Editing Montessori education

{{short description|Teaching method encouraging autodidacticism}}
{{Redirect|Montessori|the founder|Maria Montessori|other uses|Montessori (disambiguation)}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}

[[File:Traditional Montessori educational materials.jpg|thumb|Traditional Montessori educational materials on display at the exhibition "Designed for children" at [[Triennale di Milano]], [[Milan]]]]

[[File:MontessoriPhonograms.JPG|right|thumb|Children working with a moveable alphabet at a Montessori school<ref>{{cite web|title=What are phonograms and how they are taught to children|url=http://themontessorian.wordpress.com/2011/05/22/what-are-phonograms-and-how-they-are-taught-to-children/|publisher=The Montessorian wordpress|access-date=26 March 2014|date=22 May 2011|archive-date=26 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326164432/http://themontessorian.wordpress.com/2011/05/22/what-are-phonograms-and-how-they-are-taught-to-children/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The '''Montessori method of education''' is a type of [[education|educational method]] that involves children's natural interests and activities rather than formal teaching methods. A Montessori classroom places an emphasis on hands-on learning and developing real-world skills.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zuckerman |first=Oren |date=2010 |title=Designing digital objects for learning: lessons from Froebel and Montessori |url=http://www.inderscience.com/link.php?id=30497 |journal=International Journal of Arts and Technology |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=124 |doi=10.1504/IJART.2010.030497 |issn=1754-8853 |quote=Montessori’s learning objects are aimed at surfacing a specific abstract concept through hands-on manipulation}}</ref><ref name="Jones">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Stacy |date=11 August 2020 |title=Computers and Technology in Montessori Schools |url=https://montessorifortoday.com/computers-and-Technologe-in-montessori-schools/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605023936/https://montessorifortoday.com/computers-and-technology-in-montessori-schools/ |archive-date=5 June 2024 |access-date=29 June 2022 |website=Montessori For Today |language=en-us}}</ref> It emphasizes independence and it views children as naturally eager for knowledge and capable of initiating learning in a sufficiently supportive and well-prepared learning environment.<ref name="Montessori Foundations of Chicago">{{Cite journal |last=Lillard |first=Angeline S. |date=2019-12-01 |title=Shunned and Admired: Montessori, Self-Determination, and a Case for Radical School Reform |journal=Educational Psychology Review |language=en |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=939–965 |doi=10.1007/s10648-019-09483-3 |issn=1573-336X|doi-access=free }}</ref> It also discourages some conventional methods of measuring achievement, such as [[Grading in education|grades]] and [[Test (student assessment)|tests]].<ref name="Montessori Foundations of Chicago" />

The method was started in the early 20th century by Italian physician [[Maria Montessori]], who developed her theories through scientific experimentation with her students.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thayer-Bacon |first=Barbara |date=2012 |title=Maria Montessori, John Dewey, and William H. Kilpatrick |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5703/educationculture.28.1.3 |journal=Education and Culture |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=3–20 |doi=10.1353/eac.2012.0001 |jstor=10.5703/educationculture.28.1.3 |issn=1085-4908}}</ref> The method has since been used in many parts of the world, in [[Public education|public]] and [[Independent school|private schools]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fleming |first1=David J. |last2=Culclasure |first2=Brooke Taylor |last3=Warren |first3=Hannah |last4=Riga |first4=Ginny |date=2024-09-17 |title=The Challenges and Opportunities of Implementing Montessori Education in the Public Sector |url=https://journals.ku.edu/jmr/article/view/22574 |journal=Journal of Montessori Research |language=en |volume=10 |doi=10.17161/jomr.v10i2.22574 |issn=2378-3923}}</ref>

