rocksminerals.flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz |archive-date=2023-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324054521/https://rocksminerals.flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/rocks/marble.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
![[Color|Colour]]
|White, Pink, Black etc
|-
![[Texture (geology)|Texture]]
|granular
|-
![[Grain size]]
|medium grained
|-
![[Mineralogy]]
|calcite
|-
![[Hardness]]
|hard
|-
!Other features
|generally gritty to touch
|-
!Uses
|[[Building material|building stone]]
|}

== Uses ==
[[File:Romblon island 089col.jpg|thumb|Marble products in [[Romblon province|Romblon]], [[Philippines]]]]
[[File:Lincoln statue, Lincoln Memorial.jpg|thumb|[[Statue of Abraham Lincoln (Lincoln Memorial)]] sculpted by [[Daniel Chester French]] from Georgia Marble in 1920]]

===Sculpture===
White marble has been prized for its use in [[marble sculpture|sculptures]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_7zKJOYkW0GsC|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_7zKJOYkW0GsC/page/n411 371]|quote=white marble prized for use to make sculptures.|title=PROCEEDINGS 4th International Congress on "Science and Technology for the Safeguard of Cultural Heritage in the Mediterranean Basin" VOL. I|publisher=Angelo Ferrari|isbn=9788896680315|language=en}}</ref> since [[Classical antiquity|classical times]]. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative [[isotropy]] and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low [[Refractive index|index of refraction]] of calcite allows light to penetrate 12.7 to 38 millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting the human form.<ref>"Marble", Britannica Online Encyclopaedia. Britannica.com.; Clarke, Michael, ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms'', p.148, 2001, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|9780192800435}}</ref>

===Construction===
Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]] or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish.<ref>Marble Institute of America pp. 223 Glossary</ref> More generally in [[construction]], specifically the [[dimension stone]] trade, the term ''marble'' is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, [[Tennessee marble]] is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon [[Ordovician]] limestone, that [[geologist]]s call the [[Holston Formation]].

[[Ashgabat]], the capital city of [[Turkmenistan]], was recorded in the 2013 ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' as having the world's highest concentration of white marble buildings.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/26/turkmenistan-world-record-white-marble-buildings |title=Turkmenistan enters record books for having the most white marble buildings &#124; World news |work=theguardian.com |date=2013-05-26 |access-date=2013-11-24 |location=London |archive-date=2013-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130716094612/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/may/26/turkmenistan-world-record-white-marble-buildings |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Production ==
[[File:Karibib Marble (2018).jpg|thumb|right|Mining of Karibib Marble (2018)<br />{{coord|22|06|16|S|015|48|48|E|region:NA_type:landmark|name=Marmor}}]]{{See also|Quarrying}}
[[File:Marble quarry, near Jaipur, India.jpg|alt=Marble quarry in Jaipur, India. Large rock faces that have been cut to vertical angles, with heavy equipment such as excavators in the picture.|thumb|Marble quarry in [[Jaipur]], [[India]]]]
[[File:Romblon Marble plant workers.jpg|thumb|right|Marble plant workers in [[Romblon]], [[Philippines]]]]
The extraction of marble is performed by [[quarry]]ing. Blocks are favoured for most purposes, and can be created through various techniques, including drilling and blasting, water jet and wedge methods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rathore |first1=S. S. |last2=Bhandari |first2=S. |date=2006-03-30 |title=Controlled Fracture Growth by Blasting While Protecting Damages to Remaining Rock |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00603-005-0080-5 |journal=Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=317–326 |doi=10.1007/s00603-005-0080-5 |s2cid=55998785 |issn=0723-2632|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Limestones are often commercially and historically referred to as marble, which differs from the geological definition.

=== Locations ===
Marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone. [[China]] and [[Italy]] were the world leaders, each representing 34% and 19% of world production respectively, followed by [[India]] and [[Spain]] produced 16% and 13% respectively.<ref name=":0">[https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Country-wise-production-of-stones-in-percentages_fig3_338196136 Country wise production of stones in percentages]</ref>

