Editing Mary of Modena

{{Short description|Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1685 to 1688}}
{{about|the British queen consort|the wife of Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma|Maria d'Este}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image        = File: Mary of Modena Kneller.jpg
| caption      = Portrait by [[Godfrey Kneller]], {{circa|1687}}
| succession   = [[Queen consort of England]], [[List of Scottish consorts|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]]
| consort      = yes
| reign        = 6 February 1685{{snd}}11 December 1688
| coronation   = 23 April 1685
| cor-type     = [[Coronation of James II and VII and Mary|Coronation]]
| birth_date   = {{birth date|1658|10|05|df=yes}}
| birth_place  = [[Ducal Palace of Modena|Ducal Palace]], Modena, {{awrap|[[Duchy of Modena and Reggio]]}}
| death_date   = {{death date and age|1718|05|07|1658|10|05|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye]], Paris, France
| place of burial = Convent of the Visitations, [[Chaillot]], France
| spouse       = {{marriage|[[James II of England]]|21 November 1673|16 September 1701|reason=d.}}
| issue        = {{plainlist|
*[[Isabel Stuart]]
*[[Charles Stuart, Duke of Cambridge (1677)|Charles, Duke of Cambridge]]
*[[James Francis Edward, Prince of Wales]]
*[[Louisa Maria Stuart]]}}
| issue-link   = #Issue
| issue-pipe   = among others
| house        = [[House of Este|Este]]
| full name    = Maria Beatrice Eleonora Anna Margherita Isabella d'Este
| father       = [[Alfonso IV, Duke of Modena]]
| mother       = [[Laura Martinozzi]]
| signature    = MaryOfModenaSignature.svg
| religion     = [[Catholicism|Roman Catholicism]]
}}

'''Mary of Modena''' ({{langx|it|Maria Beatrice Eleonora Anna Margherita Isabella d'Este}};<ref>Harris, p. 1</ref> {{OldStyleDate|5 October|1658|25 September}}{{snd}}{{OldStyleDate|7 May|1718|26 April}}) was [[List of English royal consorts|Queen of England]], [[List of Scottish royal consorts|Scotland]] and Ireland as the second wife of [[James VII and II]]. A devout [[Catholic|Roman Catholic]], Mary married the widower James, who was then the younger brother and [[heir presumptive]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]].<ref>Oman, p. 30</ref> She was devoted to James and their children, two of whom survived to adulthood: the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] claimant to the thrones, [[James Francis Edward]], and [[Louisa Maria Teresa]].<ref name=Oman40 />

Born a princess of the northwestern Italian [[Duchy of Modena]], Mary is primarily remembered for the controversial birth of Prince James Francis Edward, her only surviving son. It was widely rumoured that he was smuggled into the birth chamber in a warming pan in order to perpetuate her husband's Roman Catholic [[Stuart dynasty]]. James Francis Edward's birth was a contributing factor to the "[[Glorious Revolution]]", the revolution which deposed James II and VII, and replaced him with [[Mary II]], a Protestant, the elder of James II's daughters from his first marriage to [[Anne Hyde]] (1637–1671). Mary II and her husband, [[William III of Orange]], would reign jointly over all three kingdoms. 

Mary went into exile in France, being known as the "Queen over the Water" among the Jacobites. She lived with her husband and children in the [[Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye]], provided by [[King Louis XIV]]. Mary was popular among Louis's courtiers; James, however, was considered a bore. In widowhood, Mary spent time with the nuns at the Convent of Chaillot, frequently during summers with her daughter, Louisa Maria Teresa. In 1701, when James II died, young James Francis Edward, aged 13, became king in the eyes of the Jacobites. Given that he was too young to assume the nominal reins of government, Mary represented him until he reached the age of 16. When James Francis Edward was asked to leave France as part of the settlement from the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in 1713, which ended the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701–1714), Mary stayed despite having no family there, her daughter having died of [[smallpox]]. Fondly remembered by her French contemporaries, Mary died of breast cancer in 1718.

== Early life (1658–1673) ==
[[File:Alfonso IV d'Este.jpg|thumb|left|[[Alfonso IV d'Este, Duke of Modena]], Mary's father, in a portrait by [[Justus Sustermans]]|alt=Formal portrait of Mary's father as a young man. He has long bushy hair and a fleshy face, and wears a black suit of armor with a brown shoulder sash.]]
Maria Beatrice [[d'Este]], the second (but eldest surviving) child of [[Alfonso IV, Duke of Modena]], and his wife, [[Laura Martinozzi]], was born on 5 October 1658 [[New Style|NS]]{{#tag:ref|Modena and France used the [[Gregorian calendar]], indicated by modern historians with the initials "NS" (for "New Style"), while England and Scotland (and some of central Protestant Europe, such as the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland) still used the older [[Julian calendar]] (designated by initials "OS" for "Old Style"). Therefore, for the duration of the 17th century, English/"Julian" dates were ten days behind Modena and France's Gregorian dates, with most of the rest of continental Catholic [[Europe]]. From 29 February 1700 to 14 September 1752, the difference was eleven days.|group=note}} in [[Modena]], [[Duchy of Modena]], Italy. Her only younger brother, [[Francesco II d'Este, Duke of Modena|Francesco]], succeeded their father as Duke upon the latter's death in 1662, the year Mary turned four.<ref>Oman, p. 14</ref> Mary and Francesco's mother, Laura, was strict with them and acted as regent of the duchy until her son came of age.<ref name=Haile16>Haile, p. 16</ref><ref>Oman, p. 15</ref> Mary's education was excellent;<ref name="Waller22"/> she spoke French and Italian fluently, had a good knowledge of Latin and, later, mastered English.<ref>Waller, p. 23</ref><ref>Haile, p. 18</ref>

