Editing Michael II

{{short description|Byzantine emperor from 820 to 829}}
{{Other people}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Michael II
| image        = Michael II in the Madrid Skylitzes.jpg
| caption      = Michael II, from the ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]''
| succession   = [[Byzantine emperor]]
| reign        = 25 December 820 –<br/>2 October 829
| coronation   = 25 December 820
| cor-type     = [[Coronation of the Byzantine emperor|Coronation]]
| predecessor  = [[Leo V the Armenian|Leo V]]
| successor    = [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]]
| queen        = [[Thekla (wife of Michael II)|Thekla]]<br/>[[Euphrosyne (9th century)|Euphrosyne]]
| issue        = [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]]
| dynasty      = [[Phrygian Dynasty|Amorian dynasty]]
| birth_date   = 770
| birth_place  = [[Amorium]], [[Phrygia]], [[Anatolic Theme]]<br/>(now [[Hisarköy, Emirdağ|Hisarköy]], [[Afyonkarahisar Province|Afyonkarahisar]], [[Turkey]])
| death_date   = 2 October 829 (aged 59)
| title        = [[Byzantine emperor|Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans]]
| regent       = [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]]
| reg-type     = {{nowrap|Co-emperor}}
}}
{{Amorian dynasty}}
'''Michael II''' ({{langx|el|Μιχαὴλ}}, {{Transliteration|el|Mikhaḗl}}; 770 – 2 October 829), called '''the Amorian''' ({{Lang|el|ὁ ἐξ Ἀμορίου}}, {{Transliteration|el|ho ex Amoríou}}) and '''the Stammerer''' ({{Lang|el|ὁ Τραυλός}}, {{Transliteration|el|ho Travlós}} or {{lang|el|ὁ Ψελλός}}, {{Transliteration|el|ho Psellós}}),{{sfn|PBW|loc=[http://www.pbe.kcl.ac.uk/data/D54/F76.htm Michael II]}} reigned as [[Byzantine emperor]] from 25 December 820 to his death on 2 October 829, the first ruler of the [[Amorian dynasty]].

Born in [[Amorium]], Michael was a soldier, rising to high rank along with his colleague [[Leo V the Armenian]] ({{r.|813|820}}). He helped Leo overthrow and take the place of Emperor [[Michael I Rhangabe]]. However, after they fell out Leo sentenced Michael to death. Michael then masterminded a conspiracy which resulted in Leo's assassination at Christmas in 820. Immediately he faced the long revolt of [[Thomas the Slav]], which almost cost him his throne and was not completely quelled until spring 824. The later years of his reign were marked by two major military disasters that had long-term effects: the beginning of the [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]], and the [[Emirate of Crete#Conquest of Crete|loss of Crete to Andalusian Arab pirates]]. Domestically, he supported and strengthened the resumption of official [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]], which had begun again under Leo V.

==Early life==
[[File:Solidus of Michael II.png|thumb|200px|Gold ''[[solidus (coin)|solidus]]'' of Michael II]]
Michael was born {{circa|770}} in [[Amorium]], in [[Phrygia]], into a [[Cappadocian Greeks|Cappadocian]] family of professional peasant-soldiers who received land from the government for their military service. They may have been members of the sect of the ''[[Athinganoi]]''.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=433}}

Michael first rose to prominence as a close aide (''[[spatharios]]'') of the general [[Bardanes Tourkos]], alongside his future antagonists [[Leo V the Armenian|Leo the Armenian]] and [[Thomas the Slav]]. He married Bardanes' daughter [[Thekla (wife of Michael II)|Thekla]], while Leo married another daughter. Michael and Leo abandoned Bardanes shortly after he rebelled against Emperor [[Nikephoros I]] in 803, and they were rewarded with higher military commands: Michael was named the Emperor's [[Count of the Tent]]. Michael was instrumental in Leo's overthrow of [[Michael I Rhangabe]] in 813, after Rangabe's repeated military defeats against the Bulgarians. Under Leo V, Michael was appointed to command the elite ''[[tagma (military)|tagma]]'' of the [[Excubitors]].
[[File:MadridSkylitzesLeoMichaelFol13r.jpg|thumb|Michael the Amorian having an argument with [[Leo V the Armenian|Leo V]].]]