In 2018 [[Turkey]] was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed by [[Italy]] with 18% and [[Greece]] with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018 was [[China]] with a 64% market share, followed by [[India]] with 11% and Italy with 5%.<ref name="UNComtrade_2018">{{Cite web |last=Comtrade |title=Comtrade Explorer - Snapshot HS 2515 (Marble, travertine, ecaussine and other stone) |url=https://comtrade.un.org/db/ce/ceSnapshot.aspx?px=H2&cc=2515 |access-date=31 January 2020 |website=United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database |archive-date=23 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023011533/https://comtrade.un.org/db/help/ureadMeFirst.aspx?returnPath=%2Fdb%2Fce%2FceSnapshot.aspx%3Fpx%3DH2&cc=2515 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Ancient times ====
White marbles throughout the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean basin]] were widely utilized during the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] period. Extraction centers were unevenly distributed across the [[Italian Peninsula]], [[mainland Greece]], the [[Aegean Islands]], [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]], and smaller hubs like those in the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. The need for extensive trade arose due to this imbalance, leading to the widespread exchange of marble objects, including building elements, sculptures, and [[Sarcophagus|sarcophagi]]. There was a significant increase in the distribution of white marble from the late 1st century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD. A gradual decline in distribution started in the third century AD.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taelman |first=Devi |date=2022 |title=Marble trade in the Roman Mediterranean: a quantitative and diachronic study |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-archaeology/article/marble-trade-in-the-roman-mediterranean-a-quantitative-and-diachronic-study/21E133772DD873D63D03040C7CCE5D3F |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=848–875 |doi=10.1017/S1047759422000447 |issn=1047-7594 |hdl=1854/LU-01GSF6YKQ2WTX6Y0SGZYHD1KVB |s2cid=256220068 |hdl-access=free |access-date=2024-01-26 |archive-date=2024-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127023800/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-archaeology/article/marble-trade-in-the-roman-mediterranean-a-quantitative-and-diachronic-study/21E133772DD873D63D03040C7CCE5D3F |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== United States ====
According to the [[United States Geological Survey]], U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground [[calcium carbonate]] and the rest was [[construction aggregate]]. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile.

==== Palestine ====
The stone and marble industry is one of the largest industries in Palestine, contributing 20-25% of its total industrial revenues, generating USD $400–$450 million in revenue annually. The industry employs 15,000–20,000 workers across the West Bank across 1200–1700 facilities, and amounts to 4.5% of the nation's GDP. The vast majority of the industry's exports are to Israel.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Marble in the geologic sense does not naturally outcrop in Palestine, and the vast majority of commercially labeled marble produced in Palestine produced would be geologically considered limestone.<ref name="Salem-2021">{{Cite journal |last=Salem |first=Hilmi S. |date=2021-02-02 |title=Evaluation of the Stone and Marble Industry in Palestine: environmental, geological, health, socioeconomic, cultural, and legal perspectives, in view of sustainable development|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=28 |issue=22 |pages=28058–28080 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-12526-4 |pmid=33528771 |pmc=7851506 |bibcode=2021ESPR...2828058S |issn=0944-1344}}</ref>

===Occupational safety===

Particulate air pollution exposure has been found to be elevated in the marble production industry. Exposure to the dust produced by cutting marble could impair lung function or cause lung disease in workers, such as [[silicosis]]. Skin and eye problems are also a potential hazard. Mitigations such as dust filters, or dust suppression are suggested, but more research needs to be carried out on the efficacy of safety measures.<ref>Foja, A.F. (1993)  [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=PH9410698 Marble industry: its socioeconomic, environmental and health effects among marble worker/producer households in Romblon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428075000/http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=PH9410698 |date=2016-04-28 }}. Philippines University Thesis. fao.org</ref><ref name="Salem-2021" />

In the United States, the [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has set the legal limit ([[permissible exposure limit]]) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> total exposure and 5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has set a [[recommended exposure limit]] (REL) of 10&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> total exposure and 5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Marble|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0382.html|website = www.cdc.gov|access-date = 2015-11-27|archive-date = 2017-05-11|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170511065345/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0382.html|url-status = live}}</ref>{{Non sequitur|date=March 2023}}

Dust, [[debris]] and temperature fluctuations from working marble can endanger the eye health of employees.<ref name="Khorshed-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Khorshed |first1=Enjy A. E. |last2=El-Naggar |first2=Safaa A. |last3=El-Gohary |first3=Samia S. |last4=Awad |first4=Ahmed M. B. |last5=Ahmed |first5=Amani S. |date=2022 |title=Occupational ocular health problems among marble workers at Shaq El Tho'ban industrial area in Egypt |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=29 |issue=25 |pages=37445–37457 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-18410-5 |issn=0944-1344 |pmc=9106598 |pmid=35066853|bibcode=2022ESPR...2937445K }}</ref> For the staff involved in marble processing, it is necessary to provide [[eye protection]] equipment, and it is recommended to improve the education of all workers on [[Occupational safety and health|occupational health]] risks and strengthen preventive measures.<ref name="Khorshed-2022"/>