Mary was described by contemporaries as "tall and admirably shaped", and was sought as a bride for [[James, Duke of York]], by [[Henry Mordaunt, 2nd Earl of Peterborough|Lord Peterborough]].<ref>Fea, p. 70</ref><ref>Oman, p. 19</ref> Lord Peterborough was [[Groom of the Stole]] to the Duke of York. A widower, James was the younger brother and heir of [[Charles II of England]].<ref name=Waller15>Waller, p. 15</ref> Duchess Laura was not initially forthcoming with a reply to Peterborough's proposal, hoping, according to the French ambassador, for a "grander" match with the eleven-year-old [[Charles II of Spain]].<ref>Oman, p. 10</ref><ref>Haile, p. 17</ref> Whatever the reason for Laura's initial reluctance, she finally accepted the proposal on behalf of Mary, and they were [[married by proxy]] on 30 September 1673, she just shy of 15, he being 39.<ref name=Haile24>Haile, p. 24</ref>

Modena was within the [[sphere of influence]] of [[Louis XIV of France]], who endorsed Mary's candidature and greeted Mary warmly in Paris, where she stopped ''en route'' to England, giving her a brooch worth £8,000.<ref name=Oman27>Oman, p. 27</ref>{{#tag:ref|This is equivalent to £{{Inflation|UK|8000|1673|r=0}} in present-day terms.{{inflation-fn|UK|df=y}}|group=note}} Her reception in England was much cooler.<ref name=FraserCharlesII418 /> Parliament, which was entirely composed of Protestants, reacted poorly to the news of a ''Roman Catholic'' marriage, fearing it was a "Papist" plot against the country.<ref name=FraserCharlesII418>Fraser, ''King Charles II'', p. 418</ref> The English public, who were predominantly Protestant, branded the Duchess of York – as Mary was thereafter known as until her husband's accession – the "Pope's daughter".<ref name=Oman28>Oman, p. 28</ref> Parliament threatened to have the marriage annulled,<ref name=Oman28 /> leading Charles to suspend parliament until 7 January 1674 OS, to ensure the marriage would be honoured and safeguarding the reputation of his [[House of Stuart]].<ref name=Waller15 />

== Duchess of York (1673–1685) ==

=== Household ===
[[File:King James II as Duke of York.jpg|upright|thumb|[[James, Duke of York]], in a portrait by Sir [[Peter Lely]]|alt=Formal three quarter length portrait of James aged about thirty. He has a long face with large cleft chin and red lips. He has long blonde hair and poses in black armour, with a brocade sash and lace cravate and clasped a baton in his right-hand.]]

James, an avowed Roman Catholic, was twenty-five years older than his bride, scarred by [[smallpox]] and afflicted with a stammer.<ref>Haile, p. 40</ref> He had secretly converted to Catholicism around 1668.<ref>Waller, p. 135</ref> Mary first saw her husband on 23 November 1673 OS, on the day of their second marriage ceremony.<ref>Waller, p. 149</ref><ref>Haile, p. 41</ref> James was pleased with his bride.<ref>Turner, p. 114</ref> Mary, however, at first disliked him, and burst into tears each time she saw him.<ref>Oman, p. 31</ref> Nonetheless, she soon warmed to James.<ref name=Oman40>Oman, p. 40</ref> From his first marriage to [[Anne Hyde]], a commoner, who had died in 1671, James had two daughters: [[Mary II of England|Lady Mary]] and [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Lady Anne]].<ref name=Chapman33>Chapman, p. 33</ref> They were introduced to Mary by James with the words, "I have brought you a new play-fellow".<ref name=Chapman33 /> Unlike Lady Mary, Lady Anne disliked her father's new wife.<ref name=Waller22>Waller, p. 22</ref> Mary played games with Anne to win her affection.<ref name=Waller22 />

The Duchess of York received £5,000 spending money annually and her own household, headed by Carey Fraser, Countess of Peterborough;<!-- this is very unclear --> it was frequented by ladies of her husband's selection: [[Frances Stewart, Duchess of Richmond]] and [[Anne Scott, 1st Duchess of Buccleuch]].<ref name="Waller15" /><ref>Waller, p. 24</ref><ref>Oman, p. 46</ref><ref>Oman, p. 38</ref> That Mary loathed gambling did not stop her ladies compelling her to do so almost every day.<ref name=Oman45 /> They believed that "if she refrained, it might be taken ill".<ref name=Oman45>Oman, p. 45</ref> Consequently, Mary incurred minor gambling debts.<ref name=Oman45 />

