Editing Mars Climate Orbiter

{{short description|Failed NASA mission to Mars (1998–1999)}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Infobox spaceflight
| name              = ''Mars Climate Orbiter''
| names_list        = Mars Surveyor '98 ''Orbiter''
| image             = Mars Climate Orbiter 2.jpg
| image_caption     = Artist's conception of the ''Mars Climate Orbiter''
| image_size        = 300px
| mission_type      = [[Mars]] orbiter
| operator          = [[NASA]]/[[JPL]]
| website           = [https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-climate-orbiter/ science.nasa.gov]
| COSPAR_ID         = 1998-073A
| SATCAT            = 25571
| mission_duration  = {{time interval|11 Dec 1998|23 Sept 1999|show=dhm}}<br>{{small|Mission failure}}

| manufacturer      = [[Lockheed Martin Space Systems|Lockheed Martin]]
| launch_mass       = {{cvt|638|kg|lb}}{{r|launch_prep}}
| power             = 500&nbsp;watts
| launch_date = {{start-date|December 11, 1998, 18:45:51|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC
| launch_rocket     = [[Delta II]] 7425<br>D-264
| launch_site       = [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|CCAFS]] [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17|SLC-17A]]
| launch_contractor = [[Boeing]]
| last_contact      = {{end-date|23 September 1999 09:06:00|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC<br>{{small|Unintentionally deorbited}}
| disposal_type     = Destroyed
| orbit_epoch       = Planned
| orbit_reference   = [[Areocentric orbit|Areocentric]]
| orbit_periapsis   = 
| orbit_apoapsis    = 
| orbit_inclination = 
| orbit_period      = 
| apsis             = areion

| insignia          = M98patch.png
| insignia_size     = 180px
| insignia_caption  = ''Mars Surveyor 98'' mission logo

| programme         = '''[[Mars Exploration Program]]'''
| previous_mission  = [[Mars Pathfinder]]
| next_mission      = [[Mars Polar Lander|MPL]]
| programme2        = '''[[Mars Surveyor '98]]'''
}}

The '''''Mars Climate Orbiter''''' (formerly the '''Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter''') was a [[Robotic spacecraft|robotic]] space probe launched by [[NASA]] on December 11, 1998, to study the [[Climate of Mars|Martian climate]], [[Atmosphere of Mars|Martian atmosphere]], and [[Martian surface|surface changes]] and to act as the communications relay in the [[Mars Surveyor '98]] program for [[Mars Polar Lander]]. However, on September 23, 1999, communication with the spacecraft was permanently lost as it went into [[Orbit insertion|orbital insertion]]. The spacecraft encountered Mars on a trajectory that brought it too close to the planet, and it was destroyed in the atmosphere.{{r|MCO_report}} An investigation attributed the failure to a measurement mismatch between two measurement systems: [[International System of Units|SI units]] (metric) by NASA and [[United States customary units|US customary]] units by spacecraft builder [[Lockheed Martin Space|Lockheed Martin]].{{r|cnn_lost}}

== Mission background ==

=== History ===
After the loss of ''[[Mars Observer]]'' and the onset of the rising costs associated with the future [[International Space Station]], [[NASA]] began seeking less expensive, smaller probes for scientific interplanetary missions.  In 1994, the Panel on Small Spacecraft Technology was established to set guidelines for future miniature spacecraft. The panel determined that the new line of miniature spacecraft should be under {{cvt|1000|kg|lb}} with highly focused instrumentation.{{r|Panel}} In 1995, a new Mars Surveyor program began as a set of missions designed with limited objectives, low costs, and frequent launches. The first mission in the new program was [[Mars Global Surveyor]], launched in 1996 to map Mars and provide geologic data using instruments intended for ''Mars Observer''.{{r|Small_Missions}} Following Mars Global Surveyor, ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' carried two instruments, one originally intended for Mars Observer, to study the climate and weather of Mars.

The primary science objectives of the mission included:{{r|Arrival_Press_Kit}}
* Determine the distribution of [[water on Mars]]
* Monitor the daily weather and atmospheric conditions
* Record changes on the Martian surface due to wind and other atmospheric effects
* Determine temperature profiles of the atmosphere
* Monitor the water vapor and dust content of the atmosphere
* Look for evidence of past climate change.