Thekla and Michael had only one known son, [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] (813 – 20 January 842). The existence of a daughter called Helena is possible but there is a contradiction between different sources. Helena is known as the wife of [[Theophobos]], a patrician executed in 842 for conspiring to gain the throne for himself. [[George Hamartolos]] and Theophanes report him marrying the sister of the Empress [[Theodora (wife of Theophilos)|Theodora]]. [[Joseph Genesius]] records Theophobos marrying the sister of the Emperor Theophilos. Whether Helena was sister or sister-in-law to Theophilos is thus unclear.

Michael became disgruntled with Leo V when he divorced Michael's sister-in-law. In late 820, agents of the [[logothetes tou dromou|Postal Logothete]] uncovered a plot led by Michael to overthrow Leo, who then imprisoned Michael and sentenced him to [[death by burning]]. Empress consort [[Theodosia (wife of Leo V)|Theodosia]] secured a postponement of the execution until after Christmas. This allowed Michael to rally undetected plotters to assassinate Leo on Christmas morning in the palace chapel and [[political mutilation in Byzantine culture|castrate]] his sons to prevent the continuation of his dynasty. Michael was immediately proclaimed emperor, while still wearing prison chains on his legs. Later the same day, he was [[coronation of the Byzantine emperor|crowned]] by Patriarch [[Theodotus I of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=433}}

==Reign==
In his internal policy, Michael II supported [[iconoclasm]], but he tacitly encouraged reconciliation with the [[iconodule]]s, whom he generally stopped persecuting, allowing those exiled by Emperor [[Leo V the Armenian]] to return. These included the former patriarch [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople|Nikephoros]], [[Anthony the Confessor]], and [[Theodore the Stoudite]], who failed, however, to persuade the emperor to abandon iconoclasm. Michael also did not restore the exiled iconodules to their previous positions. Theodore also requested permission to restore icons, resume relations with the [[bishop of Rome]] and recognise him as the head of all churches and therefore arbiter of disputes. Michael allowed iconodules to follow their conscience outside of Constantinople but did not make any further concessions, refusing to change imperial policy and banning discussion of the [[Council of Hieria]] (754), [[Second Council of Nicaea]] (787) and [[Council of Constantinople (815)|Council of Constantinople]] (815). When Patriarch Theodotos died in 821, Michael appointed the iconoclast [[Antony I of Constantinople|Antony]], bishop of [[Syllaion]], against the aspirations of the iconodules.{{sfn|Talbot|1996|p=178}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=386–390}}{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=289}}
[[File:Thomas the Slav negotiates with the Arabs.jpg|thumb|Thomas the Slav forming an alliance with the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]].]]

===Revolt of Thomas the Slav: 821–823===
Michael's accession prompted his former comrade-in-arms [[Thomas the Slav]] to set himself up as rival emperor in [[Anatolia]] to avenge Leo V. He had been made the ''[[tourmarches|tourmarchēs]]'' of the ''[[Foederati]]'' (a command in the [[Anatolic Theme]]) by Leo, and so bore at least nominal allegiance to him. The ''[[strategos|stratēgos]]'' of [[Sicily]], Gregory, also proclaimed allegiance to Leo against Michael but was killed by soldiers under the ''tourmarchēs'' [[Euphemius (Sicily)|Euphemios]] which secured the loyalty of the Sicilian fleet to Michael. Thomas was supported by the [[Bucellarian Theme|Bucellarian]], [[Paphlagonia (theme)|Paphlagonian]] and [[Cibyrrhaeot Theme|Cibyrrhaeot]] [[theme (Byzantine district)|themes]], while Michael held the European part of the Empire including the [[Opsikion]] (commanded by his relative Katakylas), [[Thracesian Theme|Thracesian]], [[Armeniac Theme|Armeniac]] and [[Chaldia]]n themes. To strengthen his position, he won the support of iconodules by stopping persecution, recalling exiled bishops and offering to reinstate Patriarch [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople]] if he ignored the [[Byzantine iconoclasm|iconoclast controversy]], which he refused to do.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=434}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=386–387}}