==Cultural associations==
[[File:Jadwiga CP.jpg|thumb|[[Jadwiga of Poland]]'s sarcophagus by Antoni Madeyski, [[Wawel Cathedral]], [[Kraków]]]]
As the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see [[classical sculpture]]), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Granite |first=Arch City |date=2016-01-25 |title=The History of Marble Stone And Why It's so Popular For Countertops |url=https://www.archcitygranite.com/the-history-of-marble-stone-and-why-its-so-popular-for-countertops/ |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=Arch City Granite & Marble |archive-date=2023-07-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707162236/https://www.archcitygranite.com/the-history-of-marble-stone-and-why-its-so-popular-for-countertops/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Places named after the stone include [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]]; [[Marblehead, Ohio]]; [[Marble Arch]], London; the [[Sea of Marmara]]; India's [[Marble Rocks]]; and the towns of [[Marble, Minnesota]]; [[Marble, Colorado]]; [[Marble Falls, Texas]], and [[Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York]]. The [[Elgin Marbles]] are marble sculptures from the [[Parthenon]] in Athens that are on display in the [[British Museum]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cities named Marble. How many places are named Marble? |url=https://geotargit.com/called.php?qcity=Marble |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=geotargit.com |archive-date=2023-07-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707162714/https://geotargit.com/called.php?qcity=Marble |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Impact on the environment ==
[[File:Aliveri marble waste (1).jpg|thumb|This is a pile of marble waste in [[Aliveri]].]]
Total world [[quarry]]ing production in 2019 was approximately 316 million tonnes; however, quarrying waste accounted for 53% of this total production.<ref name="Khorshed-2022"/> In the process of marble mining and processing, around half of the excavated material will be waste, this is often then used as chips for flooring or wall finish, and  uses for which high-calcium limestone is suitable.<ref name="www.britannica.com"/>

== Sustainability ==
Marble<ref name="www.britannica.com"/> sludge waste can be used as a mineral filler in water-based paints.<ref name="Marras-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Marras |first1=Graziella |last2=Carcangiu |first2=Gianfranco |last3=Meloni |first3=Paola |last4=Careddu |first4=Nicola |date=2022 |title=Circular economy in marble industry: From stone scraps to sustainable water-based paints |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0950061822004573 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |language=en |volume=325 |pages=126768 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126768 |s2cid=246736434 |access-date=2023-03-18 |archive-date=2023-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326025348/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0950061822004573 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Using ground [[calcium carbonate]] as a filler in paint production can improve the brightness, [[hiding power]] and application performance of paint, and can also replace expensive [[pigment]]s such as [[titanium dioxide]].<ref name="Marras-2022" /> Recycling of marble waste leads to a large amount of waste not being land-filled, reducing environmental pollution, thereby realizing the sustainability of marble. Converting waste to generate economic income and restore degraded soil can improve the environment.

== Cleaning and preservation ==
The nature of marble is soft and porous, so it is easily scratched, and stained by colored liquids. Maintenance and cleaning is particularly important.<ref name="Better Homes & Gardens">{{Cite web |title=How to Clean Marble |url=https://www.bhg.com/homekeeping/house-cleaning/surface/how-to-clean-marble/ |access-date=2023-03-24 |website=Better Homes & Gardens |language=en |archive-date=2023-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324065940/https://www.bhg.com/homekeeping/house-cleaning/surface/how-to-clean-marble/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Preservation ===

* Prevent sand and dust from contacting the marble surface.<ref name="Better Homes & Gardens" />
* Avoid corroding marble surfaces with alcohol, color and acidic liquids.<ref name="Better Homes & Gardens" />