===Spacecraft design===
The ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' bus measured {{cvt|2.1|m|ftin}} tall, {{cvt|1.6|m|ftin}} wide and {{cvt|2.0|m|ftin}} deep. The internal structure was largely constructed with graphite composite/aluminum honeycomb supports, a design found in many commercial [[airplane]]s. With the exception of the scientific instruments, battery and main engine, the spacecraft included dual redundancy on the most important systems.{{r|Arrival_Press_Kit|mco_cost}} The spacecraft weighed {{cvt|638|kg|lb}}.{{r|launch_prep}}

The spacecraft was [[Spacecraft attitude control|three-axis stabilized]] and included eight [[hydrazine]] [[Monopropellant rocket|monopropellant]] thrusters: four {{cvt|22|N}} thrusters to perform trajectory corrections and four {{cvt|0.9|N|ozf}} thrusters to [[Spacecraft attitude control|control attitude]]. Orientation of the spacecraft was determined by a [[star tracker]], two [[Sun sensor]]s and two [[Spacecraft attitude control|inertial measurement units]]. Orientation was controlled by firing the thrusters or using three [[reaction wheel]]s. To perform the Mars orbital insertion maneuver, the spacecraft also included a [[LEROS]] 1B main engine rocket,{{r|leros-1b}} providing {{cvt|640|N}} of thrust by burning [[hydrazine]] fuel with [[Dinitrogen tetroxide#Use as a rocket propellant|nitrogen tetroxide]] (NTO) oxidizer.{{r|Arrival_Press_Kit|mco_cost}}

The spacecraft included a {{cvt|1.3|m|ftin}} [[Directional antenna|high-gain antenna]] to transceive data with the [[NASA Deep Space Network|Deep Space Network]] over the [[x band]]. The radio transponder designed for the ''[[Cassini–Huygens]]'' mission was used as a cost-saving measure.  It also included a two-way [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] radio frequency system to relay communications with [[Mars Polar Lander]] upon an expected landing on December 3, 1999.{{r|Arrival_Press_Kit|mco_cost|Launch_Press_Kit}}

The space probe was powered with a [[photovoltaic system|three-panel solar array]], providing an average of 500&nbsp;W at Mars.  Deployed, the solar array measured {{cvt|5.5|m|ftin}} in length. Power was stored in 12-cell, 16-amp-hour [[Nickel–hydrogen battery|nickel-hydrogen batteries]]. The batteries were intended to be recharged when the solar array received sunlight and power the spacecraft as it passed into the shadow of Mars. When entering into orbit around Mars, the solar array was to be utilized in the [[aerobraking]] maneuver, to slow the spacecraft until a circular orbit was achieved. The design was largely adapted from guidelines from the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative outlined in the book, ''Technology for Small Spacecraft''.{{r|Arrival_Press_Kit|mco_cost|Panel}}

In an effort to simplify previous implementations of computers on spacecraft, ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' featured a single computer using an IBM [[RAD6000]] processor utilizing a [[POWER1|POWER1 ISA]] capable of 5, 10 or 20&nbsp;MHz operation. Data storage was to be maintained on 128 [[Megabyte|MB]] of [[random-access memory]] (RAM) and 18 MB of [[flash memory]]. The flash memory was intended to be used for highly important data, including triplicate copies of the flight system software.{{r|Arrival_Press_Kit}}

== Scientific instruments ==
=== Pressure Modulated Infrared Radiometer (PMIRR) ===
[[File:Mars Observer - PMIRR Diagram.png|thumb|PMIRR diagram]]
The Pressure Modulated Infrared Radiometer (PMIRR) uses narrow-band radiometric channels and two pressure modulation cells to measure atmospheric and surface emissions in the thermal infrared and a visible channel to measure dust particles and condensates in the atmosphere and on the surface at varying longitudes and seasons.{{r|NSSDCPMIRR}} Its principal investigator was Daniel McCleese at JPL/CALTECH. Similar objectives were later achieved with ''Mars Climate Sounder'' on board ''[[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]]''. Its objectives:{{r|MOObjectives}}
* Map the three-dimensional and time-varying thermal structure of the atmosphere from the surface to 80&nbsp;km altitude.
* Map the atmospheric dust loading and its global, vertical and temporal variation.
* Map the seasonal and spatial variation of the vertical distribution of atmospheric water vapor to an altitude of at least 35&nbsp;km.
* Distinguish between atmospheric condensates and map their spatial and temporal variation.
* Map the seasonal and spatial variability of atmospheric pressure.
* Monitor the polar radiation balance.