The birth of Mary's first child, Catherine Laura, named after [[Catherine of Braganza|Queen Catherine]], on 10 January 1675 OS represented the beginning of a string of children that would die in infancy.<ref>Oman, p. 48</ref> At this time the Duchess of York was on excellent terms with Lady Mary, and visited her in [[The Hague]] after the younger Mary had married [[William III of England|William of Orange]]. She travelled incognito and took Lady Anne with her.<ref>Marshall, p. 172</ref>

=== Popish plot and exile ===
{{main|Popish plot}}
The Duchess's Catholic secretary, [[Edward Colman (martyr)|Edward Colman]], was, in 1678, falsely implicated in a fictitious plot against the King by [[Titus Oates]].<ref>Fraser, ''King Charles II'', p. 463</ref> The plot, known as the [[Popish Plot]], led to the [[Exclusion Bill|Exclusionist movement]], which was headed by [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury]].<ref>Fraser, ''King Charles II'', p. 470</ref> The Exclusionists sought to debar the Catholic Duke of York from the throne.<ref>Haile, p. 76</ref> Their reputation in tatters, the Yorks were reluctantly exiled to [[Brussels]], a domain of [[King Charles II of Spain]], ostensibly to visit Lady Mary—since 1677 the wife of Prince William III of Orange.<ref>Chapman, p. 67</ref><ref>Brown, pp. 10–12</ref><ref>Fea, p. 83</ref> Accompanied by her not yet three-year-old daughter [[Isabel Stuart|Isabella]] and Lady Anne, the Duchess of York was saddened by James's extra-marital affair with [[Catherine Sedley]].<ref>Oman, p. 56</ref> Mary's spirits were briefly revived by a visit from her mother, who was living in [[Rome]].<ref>Haile, p. 88</ref>
[[File:Mary of Modena by William Wissig1.jpg|230px|thumb|upright|Mary in the year of her husband's accession, 1685, in a painting by [[Willem Wissing]]|alt=An informal portrait of Mary. She has a long handsome face, dark eyes and black hair. Her hair, her brown satin dress and plain linen undergarment are in fashionable disarray. She clasps a white dog.]]

A report that King Charles was very sick sent the Yorks hastily back to England.<ref name=Oman63 /> They feared the King's eldest illegitimate son, [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth]], the commander of England's armed forces, might usurp the crown if Charles died before their return.<ref name=Oman63>Oman, p. 63</ref><ref>Fea, p. 85</ref> The danger was compounded by the fact that Monmouth enjoyed the support of the Exclusionists, who held a majority in the [[English House of Commons]].<ref name=Oman63 /> Charles survived but, feeling the Yorks returned to court too soon, sent James and Mary to [[Edinburgh]], where they stayed on-and-off for the next three years.<ref>Haile, p. 92</ref><ref>Turner, p. 171</ref> Lodging in [[Holyrood Palace]], the Yorks had to make do without Ladies Anne and Isabella, who stayed in London on Charles's orders.<ref>Oman, p. 67</ref> The Yorks were recalled to London in February 1680, only to return again to Edinburgh that autumn; this time they went on a more honourable footing: James was created King's Commissioner to Scotland.<ref>Fea, p. 96</ref> Separated from Lady Isabella once again, Mary sank into a state of sadness, exacerbated by the passing of the Exclusion bill in the Commons.<ref>Waller, p. 35</ref><ref>Haile, pp. 99–100</ref> Isabella, thus far the only one of Mary's children to survive infancy, died in February 1681.<ref name=Oman71>Oman, p. 71</ref> Isabella's death plunged Mary into a religious mania, worrying her [[physician]].<ref name=Oman71 /> At the same time as news reached Holyrood of Isabella's death, Mary's mother was falsely accused of offering £10,000 for the murder of the King.<ref name=Oman71 /> The accuser, a pamphleteer, was executed by order of the King.<ref name=Oman71 />

The Exclusionist reaction that followed the Popish plot had died down by May 1682.<ref>Waller, p. 36</ref> Exclusionist-dominated Parliament, suspended since March 1681, never again met in the reign of Charles II.<ref>Waller, p. 37</ref> Therefore, the Duke and Duchess returned to England, and Mary gave birth to a daughter named Charlotte Mary in August 1682; Charlotte Mary's death three weeks later, according to the French ambassador, robbed James of "hope that any child of his can live"—all James's sons by his first wife died in infancy.<ref>Haile, p. 109</ref> James's sadness was dispelled by his revival in popularity following the discovery of a plot to kill him and Charles.<ref>Oman, p. 75</ref> The objective of the plot, known as the [[Rye House Plot]], was to have Monmouth placed on the throne as Lord Protector.<ref>Oman, pp. 75–76</ref> The revival was so strong that, in 1684, James was re-admitted to the [[Privy Council]], after an absence of eleven years.<ref>Fraser, ''King Charles II'', p. 569</ref>