A range of practices exists under the name "Montessori", which is not [[trademark]]ed. Popular elements include [[mixed-age classrooms]], student freedom (including their choice of activity), long blocks of uninterrupted work time, specially trained teachers, and a prepared environment. Scientific studies regarding the Montessori method report generally favorable outcomes for students.<ref name="Marshall2017">{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=Chloë |title=Montessori education: a review of the evidence base |journal=npj Science of Learning |date=27 October 2017 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=11 |doi=10.1038/s41539-017-0012-7 |pmid=30631457 |pmc=6161506 |bibcode=2017npjSL...2...11M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eşi |first=Marius-Costel |date=2024-06-20 |title=Sciendo |journal=Journal of Education, Society & Multiculturalism |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=72–86 |doi=10.2478/jesm-2024-0005|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Roger A. |last2=Rule |first2=Audrey C. |last3=Giordano |first3=Debra A. |date=2007-07-04 |title=The Effect of Fine Motor Skill Activities on Kindergarten Student Attention |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10643-007-0169-4 |journal=Early Childhood Education Journal |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=103–109 |doi=10.1007/s10643-007-0169-4 |issn=1082-3301}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bhatia |first1=Punum |last2=Davis |first2=Alan |last3=Shamas-Brandt |first3=Ellen |date=2015-05-19 |title=Educational Gymnastics: The Effectiveness of Montessori Practical Life Activities in Developing Fine Motor Skills in Kindergartners |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10409289.2015.995454 |journal=Early Education and Development |language=en |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=594–607 |doi=10.1080/10409289.2015.995454 |issn=1040-9289}}</ref>

== History ==

[[File:Edward Harden Mansion, Sleepy Hollow, NY.jpg|thumb|The [[Scarborough School]] at the [[Edward Harden Mansion]] in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]], listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] as the site of the first American Montessori school in 1911|alt=A wide brick building with dormer windows projecting from its roof and a white wooden wing on the left, seen from slightly downhill]]

Maria Montessori initially resisted a career in teaching, one of only a few professions open to women in that time period. She became one of the first women to become a medical doctor in Italy in the 19th century, and specialized in psychiatry and pediatrics.<ref name="Marshall2017" /> Maria Montessori began developing her educational philosophy and methods in 1897, attending courses in [[pedagogy]] at the [[Sapienza University of Rome|University of Rome]] and learning educational theory.<ref name="Kramer">{{cite book|last=Kramer |first=Rita|title=Maria Montessori|year=1976|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-201-09227-1}}</ref>{{rp|60}} While visiting Rome's [[Psychiatric hospital|mental asylums]] during her schooling with a teacher, Montessori observed that confined children were in need of more stimulation from their environment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://montessori-ami.org/resource-library/facts/biography-dr-maria-montessori|title=Biography of Dr Maria Montessori|website=Association Montessori Internationale|language=en|access-date=14 April 2019|archive-date=14 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414115341/https://montessori-ami.org/resource-library/facts/biography-dr-maria-montessori|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1907, she opened her first classroom, the [[Casa dei Bambini]], or Children's House, in a [[Tenement|tenement building]] in [[Rome]].<ref name="Kramer" />{{rp|112}} From the beginning, Montessori based her work on her observations of children and experimentation with the environment, materials, and lessons available to them. She frequently referred to her work as "[[Maria Montessori#Scientific pedagogy|scientific pedagogy]]."

In 1901, Maria Montessori met the prominent education reformers [[Alice Hallgarten|Alice]] and [[Leopoldo Franchetti]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=ADHER – HERITAGE ADOPTED FOR EDUCATION in Italy – Villa Montesca|url=http://www.adher.mii.lt/italy/index.php?HERITAGE_FOR_EDUCATION:Villa_Montesca|access-date=21 September 2021|website=www.adher.mii.lt}}</ref> Maria Montessori was invited to hold her first course for teachers and to set up a "Casa dei Bambini" at Villa Montesca, the home of the Franchettis in [[Città di Castello]]. Montessori lived with the Franchettis for two years and refined her methodology together with Alice Franchetti. In 1909, she documented her theories in ''Il metodo della pedagogia scientifica'' (later translated into English as ''The Montessori Method'' in 1912).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson |first=Jane |date=30 January 2024 |title=Child-Centered Learning: The Enduring Vision of the Montessori Method – Tots Treasure Trove |url=https://www.totstreasuretrove.com.au/child-centered-learning-the-enduring-vision-of-the-montessori-method/ |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=Tots Treasure Trove |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Montessori |first=Maria |url=https://ia800909.us.archive.org/6/items/cu31924032538500/cu31924032538500.pdf |title=The Montessori Method |publisher=Frederick A. Stokes |location=New York |publication-date=1912 |language=en |translator-last=George |translator-first=Anne E. |trans-title=Pedagogia Scientifica |oclc=726464499}}</ref>