=== Mars Color Imager (MARCI) ===
[[File:Mars Climate Orbiter - mco marci.jpg|thumb|MARCI camera]]
The [[Mars Color Imager]] (MARCI) is a two-camera (medium-angle/wide-angle) imaging system designed to obtain pictures of the Martian surface and atmosphere. Under proper conditions, resolutions up to {{cvt|1|km|ft}} are possible.{{r|MARCI|NSSDCMARCI}} The principal investigator on this project was Michael Malin at [[Malin Space Science Systems]] and the project was reincorporated on ''[[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]]''.

Its objectives:{{r|MARCI}}
* Observe Martian atmospheric processes at global scale and synoptically.
* Study details of the interaction of the atmosphere with the surface at a variety of scales in both space and time.
* Examine surface features characteristic of the evolution of the Martian climate over time.

<gallery mode=packed>
File:Mars Climate Orbiter - spacecraft diagram.png|Diagram of Mars Climate Orbiter
File:Mars Climate Orbiter 1.jpg|Mars Climate Orbiter during assembly
File:Mars Climate Orbiter during tests.jpg|Mars Climate Orbiter undergoing acoustic testing
File:Mars Climate orbiter - awaiting spin test - mco9811165.jpg|Mars Climate Orbiter awaiting a spin test in November 1998
</gallery>

==Mission profile==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Timeline of travel
|-
! scope="col" | Date !! scope="col" | Time<br>(UTC) !! scope="col" style="width: 20em;" | Event
|-
| align="center" | Dec 11<br>1998 || 18:45:51 || Spacecraft launched
|-
| rowspan="7" align="center" | Sep 23<br>1999 || 08:41:00 || Insertion begins. Orbiter stows solar array.
|-
| 08:50:00 || Orbiter turns to correct orientation to begin main engine burn.
|-
| 08:56:00 || Orbiter fires pyrotechnic devices which open valves to begin pressurizing the fuel and oxidizer tanks.
|-
| 09:00:46 || Main engine burn starts; expected to fire for 16 minutes 23 seconds.
|-
| 09:04:52 || Communication with spacecraft lost
|-
| 09:06:00 || Orbiter expected to enter Mars [[occultation]], out of radio contact with Earth.<ref group="n" name="t">Planned but unaccounted for event.</ref>
|-
| 09:27:00 || Expected to exit Mars occultation.<ref group="n" name="t" />
|-
| align="center" | Sep 25<br>1999 || || Mission declared a loss. Reason for loss known. No further attempts to contact.
|}

===Launch and trajectory===
The ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' probe was launched on December 11, 1998, at 18:45:51 UTC by NASA from [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 17|Space Launch Complex 17A]] at the [[Cape Canaveral Air Station]] in Florida, aboard a [[Delta II|Delta II 7425]] launch vehicle. The complete burn sequence lasted 42 minutes bringing the spacecraft into a [[Hohmann transfer orbit]], sending the probe into a 9.5-month, {{convert|669|e6km|abbr=unit}} trajectory.{{r|Arrival_Press_Kit|Launch_Press_Kit}} At launch, ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' weighed {{cvt|638|kg|lb}} including propellant.{{r|launch_prep}}

<gallery>
File:Mars Climate Orbiter - launch configuration.png|alt=Wireframe diagram of the rocket and orbiter|Exploded diagram of Delta II launch vehicle with ''Mars Climate Orbiter''
File:Mars Climate Orbiter - launch.jpg|alt=Rocket during launch|Launch of ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' by NASA on a [[Delta II]] 7425 launch vehicle
File:Mars Climate Orbiter - interplanetary trajectory.png|alt=Diagram of the interplanetary trajectory|Interplanetary trajectory of ''Mars Climate Orbiter''
File:Mars Climate Orbiter - aerobraking.png|alt=Diagram of aerobraking approach with periods of 2, 5, 9, and 15 hours|Aerobraking procedure to place ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' into orbit around Mars
</gallery>

=== Encounter with Mars ===
<gallery>
File:Mars Climate Orbiter - Mars encounter - PIA02330.jpg|alt="Half moon" image of Mars|This image of Mars on September 7, 1999, is the only image acquired by the ''Orbiter''.
File:Mars Climate Orbiter - mishap diagram.png|alt=Comparative diagram of the two trajectories|Diagram comparing the intended and actual trajectories of the ''Orbiter''
</gallery>