== Queen consort (1685–1688) ==
Despite all the furore over Exclusionism, James ascended his brother's thrones easily upon the latter's death – which occurred on 6 February 1685 OS – possibly owing to the risk that the said alternative might provoke another civil war.<ref>Waller, pp. 143–144</ref> Mary sincerely mourned Charles, recalling in later life, "He was always kind to me."<ref>Oman, plate no. VII</ref> [[Coronation of James II and VII and Mary|Mary and James's £119,000 coronation]], occurring on 23 April OS, Saint George's day, was meticulously planned.<ref name=Oman85>Oman, p. 85</ref><ref>Haile, p. 129</ref> Precedents were sought for Mary because a full-length joint coronation had not occurred since the [[coronation of King Henry VIII and Queen Catherine]].<ref name=Oman85 />
[[File:James III and Mary of Modena.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Queen Mary with her son, [[James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward]], by [[Benedetto Gennari II|Benedetto Gennari the Younger]]|alt=An informal portrait of Mary with her infant son. She is seated, wearing a regal velvet cloak edged with ermine. The boy, aged about one year, stands on a table and is held by his mother. He wears a cream satin dress with lace bonnet, sleeves and apron.]]
Queen Mary's health had still not recovered after the death of Lady Isabella. So much so, in fact, that the Tuscan envoy reported to [[Florence]] that "general opinion turns [for Mary's successor] in the direction of the [[Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici|Princess]], [[Cosimo III de' Medici|Your Highness]]'s daughter".<ref name=Haile124 /><ref>Waller, p. 40</ref> France, too, was preparing for Mary's imminent demise, putting forward as its candidate for James's new wife the [[Henri Jules, Prince of Condé|Duke of Enghien]]'s daughter.<ref name=Haile124>Haile, p. 124</ref> The Queen was then trying to make her brother, the Duke of Modena, marry the former, Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici.<ref>Oman, p. 96</ref>

In February 1687, Mary, at the time irritated by James's affair with [[Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester]], moved into new apartments in [[Palace of Whitehall|Whitehall]]; Whitehall had been home to a Catholic chapel since December 1686.<ref>Fea, p. 138</ref><ref>Haile, p. 142</ref> Her apartments were designed by [[Christopher Wren]] at the cost of £13,000.<ref>Oman, p. 98</ref> Because the palace's renovation was thus far unfinished, James received ambassadors in her rooms, much to Mary's chagrin.<ref>Oman, p. 99</ref> Five months later, shortly after the marriage talks with Tuscany collapsed, the Queen's mother, Duchess Laura, died.<ref name=Haile159 /> Therefore, the whole English court went into mourning.<ref name=Haile159>Haile, p. 159</ref> Duchess Laura left Mary "a considerable sum of cash" and some jewellery.<ref>Oman, p. 99</ref> William III of Orange, James's nephew and son-in-law, sensed popular discontent with James's government; he used the death of Mary's mother as a guise to send his cousin [[William Nassau de Zuylestein, 1st Earl of Rochford|Count Zuylestein]], to England, ostensibly to condole the Queen, but in reality as a spy.<ref name="Chapman144" /><ref>Haile, p. 163</ref>
[[File:1662 Mary II.jpg|thumb|upright=1.45|[[Mary II of England]] in a painting by [[Sir Peter Lely]]|alt=Formal seated portrait of Mary II. She wears a grey satin decollatage dress and a blue satin cloak with gold swathes at her shoulders. Her hair is formally arranged in curls and she wears a necklace of large grey pearls.]]

Having visited [[Bath, England|Bath]], in the hope its waters would aid conception, Queen Mary became pregnant in late 1687.<ref>Waller, p. 11</ref> When the pregnancy became public knowledge shortly before Christmas, Catholics rejoiced.<ref>Harris, p. 239</ref> Protestants, who had tolerated James's Catholic government because he had no Catholic heir, were concerned.<ref>Waller, p. 12</ref> The Protestant disillusion came to a head after the child was known to be male, and many Protestants believed the child was spurious;<ref name=Oman108109 /> if not, James II's Catholic dynasty would have been perpetuated.<ref name=Oman108109 /> Popular opinion alleged that the child, named [[James Francis Edward]], was smuggled into the birth chamber as a substitute for the Queen's real but stillborn child.<ref name=Oman108109 /> This rumour was widely accepted as fact by Protestants, despite the many witnesses of the birth.<ref name=Oman108109>Oman, pp. 108–109</ref><ref>Harris, pp. 239–240</ref> Mainly by mismanagement on James's part, these rumours had some excuse as from personal prejudice he had excluded many from the ceremony whose testimony must have been counted valid; most of the witnesses were Catholics or foreigners, and several, such as his daughter Anne and the Protestant prelates, or the maternal relatives of his daughters, whom the new birth would remove from the direct succession, were not present.