Montessori education had spread to the [[United States]] by 1912 and became widely known in educational and popular publications. In 1913 [[Narcissa Cox Vanderlip]] and [[Frank A. Vanderlip]] founded the [[Scarborough School]], the first Montessori school in the U.S.<ref name="Narcissa">{{cite web |url=https://www2.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/vanderlip-narcissa.cfm |title=Narcissa Cox Vanderlip (1879–1966) |publisher=.gwu.edu |access-date=31 December 2018 |archive-date=21 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621022735/https://www2.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/vanderlip-narcissa.cfm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="book">{{cite book|last=Cheever|first=Mary|title=The Changing Landscape: A History of Briarcliff Manor-Scarborough|year=1990|publisher=Phoenix Publishing|location=West Kennebunk, Maine|isbn=978-0-914659-49-5|oclc=22274920}}</ref> However, conflict arose between Montessori and the American educational establishment. The 1914 critical booklet ''The Montessori System Examined'' by influential education teacher [[William Heard Kilpatrick]] limited the spread of Montessori's ideas, and they languished after 1914. Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there. Montessori continued to extend her work during her lifetime, developing a comprehensive model of psychological development from birth to age 24, as well as educational approaches for children ages 0 to 3, 3 to 6, and 6 to 12.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pearson |first=Sharon Ely |date=15 June 2011 |title=Montessori-based Faith Formation in Christian Contexts |url=https://buildfaith.org/montessori-based-faith-formation/ |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=Building Faith |language=en-US}}</ref>

Montessori education also spread throughout the world, including [[Southeast Asia]] and [[India]], where Maria Montessori [[Montessori in India|was interned during World War II]]. In October 1931, Indian independence leader [[Mahatma Gandhi]] met with Maria Montessori in London. At the time, Gandhi was very interested in the role the Montessori method might play in helping to build an independent nation. Thus, initially, Montessori education in India was connected to the Indian independence movement. Later, elite, private Montessori schools also arose, and in the 1950s, some Montessori schools opened to serve children from lower-socioeconomic families, a trend that continues today with foundation and government-funded schools.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Debs |first1=Mira |title=Montessori in India: Adapted, Competing, and Contested Framings, 1915–2021 |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=September 2022 |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=387–417 |doi=10.1017/heq.2022.25 |s2cid=251995006 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The Montessori method was adapted for [[catechesis|Christian education]] by [[Sofia Cavaletti]] and [[Gianna Gobbi]], in [[The Catechesis of the Good Shepherd]]. Their method was further adapted by [[Jerome Berryman]], in [[Godly Play]].

== Methods ==

[[File:Montessori Classroom.jpg|thumb|A Montessori classroom in the United States]]

Montessori education is based on a model of [[Developmental psychology|human development]]. This educational style operates abiding by two beliefs: that psychological self-construction in children and developing adults occurs through environmental interactions, and that children (especially under the age of six) have an innate path of psychological development.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2023 |title=What Is Maria Montessori Theory Of Education |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/montessori-method-of-education.html |access-date=30 January 2024 |language=en-US}}</ref> Based on her observations, Montessori believed that children who are at liberty to choose and act freely within an environment prepared according to her model would act spontaneously for optimal development.<ref name="Marshall2017" />