''Mars Climate Orbiter'' began the planned orbital insertion maneuver on September 23, 1999, at 09:00:46 UTC.  ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' went out of radio contact when the spacecraft passed behind Mars at 09:04:52 UTC, 49 seconds earlier than expected, and communication was never reestablished.  Due to complications arising from [[human error]], the spacecraft encountered Mars at a lower-than-anticipated altitude and it was either destroyed in the atmosphere or re-entered heliocentric space after leaving Mars's atmosphere.{{r|MCO_report}} ''[[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]]'' has since completed most of the intended objectives for this mission.

== Cause of failure ==
{{quote box
|width=30%
|quote=The problem here was not the error; it was the failure of NASA's systems engineering, and the checks and balances in our processes, to detect the error. That's why we lost the spacecraft.
|author=—Edward Weiler, NASA associate administrator for space science{{r|NASA}}}}

On November 10, 1999, the ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' Mishap Investigation Board released a Phase I report, detailing the suspected issues encountered with the loss of the spacecraft.

Previously, on September 8, 1999, Trajectory Correction Maneuver-4 (TCM-4) was computed, and was then executed on September 15, 1999.  It was intended to place the spacecraft at an optimal position for an orbital insertion maneuver that would bring the spacecraft around Mars at an altitude of {{cvt|226|km|mi}} on September 23, 1999.

However, during the week between TCM-4 and the orbital insertion maneuver, the navigation team reported that it appeared the insertion altitude could be much lower than planned, at about {{cvt|150|–|170|km|mi}}.  Twenty-four hours prior to orbital insertion, calculations placed the orbiter at an altitude of {{cvt|110|km|mi}}. {{cvt|80|km|mi}} was the minimum altitude that ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' was thought to be capable of surviving during this maneuver.

During insertion, the orbiter was intended to skim through Mars's upper atmosphere, gradually [[aerobraking]] for weeks, but post-failure calculations showed that the spacecraft's trajectory would have taken it within {{cvt|57|km|mi}} of the surface.  At this altitude, the spacecraft would likely have skipped violently off the denser-than-expected atmosphere,{{citation needed |date=December 2021}} and it was either destroyed in the atmosphere, or re-entered heliocentric space.{{r|MCO_report}}

The primary cause of this discrepancy was that one piece of ground software supplied by [[Lockheed Martin]] produced results in a [[United States customary units|United States customary unit]], contrary to its Software Interface Specification (SIS), while a second system, supplied by NASA, expected those results to be in [[International System of Units|SI units]], in accordance with the SIS. Specifically, software that calculated the total [[impulse (physics)|impulse]] produced by thruster firings produced results in [[Foot–pound–second system|pound-force second]]s. The trajectory calculation software then used these results – expected to be in [[newton-second]]s (incorrect by a factor of 4.45){{r|MCO_report}} – to update the predicted position of the spacecraft.{{r|MCO_report}}

Still, NASA does not place the responsibility on Lockheed for the mission loss; instead, various officials at NASA have stated that NASA itself was at fault for failing to make the appropriate checks and tests that would have caught the discrepancy.{{r|NASA}}

The discrepancy between calculated and measured position, resulting in the discrepancy between desired and actual orbit insertion altitude, had been noticed earlier by at least two navigators, whose concerns were dismissed because they "did not follow the rules about filling out [the] form to document their concerns". A meeting of trajectory software engineers, trajectory software operators (navigators), propulsion engineers, and managers was convened to consider the possibility of executing Trajectory Correction Maneuver-5, which was in the schedule. Attendees of the meeting recall an agreement to conduct TCM-5, but it was ultimately not done.{{r|NASA}}

The loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter took place two and a half months before the loss of the [[Mars Polar Lander]]. Inadequate funding and poor management have been cited as underlying causes of the failures. According to Thomas Young, chairman of the Mars Program Independent Assessment Team, the Mars Surveyor '98 program "was under funded by at least 30%."{{r|PBS-20000414}}