Anne and her elder sister, Mary,  still suspected that their father had thrust a changeling upon the nation.<ref name="Chapman144">Chapman, p. 144</ref> Count Zuylestein, returning to the Netherlands shortly after the birth, agreed with Anne's findings.<ref name="Chapman144" />

Issued by seven leading [[Whig (British political party)|Whig]] nobles, [[Invitation to William|the invitation for William to invade England]] signalled the beginning of a revolution that culminated in James's deposition.<ref name="Waller, p. 216">Waller, p. 216</ref> The invitation assured William that "nineteen parts of twenty of the people throughout the kingdom" wished for an intervention.<ref name="Waller, p. 216" /> The revolution, known as the [[Glorious Revolution]], deprived James Francis Edward of his right to the English throne, on the grounds that he was not deemed the King's real son, and later because he was a Catholic.<ref name="Waller, p. 216" /> With England in the hands of William of Orange's 15,000-strong army, James and Mary decided to go into exile in France.<ref name="Waller, p. 216" /> On 9 December 1688, Mary left London in disguise with the infant Prince of Wales and in the company of [[Victoria Davia-Montecuculi]], under the arrangement of [[Antoine Nompar de Caumont]]. After arriving in France through [[Calais]], she was joined by James a few weeks later. There, they stayed at the expense of James's first cousin [[King Louis XIV]], who supported the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] cause.<ref name="Waller, p. 216" /><ref name="FraserLoveandLouisXIV270" />

== Queen over the water (1688–1701) ==

=== Reception at Louis XIV's court ===
[[File:Louis XIV of France.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Louis XIV of France]] in a portrait by [[Hyacinthe Rigaud]], 1701<ref name=FraserLoveandLouisXIV270 />|alt=Formal full-length portrait of Louis XIV wearing long curling black wig and state robes including a cloak embroidered with golden fleur de lys.]]
James was formally deposed on 11 December 1688 OS in England and on 11 May 1689 OS in Scotland, and his daughter Mary II and her husband, William III, were made joint monarchs.<ref>Harris, p. 325</ref> James, however, backed by Louis XIV of France, still considered himself king by [[Divine right of kings|divine right]], and maintained it was not within parliament's prerogative to depose a monarch.<ref>Starkey, p. 190</ref> Louis gave the exiled royal couple the use of [[Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye]], where they set up a court-in-exile.<ref name=FraserLoveandLouisXIV270>Fraser, ''Love and Louis XIV'', p. 270</ref><ref name=Uglow523>Uglow, p. 523</ref>

Mary quickly became a popular fixture at Louis XIV's court at [[Versailles]], where diarist [[Madame de Sévigné]] acclaimed Mary for her "distinguished bearing and her quick wit".<ref name=FraserLoveandLouisXIV271 /> Questions of precedence, however, marred Mary's relations with Louis's daughter-in-law, [[Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria]].<ref name=FraserLoveandLouisXIV271>Fraser, ''Love and Louis XIV'', p. 271</ref> Because Mary was accorded the privileges and rank of a queen, Maria Anna was outranked by her.<ref name=FraserLoveandLouisXIV271 /> Therefore, Maria Anna refused to see Mary, etiquette being a sensitive issue at Versailles.<ref>Fraser, ''Love and Louis XIV'', pp. 270–271</ref> In spite of this, Louis and his secret wife, [[Madame de Maintenon]], became close friends with Mary.<ref name=FraserLoveandLouisXIV271 /> As there was no queen at the French court, nor a dauphine after Maria Anna's death in 1690, Mary took precedence over all the female members of the French court and French royal house, as did her daughter in her capacity of a royal princess until the next French dauphine appeared in 1711.<ref>Edward T. Corp: [https://books.google.com/books?id=3oA9axPb_SIC&dq=dame+d%27honneur+court&pg=PA173 A Court in Exile: The Stuarts in France, 1689–1718] (2004)</ref> James was largely excluded from French court life. His contemporaries found him boring, and French courtiers frequently joked that "when one talks to him, one understands why he is here."<ref name=FraserLoveandLouisXIV271 /><ref>Oman, p. 148</ref> Mary gave birth to a daughter, [[Louisa Maria Teresa Stuart|Louise Mary]], in 1692.<ref name=FraserLoveandLouisXIV271 /> She was to be James and Mary's last child.

Initially supported by Irish Catholics in his effort to regain the thrones, James launched an expedition to Ireland in March 1689.<ref name=Fea235 /> He abandoned it upon his defeat at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] in 1690.<ref name=Fea235>Fea, p. 235</ref> During James's campaign, Mary supported his cause throughout the British Isles: she sent three French supply ships to [[Bantry Bay]] and £2,000 to Jacobite rebels in [[Dundee]].<ref>Oman, p. 158</ref> She financed those measures by selling her jewellery.<ref>Oman, pp. 158–159</ref> Money problems plagued the Stuart court-in-exile, despite a substantial pension from Louis XIV of 50,000 [[French livres|livres]].<ref name=FraserLoveandLouisXIV270 /> Mary tried her best to assist those of her husband's followers living in poverty, and encouraged her children to give part of their pocket money to Jacobite refugees.<ref>Oman, p. 173</ref><ref>Oman, p. 207</ref><ref>Haile, p. 357</ref>