In his quest for support, Thomas presented himself as a champion of the poor, reduced taxation, and concluded an alliance with [[al-Ma'mun]] of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], having himself crowned as emperor by the iconodule Greek [[List of Greek Orthodox patriarchs of Antioch|Patriarch of Antioch]], [[Job of Antioch|Job]], in the [[Church of Cassian]], then in Abbasid territory, taking the imperial name ''Constantine''. Having amassed a large army, perhaps of 80,000 men as some sources report, Thomas marched into [[Thrace]], winning the support of the theme as well as the Armeniacs and Chaldians. He besieged the capital in December 821. Although Thomas did not win over all the Anatolian themes, he secured the support of the naval theme and their ships, allowing him to intensify his siege of [[Constantinople]]. At this point, Michael's usurpation was prevented only by the [[Walls of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Giorgi|Eger|2021|p=243}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=434–435}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=387}}
[[File:ThomasTheRebelAndMourtagon.jpg|thumb|Thomas the Slav is defeated by the army of [[Omurtag of Bulgaria]].]]

In summer 822, the imperial fleet was able to destroy the rebel fleet with [[Greek fire]]. The primary sources disagree over whether a large Bulgar force under Khan [[Omurtag of Bulgaria]] was acting on Michael's request or of its own accord, nevertheless in spring 823 it marched against Thomas, forcing fhim to lift his siege of Constantinople. The Bulgars defeated Thomas and many of his men began to desert, leading him to retreat to [[Arcadiopolis]]. Michael besieged Thomas in Arcadiopolis and starved him out, leading his supporters to hand him over to the Emperor, who put him to death. The last outbreak of resistance was put down in Anatolia in spring 824. By the end of 823, Michael's power was firmly established and he had negotiated peace with the Bulgars despite their raiding and pillaging in Thrace during Thomas' revolt.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=435}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=387–388}}
[[File:MadridSkylitzesFol37rDetail.jpg|thumb|Michael II successfully captures [[Lüleburgaz|Arcadiopolis]], leading to the surrender of Thomas the Slav.]]

====Aftermath====
The warfare damaged the rural economy, in particular the region around Constantinople, and many [[Dalmatia]]n coastal towns cast off imperial authority, which was not reinstated until the reign of [[Basil I]] ({{reign|867|886}}). Michael tried to reunite the Empire by pardoning many of Thomas' supporters and marrying the daughter of [[Constantine VI]] and [[Maria of Amnia]], [[Euphrosyne (9th century)|Euphrosyne]], of the illustrious iconoclast [[Isaurian dynasty]], although she herself was an iconodule. The marriage thus gave Michael's rule a degree of legitimacy, but it caused some outrage since his first wife, [[Thekla (wife of Michael II)|Thekla]] had only recently died, and Euphrosyne was a [[nun]]. Nevertheless, the marriage helped to stabilise his authority and position.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=435–436}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=388–392}}

Michael attempted a reconciliation of the [[Byzantine iconoclasm|iconoclast controversy]] with Theodore and Nikephoros but they remained determined in their rejection of any compromise between iconoclasm and iconodulia. Theodore insisted that the matter should be resolved by a council presided over by Nikephoros or by the pope as a final arbiter. Nikephoros wrote his ''Refutation'' of the ''Acts'' of the 815 Council of Constantinople. Michael denied that the pope had any authority to intervene in the Eastern Church, so when the abbot [[Methodios I of Constantinople|Methodios]], later Patriarch of Constantinople, arrived in Constantinople with a definition of orthodoxy from [[Pope Paschal I]], he was considered a traitor and imprisoned. This was the only case of oppression of iconodules by Michael recorded in primary sources, and he generally pursued a benevolent policy, hoping he would be able to convert iconodules through dialogue. He wrote to the [[Carolingian Emperor]], [[Louis the Pious]] ({{reign|814|840}}), defending the iconoclast position as represented in the synod of 815, and affirming belief in the veneration of [[relics]]. He gave an account of Thomas the Slav's revolt and appealed to Louis to suppress eastern monks who were spreading anti-Byzantine propaganda in [[Rome]]. He also expressed his disapproval of certain practices associated with iconodules including the mixing of fragments of icons with the [[Eucharist]], the use of icons as [[altar]] tables and as sponsors in [[baptism]] or [[tonsure|tonsuring]]. This is corroborated by other reports of the extensive cult of images which had developed by the ninth century.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=282}} Another case of Byzantine diplomacy with the Franks was the gift of the manuscript of [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] to Louis' court in 827, which was purposefully chosen because Louis' adviser [[Hilduin of Saint-Denis|Hilduin]], abbot of Saint-Denis, chose Pseudo-Dionysius as his abbey's [[patron saint]].{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=424}}