=== Project costs ===
According to NASA, the cost of the mission was $327.6 million (${{Inflation|US-GDP|327.6|1998|r=2}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}){{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}} total for the orbiter and lander, comprising $193.1 million (${{Inflation|US-GDP|193.1|1998|r=2}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}){{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}} for spacecraft development, $91.7 million (${{Inflation|US-GDP|91.7|1998|r=2}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}){{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}} for launching it, and $42.8 million (${{Inflation|US-GDP|42.8|1998|r=2}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}){{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}} for mission operations.{{r|mco_cost}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
* [[List of missions to Mars]]
* [[List of artificial objects on Mars]]
* [[List of software bugs#Space|List of software bugs]]
* [[Metrication]]

== References ==
=== Notes ===
<references group="n" />

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="Arrival_Press_Kit">{{Cite press release
| title= Mars Climate Orbiter Arrival Press Kit
| publisher= [[NASA]]
| date= September 1999 
| url= http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/files/misc/mcoarrivehq.pdf
| access-date= 13 January 2011
| archive-date= 12 March 2011
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110312111641/http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/files/misc/mcoarrivehq.pdf
| url-status= dead }}
</ref>

<ref name="cnn_lost">{{Cite web
| author1= R. Lloyd
| title= Metric mishap caused loss of NASA orbiter
| work= [[CNN]]
| date= 30 September 1999
| url= http://www.cnn.com/TECH/space/9909/30/mars.metric.02/index.html
| access-date= 21 March 2016
| archive-date= October 24, 2019
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191024152139/http://www.cnn.com/TECH/space/9909/30/mars.metric.02/index.html
| url-status= live
}}</ref>

<ref name="launch_prep">{{Cite press release
| title= 1998 MARS CLIMATE ORBITER ARRIVES AT NASA'S KENNEDY SPACE CENTER FOR FINAL LAUNCH PREPARATIONS
| publisher= [[NASA]]
| date= 14 September 1998 
| url= http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/98/98orbitershipped.html
| access-date= 3 January 2011
| url-status= dead
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/19991008135656/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/98/98orbitershipped.html
| archive-date= 8 October 1999 }}
</ref>

<ref name="Launch_Press_Kit">{{Cite press release
| title= 1998 Mars Missions Press Kit
| publisher= [[NASA]]
| date= December 1998 
| url= http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/files/misc/mars98launch.pdf
| access-date= 13 January 2011
| archive-date= 30 April 2020
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200430120208/https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/files/misc/mars98launch.pdf
| url-status= dead }}
</ref>

<ref name="leros-1b">{{cite web
| url= http://www.ampacisp.co.uk/products_1.php
| title= LEROS 1B
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110903231458/http://www.ampacisp.co.uk/products_1.php
| archive-date= 3 September 2011 }}
</ref>

<ref name="MARCI">{{Cite journal
| author1= M. C. Malin
| author2= J. F. Bell, III
| author3= W. M. Calvin
| author4= M. A. Caplinger
| author5= R. T. Clancy
| author6= R. M. Harberle
| author7= P. B. James
| author8= S. W. Lee
| author9= M. A. Ravine
| author10= P. Thomas
| author11= M. J. Wolff
| display-authors= 5
| year= 2001
| title= Mars Color Imager (MARCI) on the Mars Climate Orbiter
| journal= Journal of Geophysical Research
| volume= 106
| issue= E8
| pages= 17,651–17,672
| doi= 10.1029/1999JE001145
| url= http://www.msss.com/mro/marci/references/1999JE001145.pdf
| access-date= 13 January 2011
| bibcode= 2001JGR...10617651M
| archive-date= January 23, 2020
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200123005247/http://www.msss.com/mro/marci/references/1999JE001145.pdf
| url-status= live
}}</ref>

<ref name="mco_cost">{{Cite web
| url= https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-climate-orbiter/
| website= science.nasa.gov
| title= Mars Climate Orbiter
| publisher= [[NASA]]
| access-date= 3 August 2020
| archive-date= June 29, 2024
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240629072937/https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-climate-orbiter/
| url-status= live
}}</ref>

<ref name="MCO_report">{{Cite conference
| author1= A. G. Stephenson
| author2= L. S. LaPiana
| author3= D. R. Mulville
| author4= P. J. Rutledge
| author5= F. H. Bauer
| author6= D. Folta
| author7= G. A. Dukeman
| author8= R. Sackheim
| author9= P. Norvig
| display-authors= 5
| title= Mars Climate Orbiter Mishap Investigation Board Phase I Report
| publisher= [[NASA]]
| date= 10 November 1999
| url= https://llis.nasa.gov/llis_lib/pdf/1009464main1_0641-mr.pdf
| access-date= 11 May 2021
| archive-date= January 23, 2020
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200123005257/https://llis.nasa.gov/llis_lib/pdf/1009464main1_0641-mr.pdf
| url-status= live
}}</ref>