=== Estensi succession ===
The collapse of James's invasion of Ireland in 1691 upset Mary. Her spirits were lifted by news of the marriage of her brother, the Duke of Modena, to [[Margherita Maria Farnese]] of Parma.<ref>Haile, p. 282</ref> When, in 1695, Mary's brother died, the House of Este was left with one progenitor, their uncle [[Rinaldo d'Este, Duke of Modena|Cardinal-Duke Rinaldo]].<ref>Haile, p. 311</ref> Queen Mary, concerned for the dynasty's future, urged the Cardinal-Duke to resign his cardinalate, "for the good of the people and for the perpetuation of the sovereign house of Este".<ref name=Haile312>Haile, p. 312</ref> Rinaldo's bride, [[Princess Charlotte Felicitas of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], was, according to Mary, "of an easy disposition best suited to [the Duke]".<ref name=Haile312 />

A bone of contention, however, arose over the Queen's inheritance and [[dowry]].<ref>Haile, p. 314</ref> Duke Rinaldo refused to release the former, and left the latter £15,000 in arrears.<ref name=Oman184>Oman, p. 184</ref> In 1700, five years later, Rinaldo finally paid Mary her dowry; her inheritance, however, remained sequestered, and relations with Modena worsened again when Rinaldo allied himself with [[Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I]].<ref name=Oman185 /> Leopold was an enemy of Louis XIV.<ref name=Oman185>Oman, p. 185</ref>

== Regency (1701–1704)==
[[File:Coat of Arms of Mary of Modena.svg|thumb|220px|Mary's coat of arms as Queen of England.<ref>Maclagan, Michael; Louda, Jiří, p. 27</ref> Depicting the [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom|Royal Coat of Arms of England, Scotland and Ireland]] impaled with a minor version of her father's arms as [[Duke of Modena]]. In light of religious sentiment at the time, it was presumed unwise to reproduce her father's arms in full, since the quarterings are divided by a ''"Pale Gules charged with the Papal keys ensigned with the Tiara"''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pinces|first1=John Harvey|last2=Pinces|first2=Rosemary|title=The Royal Heraldry of England |series=Heraldry Today |year=1974|publisher=Hollen Street Press |location=Slough, Buckinghamshire |isbn=0-900455-25-X|pages=187}}</ref>|alt=A heraldic shield emblazoned with the emblems of France, Scotland, England, Ireland and the House of Este.]]
In March 1701, James suffered a [[stroke]] while hearing mass at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, leaving him partially paralysed.<ref>Gregg, p. 127</ref> [[Guy-Crescent Fagon|Fagon]], Louis XIV's personal physician, recommended the waters of [[Bourbon-l'Archambault]], to cure James's paralysis.<ref>Oman, p. 190</ref> The waters, however, had little effect, and James died of a seizure on 16 September 1701.<ref>Fea, p. 285</ref> Louis, contravening the [[Peace of Ryswick]] and irritating William, declared James Francis Edward King of England, Ireland and Scotland as James III and VIII.<ref>Fraser, ''Love and Louis XIV'', p. 322</ref> Mary acted as nominal regent for her minor son.<ref name=Oman197 /> She presided over his regency council, too, although she was uninterested in politics.<ref name=Oman197>Oman, p. 196</ref> Before his death, James II expressed his wish that Mary's regency would last no longer than their son's 18th birthday.<ref>Oman, p. 197</ref>

[[File:Portrait of James Francis Edward Stuart by Antonio David.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[James Francis Edward Stuart]], Mary's only surviving son, in a portrait by [[Antonio David]].<ref name=Oman184 />|alt=A young man wears a powdered wig while posing in a suit of armour.]]
Dressed in mourning for the remainder of her life, Mary's first act as regent was to disseminate a manifesto, outlining James Francis Edward's claims.<ref name=Haile358>Haile, p. 358</ref> It was largely ignored in England.<ref name=Haile358 /> In Scotland, however, the confederate Lords sent [[John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven and Stenton|Lord Belhaven]] to Saint-Germain, to convince the Queen to surrender to them custody of James Francis Edward and accede to his conversion to [[Protestantism]].<ref name="Haile358" /> The conversion, said Belhaven, would enable his accession to the English throne upon William's death.<ref name=Haile359>Haile, p. 359</ref> Mary was not swayed by Belhaven's argument, so a compromise was reached: James Francis Edward, if he became king, would limit the number of Catholic priests in England and promise not to tamper with the established [[Church of England]].<ref name=Haile359 /> In exchange, the confederate Lords would do all in their power to block the passing of the [[House of Hanover|Hanoverian]] succession in Scottish parliament.<ref name=Haile359 /> When, in March 1702, William died, [[Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat|Lord Lovat]] declared for James Francis Edward at [[Inverness]].<ref name=Haile363>Haile, p. 363</ref> Soon after, Lovat travelled to the court-in-exile at Saint-Germain, and begged Mary to allow her son to come to Scotland.<ref name=Haile363 /> Lovat intended to raise an army of 15,000 soldiers in Scotland to seize the throne for James Francis Edward.<ref name=Haile363 /> Mary refused to part with James Francis Edward, and the rising failed.<ref name=Haile363 /> Mary's regency ceased with her son's reaching of the age of 16.<ref>Oman, plate xiv.</ref>