===Campaigns against the Arabs===
In 824, Michael sent a fleet to raid the [[Syria (region)|Syrian]] coast and sack [[Sozopetra]]. Caliph al-Ma'mun mounted a combined land and naval raid in 825, but it did not cause much long-term damage and Michael did not retaliate, leaving the eastern frontier in a hostile stalemate.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=435–436}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=388–389}}

Michael inherited a seriously weakened military and was unable to prevent the [[Emirate of Crete#Conquest of Crete|conquest of Crete]] in 826 by 10,000 [[Arabs|Arab]] pirates from [[al-Andalus]] (who had 40 ships), or to recover the island with an expedition. The pirates had been exiled by the [[Umayyad]] [[emir]] of al-Andalus and captured [[Alexandria]] in 825 but were driven out. Crete was only recovered in 961, and until then remained a base for raiding parties into the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and eastern [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]. In 828, the Cibyrrhaeot navy and army achieved some successes, but was destroyed in a surprise attack and the ''stratēgos'' of the theme was killed. However in 829, the imperial fleet succeeded in driving the pirates out of the [[Cyclades]].{{sfn|Norwich|1991}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=436}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=388–389}}
[[File:The Cretan Saracens defeat the Byzantines under Damianos.jpg|thumb|[[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] pirates land on the island of [[Crete]] and swiftly conquer it.]]

[[Sicily]] lacked both a dominant political and culture centre, like [[Ravenna]], [[Rome]] or [[Naples]], and an autonomous local military elite, so its population were either divided or reacted passively during the crises of the 820s. Discontent began with the revolt of [[Thomas the Slav]], and developed with Michael's attempt to raise taxation in 826. An anti-imperial faction arose, led by the ''tourmarchēs'' of Sicily, [[Euphemius (Sicily)|Euphemios]], who had led successful raids in [[North Africa]]. In 827, the ''stratēgos'' Constantine tried to arrest him, although his motive was unclear. It was likely in response to Euphemios' disloyalty, but later legends report that he wanted to punish Euphemios for abducting his niece from a [[nunnery]] and forcing her into marriage. In any event, word of Constantine's intention reached Euphemios when he was raiding on the North African shore, and caused him to initiate a rebellion, seizing [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], proclaiming himself emperor and then killing the ''stratēgos'' Constantine after defeating him at [[Catania]]. Some of Euphemios' supporters deserted him for the imperial government, and he was defeated by another garrison commander, which forced him to flee to the [[Aghlabid]] [[emir]], [[Ziyadat Allah I of Ifriqiya]], who recognised his title and gave him a fleet. In June 827, a predominantly Arab force landed on the west of the island at [[Mazara]], beginning an invasion. The Byzantines fared poorly at first, retaining control only of a few strongholds and Syracuse. With the death of Euphemios and the arrival of a new ''stratēgos'' in 829 came a series of successes which secured imperial authority by the end of Michael's reign.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=389}}{{sfn|Brown|2008|p=462}}

===Later years===
Michael maintained his policy of compromise and neutrality between iconoclasm and iconodulia until his death, and was supported throughout by Patriarch Antony. In October 829, Michael ordered the release of prisoners, reflecting his moderate policy. On 2 October, he died from [[kidney failure]]. He was succeeded peacefully by his son [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]], along with his stepmother [[Euphrosyne (9th century)|Euphrosyne]] since he was only seventeen years old.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=391–392}}
[[File:Death of Emperor Michael II.jpg|thumb|The passing of Michael II as depicted in the [[Madrid Skylitzes]].]]