=== Cleaning ===

* As a floor material, marble is easy to scratch. You can first use a vacuum cleaner to suck away the grit and dust on the marble floor, and then use a steam cleaner to remove other dirt.<ref name="This Old House">{{Cite web |title=How to Clean Marble |url=https://www.thisoldhouse.com/cleaning/reviews/how-to-clean-marble |access-date=2023-03-24 |website=This Old House |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324065946/https://www.thisoldhouse.com/cleaning/reviews/how-to-clean-marble |url-status=live }}</ref>
* A mild, pH-neutral, non-abrasive soap should be used for cleaning marble surfaces. Wipe with a soft foam cotton or rag.<ref name="This Old House" />

==Gallery==
<gallery heights="100">
File:Nike of Samothrake Louvre Ma2369 n4.jpg|The [[Winged Victory of Samothrace|Nike of Samothrace]] is made of Parian marble ({{Circa|220–190 BC}})
File:Laocoön and his sons group.jpg|''[[Laocoön and His Sons]]'' in the [[Vatican Museums|Vatican]]
File:Treasury Gate, Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul, Turkey 001.jpg|[[Dolmabahçe Palace]] in [[Istanbul]]
File:Lens - Inauguration du Louvre-Lens le 4 décembre 2012, la Galerie du Temps, n° 058.JPG|The [[Praetorians Relief]], made from grey veined marble, {{circa|51–52}} AD
File:Imgp7544.jpg|Ancient marble columns in the prayer hall of the [[Mosque of Uqba]], in [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]]
File:Cleopatra by William Wetmore Story 03.jpg|''[[Cleopatra]]'' by [[William Wetmore Story]] was described and admired in [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]'s romance ''[[The Marble Faun]]'', and is on display at [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in New York City.
File:Per Hasselberg Näckrosen Rottneros Park.jpg|''Näckrosen'' (''Water Lily''), Stockholm 1892, by Swedish sculptor [[Per Hasselberg]] (1850–1894). Here a copy from 1953 in marble by [[Giovanni Ardini]] (Italy) placed in Rottneros Park near [[Sunne, Sweden|Sunne]] in [[Värmland]]/[[Sweden]].
File:Pažaislis Monastery interior 1, Kaunas, Lithuania - Diliff.jpg|[[Pažaislis Monastery]] complex has the most marble-decorated [[Baroque]] church of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]
File:Petropolis-Cathedral1.jpg|The tombs of Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil]] and other members of the [[Brazilian imperial family]], made from Carrara marble in the [[Cathedral of Petrópolis]], Brazil
File:Flickr - USCapitol - Car of History Clock (1).jpg|Carlo Franzoni's life-size sculptural marble [[chariot clock]], the ''Car of History'', depicting [[Clio]], the Greek [[muse]] of history ([[National Statuary Hall]], [[U.S. Capitol Building]]).
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Grand Antique marble]]
* [[Marble sculpture]]
* [[Marmorino]]
* [[Naxian marble]]
* [[Carrara marble]] 
* [[Paper marbling]]
* [[Pietra dura]], inlaying with marble and other stones
* [[Ruin marble]], marble that contains light and dark patterns, giving the impression of a ruined cityscape
* [[Scagliola]], imitating marble with plasterwork
* [[Verd antique]], sometimes (erroneously) called "serpentine marble", and often confused with [[Connemara marble]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Marble}}
{{EB1911 Poster|Marble}}
* [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_dimension/ Dimension Stone Statistics and Information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223080218/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_dimension/ |date=2009-12-23 }} – United States Geological Survey minerals information for dimension stone
* [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_crushed/cstonmyb05.pdf USGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Crushed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926092030/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_crushed/cstonmyb05.pdf |date=2007-09-26 }}
* [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_dimension/dstonmyb05.pdf USGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Dimension] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810030937/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_dimension/dstonmyb05.pdf |date=2007-08-10 }}
* [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_crushed/myb1-2006-stonc.pdf USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Crushed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227212344/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_crushed/myb1-2006-stonc.pdf |date=2008-02-27 }}
* [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_dimension/myb1-2006-stond.pdf USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Dimension] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227212341/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/stone_dimension/myb1-2006-stond.pdf |date=2008-02-27 }}
* [http://www.marble-institute.com/ Marble Institute of America] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902053836/http://www.marble-institute.com/ |date=2011-09-02 }}

{{Stonemasonry}}
{{Rock type}}
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[[Category:Marble| ]]
[[Category:Sculpture materials]]
[[Category:Metasedimentary rocks]]
[[Category:Limestone]]
[[Category:Stone (material)]]
[[Category:Symbols of Alabama]]