==Later life==
Having wished to become a nun in her youth, Mary sought refuge from the stresses of exile at the Convent of the Visitations, Chaillot, near Paris, where she befriended Louis's penitent mistress, [[Louise de La Vallière]].<ref>Haile, p. 229</ref> There, Mary stayed with her daughter for long periods almost every summer.<ref name=Oman221>Oman, p. 221</ref> It was here, too, in 1711, that Mary found out that, as part of the embryonic [[Treaty of Utrecht]], James Francis Edward was to lose Louis's explicit recognition and be forced to leave France.<ref name=Oman221 /> The next year, when James Francis Edward was expelled and Louise Mary died of smallpox, Mary was very upset;<ref name=Oman225 /> according to Mary's close friend Madame de Maintenon, Mary was "a model of desolation".<ref name=Oman225>Oman, p. 225</ref> Deprived of the company of her family, Mary lived out the rest of her days at Chaillot and Saint-Germain in virtual poverty, unable to travel by her own means because all her horses had died and she could not afford to replace them.<ref>Oman, p. 242</ref>

Following her death from [[cancer]] on 7 May 1718, Mary was remembered fondly by her French contemporaries, three of whom, [[Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate]], [[Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon|the Duke of Saint-Simon]] and [[Philippe de Courcillon|the Marquis of Dangeau]], deemed her a "saint".<ref>Fraser, ''Love and Louis XIV'', p. 383</ref><ref>Oman, p. 245</ref> Mary's remains were interred in Chaillot among the nuns she had befriended.<ref>Oman, p. 247</ref>

== Issue ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
| Unnamed child
| colspan=2 align=center|March or May 1674
| stillbirth<ref name="Weir, 260"/>

|-
| Catherine Laura
| 10 January 1675
| 3 October 1675
| died of convulsions.<ref name="Weir, 260">[[Alison Weir|Weir, Alison]] (1996). ''Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy''. Revised Edition. Random House, London. {{ISBN|0-7126-7448-9}}. p. 260.</ref>

|-
| Unnamed child
| colspan=2 align=center|October 1675
| stillbirth<ref name="Weir, 260"/>

|-
| [[Isabel Stuart|Isabel]] (or Isabella)
| 28 August 1676
| 2 or 4 March 1681
| buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] on 4 March (Old Style) as "The Lady Isabella, daughter to the Duke of York"<ref>{{Cite book |first=J. L. |last=Chester |title=The Marriage, Baptismal, and Burial Registers of the Collegiate Church or Abbey of St. Peter, Westminster |volume=10 |publisher=Harleian Society |date=1876 |page=201 |author-link=Joseph Lemuel Chester}}</ref>

|-
| [[Charles Stuart, Duke of Cambridge (born 1677)|Charles, Duke of Cambridge]]
| 7 November 1677
| 12 December 1677
| died of smallpox<ref name="Weir, 260"/>

|-
| Elizabeth
| colspan=2 align=center|c. 1678
| &nbsp;

|-
| Unnamed child
| colspan=2 align=center|February 1681
| stillbirth<ref name="Weir, 260"/>

|-
| Charlotte Maria
| 16 August 1682
| 16 October 1682
| died of convulsions<ref name="Weir, 260"/> and buried in Westminster Abbey on 8 October (Old Style) as "The Lady Charlotte-Marie, daughter to the Duke of York"{{Sfnp|Chester|1876|page=206}}

|-
| Unnamed child
| colspan=2 align=center|October 1683
| stillbirth<ref name="Weir, 260"/>

|-
| Unnamed child
| colspan=2 align=center|May 1684
| stillbirth<ref>Weir, 261</ref>

|-
| [[James Francis Edward Stuart|James, Prince of Wales "the Old Pretender"]]
| 10 June 1688
| 1 January 1766
| married 1719, [[Clementina Sobieska]]; had issue

|-
| [[Louisa Maria Teresa]]
| 28 June 1692
| 18 April 1712
| died of smallpox<ref>Fraser, ''Love and Louis XIV'', p. 329</ref>