==Assessment and legacy==
Because of his iconoclasm, Michael was not popular among the clergy, who depicted him as an ignorant and poorly educated peasant, but he was a competent statesman and administrator. Empress [[Theodora (wife of Theophilos)|Theodora]] ({{reign|842|856}}) defended her husband [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]], which mitigated the ''[[damnatio memoriae]]'' against him and his father Michael, nevertheless the later iconodule sources were highly critical of them. The civil war, which was the most ferocious since the [[Heraclian revolt]] (608–610), gravely weakened the imperial government, which saw the beginning of the century-long struggle over [[Sicily]] with the [[Aghlabids]] and the loss of [[Crete]] to [[Arab]] pirates from [[al-Andalus]]. Both islands became bases for future raids of the coasts of southern [[Italy]] and in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]], as well as the conquest of [[Bari]] in 842. However, by the end of Michael's reign he had begun a restoration of the Byzantine military. The system of government and military built by Michael enabled the Empire under his grandson [[Michael III]] to gain ascendancy in their struggles with the [[Abbasids]] and to withstand all the vicissitudes of Byzantine palace life. Michael II's direct descendants, the [[Amorian dynasty]] followed by the so-called [[Macedonian dynasty]], ruled the Empire for more than two centuries, inaugurating the [[Macedonian Renaissance|Byzantine Renaissance]] of the 9th and 10th centuries.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=436}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=386}}{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|pp=254, 256}}

Although he arranged the assassination of Leo V, Michael continued with his form of iconoclasm in what came to be known as the "second" [[Byzantine iconoclasm]]. This iconoclasm was less intransigent than the first; iconodules were not accused of [[idolatry]] and images that were suspended high up (and thus unable to be venerated) were permitted to remain in churches. Nevertheless, many iconodule clergymen remained staunchly opposed, especially Patriarch [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople]] who was deposed by Leo V but remained active in polemics against imperial authority during Michael's reign.{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=289}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Byzantine Empire}}
*[[List of Byzantine emperors]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Thomas S. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Byzantine Italy (680–876) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}
*{{Cite book |last=Brubaker |first=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-43093-7}}
*{{EB1911|wstitle=Michael (emperors)|volume=18|pages=359–360}}
*{{cite book |last1=Giorgi |first1=Andrea U. De |last2=Eger |first2=A. Asa |title=Antioch: A History |year=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-54041-0 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRgoEAAAQBAJ |access-date=8 February 2024 |language=en}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/odb_20210521/page/1363| article=Michael II| last=Kazhdan| first=Alexander| author-link=Alexander Kazhdan| encyclopedia=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]]| publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1991 | page=1362| isbn=0-19-504652-8}}
*{{Cite book|last=Martindale |first=J.R. |author-link=John Robert Martindale |date=2001 |title=[[Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire]] |isbn=978-1-897747-32-2|ref={{harvid|PBW}}}}
*{{cite book |last=McCormick |first=Michael |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Western Approaches (700–900) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}
*{{Cite book|last=Norwich |first=John Julis|date=1991 |title=Byzantium: The Apogee |isbn=978-0-67080-252-4|publisher=Viking}}
*{{cite book |last1=Talbot |first1=Alice-Mary Maffry |author-link=Alice-Mary Talbot |title=Holy Women of Byzantium: Ten Saints' Lives in English Translation |date=1996 |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks |isbn=978-0-88402-248-0 |pages=178 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaViaGCeiZIC |access-date=3 March 2024 |language=en |chapter=Life of St. Theodora of Thessalonike}}
*{{A History of the Byzantine State and Society}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Phrygian Dynasty]]||770|2 October|829}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Leo V the Armenian|Leo V]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Byzantine emperor]]
| years = 25 December 820 – 2 October  829
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]]
}}
{{S-off}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Leo V the Armenian|Leo V]] in 814
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[List of Roman consuls#Roman consuls of the East alone (541–887)|Roman consul]]
| years = 820
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] in 830
}}
{{S-end}}
{{Roman emperors}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Michael 2}}
[[Category:9th-century Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Phrygian dynasty]]
[[Category:770 births]]
[[Category:829 deaths]]
[[Category:Byzantine Iconoclasm]]
[[Category:People from Amorium]]
[[Category:Protostratores]]
[[Category:810s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:820s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Cappadocian Greeks]]