<ref name="MOObjectives">{{Cite journal
| author1= A. L. Albee
| year= 1988
| title= Workshop on Mars Sample Return Science
| journal= Mars Sample Return Science
| pages= 25–29
| publisher= Lunar and Planetary Institute 
| bibcode= 1988msrs.work...25A }}
</ref>

<ref name="NASA">{{Cite web
| author1= J. Oberg
| url= https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-the-mars-probe-went-off-course
| title= Why the Mars Probe went off course
| date= 1 December 1999
| work= [[IEEE]]
| access-date= 13 July 2016
| archive-date= February 5, 2023
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230205173051/https://spectrum.ieee.org/why-the-mars-probe-went-off-course
| url-status= live
}}</ref>

<ref name="NSSDCMARCI">{{Cite web
| url= https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=1998-073A-01
| title= Mars Color Imager (MARCI)
| website= nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov
| publisher= [[NASA]]
| access-date= 19 February 2011
| archive-date= April 14, 2020
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200414205438/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=1998-073A-01
| url-status= live
}}</ref>

<ref name="NSSDCPMIRR">{{Cite web
| url= https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=1998-073A-02
| title= Pressure Modulated Infrared Radiometer (PMIRR)
| website= nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov
| publisher= [[NASA]]
| access-date= 19 February 2011
| archive-date= April 14, 2020
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200414205422/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=1998-073A-02
| url-status= live
}}</ref>

<ref name="Panel">{{Cite book
| title= Technology for Small Spacecraft
| author1= Panel on Small Spacecraft Technology, National Research Council
| year= 1994
| publisher= [[National Academy Press]]
| location= Washington D.C.
| isbn= 0-309-05075-8
| url= http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2351
| pages= 6, 121–123
| access-date= 13 January 2011
| archive-date= June 29, 2024
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240629072940/https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/2351/chapter/1#iv
| url-status= live
}}</ref>

<ref name="Small_Missions">{{Cite book
| title= The Role of Small Missions in Planetary and Lunar Exploration
| author1= Committee on Planetary and Lunar Exploration, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications, National Research Council
| year= 1995
| publisher= [[National Academies Press]]
| location= Washington D.C.
| doi= 10.17226/12285
| hdl= 2060/19960002222
| isbn= 978-0-309-12250-4
| s2cid= 219866579
| url= http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12285&page=1
| access-date= 13 January 2011
| archive-date= October 17, 2012
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121017131433/http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12285&page=1
| url-status= live
}}</ref>

<ref name="PBS-20000414">{{cite news
| author1= J. Kaye
| title= NASA in the Hot Seat
| url= https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/science/jan-june00/nasa_4-14.html
| format= transcript
| work= NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
| publisher= [[PBS]]
| date= 14 April 2000
| access-date= 22 April 2009 | archive-date= 26 December 2013
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131226075519/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/science/jan-june00/nasa_4-14.html
| url-status= dead
}}</ref>

}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Mars Climate Orbiter}}
*[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/files/misc/mars98launch.pdf Mars Surveyor '98 launch press kit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430120208/https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/files/misc/mars98launch.pdf |date=April 30, 2020 }}
*[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press_kits/mcoarrivehq.pdf ''Mars Climate Orbiter'' arrival at Mars press kit]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070802044958/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=MCO Mars Climate Orbiter Mission Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
*[https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1998-073A NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive]
*[https://llis.nasa.gov/llis_lib/pdf/1009464main1_0641-mr.pdf Mars Climate Orbiter Mishap Investigation Board Phase I Report - November 10, 1999]

{{Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter}}
{{Mars spacecraft}}
{{Jet Propulsion Laboratory}}
{{Orbital launches in 1998}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2020}}

[[Category:Climate of Mars]]
[[Category:Missions to Mars]]
[[Category:Space accidents and incidents in the United States]]
[[Category:NASA space probes]]
[[Category:Lockheed Martin satellites and probes]]
[[Category:Destroyed space probes]]
[[Category:Metrication in the United States]]
[[Category:Spacecraft launched in 1998]]
[[Category:Spacecraft launched by Delta II rockets]]