|}

== Ancestry ==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Mary of Modena'''
|2= 2. [[Alfonso IV d'Este]]
|3= 3. [[Laura Martinozzi]]<ref name="Saint-Évremond">{{cite book|first=Charles |last=de Saint-Évremond |author-link=Charles de Saint-Évremond |translator=des Maizeaux|title=The works of Monsieur de St. Evremond|year=1728|publisher=J. and J. Knapton, J. Darby, A. Battesworth|location=London|page=106|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xkAwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA106}}</ref> 
|4= 4. [[Francesco I d'Este]]<ref name="Biografia">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E8bYNn_LYCUC&q=Alfonso+IV+d%2527Este+moderna&pg=PA61 |title=Biografia universale antica e moderna |date=1824 |publisher=presso Gio. Battista Missiaglia |volume=XIX |pages=61 |language=it |trans-title=Universal ancient and modern biography}}</ref>
|5= 5. [[Maria Caterina Farnese of Parma]]<ref name="Biografia"/>
|6= 6. Hieronymus Martinozzi<ref name="Saint-Évremond"/>
|7= 7. [[Laura Margherita Mazzarino|Laura Mazarini]]<ref name="Saint-Évremond"/>
|8= 8. [[Alfonso III d'Este]]<ref name="Biografia"/>
|9= 9. [[Isabella of Savoy]]<ref name="CEDRE">{{cite journal | title=Le Royaume d'Italie, vol. I. | journal=Les Manuscrits du C.e.d.r.e: Dictionnaire Historique et Généalogique| year=1992| publisher=Les manuscrits du C.E.D.R.E. (Cercle d'Études des Dynasties Royales Européennes): Dictionnaire Historique et Généalogique | issn=0993-3964 |pages=131–132}}</ref>
|10= 10. [[Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma]]<ref>{{Britannica|202049|Farnese Family}}</ref>
|11= 11. [[Margherita Aldobrandini]]<ref name="Hanlon2014">{{cite book|last=Hanlon|first=Gregory|title=The Hero of Italy: Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma, his Soldiers, and his Subjects in the Thirty Years' War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4UvgAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-151090-8|page=8}}</ref>
|12= 12. Vincenzo [[Martinozzi]]
|13= 13. Margherita [[Marcolini]]
|14= 14. Pietro [[Mazzarini]]<ref name="Lombard2000">{{cite book |last=Lombard |first=Paul |year=2000 |title=Vice And Virtue: Men of History -- Great Crooks for the Greater Good |publisher=Algora Publishing |page=56 |isbn=978-1-892941-21-3}}</ref>
|15= 15. Ortensia [[Castello Bufalini|Buffalini]]
}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
*[[Allan Fea]] (1909). ''James II and His Wives''. Meuthon and Co.
*Brown, Beatrice Curtis (1929). ''Anne Stuart: Queen of England''. Geoffrey Bles.
*Chapman, Hester (1953). ''Mary II, Queen of England''. Jonathan Cape.
*[[Fraser, Antonia]] (2002). ''King Charles II'' Phoenix. {{ISBN|978-0-7538-1403-1}}
*Fraser, Antonia (2007). ''Love and Louis XIV: The Women in the Life of the Sun King''. Phoenix. {{ISBN|978-0-7538-2293-7}}
*Gregg, Edward (1980). ''Queen Anne''. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
*Haile, Martin (1905). ''Queen Mary of Modena: Her Life and Letters''. J.M. Dent & Co.
*Harris, Tim. (2007). ''Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy 1685–1720''. Penguin. {{ISBN|978-0-14-101652-8}}
*Maclagan, Michael; Louda, Jiří (1999). ''Line of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe''. Little, Brown & Co. {{ISBN|1-85605-469-1}}
*Marshall, Rosalind (2003) ''Scottish Queens, 1034–1714''. Tuckwell Press.
*[[Carola Oman|Oman, Carola]] (1962). ''Mary of Modena''. Hodder & Stoughton.
*[[Starkey, David]] (2007). ''Monarchy: From the Middle Ages to Modernity''. Harper Perennial. {{ISBN|978-0-00-724766-0}}.
*Turner, FC (1948). ''James II''. Eyre & Spottswoode.
*[[Uglow, Jenny]] (2009). ''A Gambling Man: Charles II and the Restoration''. Faber & Faber. {{ISBN|978-0-571-21733-5}}
*Waller, Maureen (2002). ''Ungrateful Daughters: The Stuart Princesses Who Stole Their Father's Crown''. Hodder & Stoughton. {{ISBN|0-340-79461-5}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mary-of-Modena Mary of Modena] from the online ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.
*{{Commons category-inline|Mary of Modena}}
*{{NPG name|name=Mary of Modena}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Este]]|5 October|1658|7 May|1718}}
{{S-roy|uk}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Catherine of Braganza]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Queen consort of England]], [[List of Scottish consorts|Scotland]] and [[List of Irish royal consorts|Ireland]]|years=1685–1688}}
{{S-vac|next=[[George of Denmark]]|as=consort}}
|-
{{S-pre}}
|-
{{S-non|reason=[[Glorious Revolution]]}}
{{S-tul|title=[[Jacobite consorts|Queen consort of England, Scotland and Ireland]]|years=1688–1701}}
{{S-vac|next=[[Maria Clementina Sobieska]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Princesses of Modena}}
{{Duchesses of York}}
{{British consort}}
{{Authority control}}

{{good article}}

[[Category:Mary of Modena| ]]
[[Category:1658 births]]
[[Category:1718 deaths]]
[[Category:People associated with the Popish Plot]]
[[Category:Duchesses of York]]
[[Category:English royal consorts]]
[[Category:House of Este]]
[[Category:House of Stuart]]
[[Category:Italian Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:English Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Scottish royal consorts]]
[[Category:Modenese princesses]]
[[Category:James II of England]]
[[Category:Deaths from breast cancer in France]]
[[Category:18th-century women regents]]
[[Category:17th-century English nobility]]
[[Category:17th-century English women]]
[[Category:17th-century Italian nobility]]
[[Category:17th-century Italian women]]
[[Category:18th-century Italian women]]
[[Category:18th-century English people]]
[[Category:18th-century Scottish women]]
[[Category:18th-century regents]]