Although a range of practices exists under the "Montessori" name, the [[Association Montessori Internationale]] (AMI) and the [[American Montessori Society]] (AMS) cite these elements as essential:<ref name="AMI">{{cite web|title=AMI School Standards|url=http://amiusa.org/ami-schools/ami-school-standards|access-date=22 April 2011|publisher=Association Montessori Internationale-USA (AMI-USA)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104105121/http://amiusa.org/ami-schools/ami-school-standards|archive-date=4 November 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="intro-to-montessori">{{cite web |title=Introduction to Montessori Method |url=https://amshq.org/Montessori-Education/Introduction-to-Montessori |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210043323/https://amshq.org/Montessori-Education/Introduction-to-Montessori |archive-date=10 February 2019 |access-date=29 August 2017 |publisher=American Montessori Society}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

* Mixed-age classrooms: classrooms for children ages {{frac|2|1|2}} or 3 to 6&nbsp;years old are by far the most common, but 0–3, 3–6, 6–9, 9–12, 12–15, and 15–18-year-old classrooms exist as well
* Student choice of activity from within a prescribed range of optional choices
* Uninterrupted blocks of work time, ideally three hours long
* A [[Constructivism (learning theory)|constructivist]] or "discovery" model, in which students learn concepts from working with materials rather than by direct instruction
* Specialized educational materials are often made out of natural, aesthetic materials such as wood, rather than plastic
* A thoughtfully prepared environment where materials are organized by subject area, is accessible to children, and is appropriately sized
* Freedom, within limits
* A trained teacher experienced in observing a child's characteristics, tendencies, innate talents, and abilities
* No external rewards, such as grades or stickers, are given to inspire children to learn material or behave well

Montessori education involves free activity within a "prepared environment", meaning an educational environment tailored to basic human characteristics, to the specific characteristics of children at different ages, and to the individual personalities of each child.<ref name="Lillard2011">{{cite book |last1=Lillard |first1=Paula Polk |title=Montessori Today: A Comprehensive Approach to Education from Birth to Adulthood |date=2011 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-76132-3 |page=22 }}</ref> The function of the environment is to help and allow the child to develop independence in all areas according to their inner psychological directives. In addition to offering access to the Montessori materials appropriate to the age of the children, the environment should exhibit the following characteristics:<ref name="Standing">{{cite book |last=Standing |first=E. M. |title=Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work |publisher=Plume |year=1957 |location=New York |pages=118–140}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Lillard |first=Angeline S |title=Playful Learning and Montessori Education |date=2013 |work=American Journal of Play |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=157–186 |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1077161.pdf |access-date= |publisher=The Strong |isbn=978-1-350-27560-7 }}</ref>

{{columns-list|colwidth=28em|

* An arrangement that facilitates movement and activity
* Beauty and harmony, cleanliness of environment
* Construction in proportion to the child and their needs
* Limitation of materials, so that only material that supports the child's development is included
* Order
* Nature in the classroom and outside of the classroom
* Classroom working materials are kept on open shelves and freely accessible to children

}}

== Education practices ==

[[File:White Pine Montessori School.jpg|thumb|White Pine Montessori School in [[Moscow, Idaho]], US]]

=== Infant and toddler programs ===

Montessori classrooms for children under three fall into several categories, with a number of terms being used. A ''{{lang|it|nido}}'', Italian for "nest", serves a small number of children from around two months to around 14 months, or when the child is confidently walking. A "Young Child Community" serves a larger number of children from around one year to {{frac|2|1|2}} or 3 years old. Both environments emphasize materials and activities scaled to the children's size and abilities, opportunities to develop movement, and activities to develop independence. The development of independence in toileting is typically emphasized as well. Some schools also offer "Parent-Infant" classes, in which parents participate with their very young children.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Montessori Infant-Toddler Program|url=https://kidadvance.com/montessori/infants-toddlers.html|publisher=North American Montessori Teachers Association|access-date=25 April 2011|archive-date=20 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220015649/http://www.montessori-namta.org/Index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=85|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Preschool and kindergarten ===

[[File:Practical life class art Adebabs Inland Montessori School.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Hand painting in a Montessori school of [[Nigeria]]]]

Montessori classrooms for children from {{frac|2|1|2}} or 3 to 6 years old are often called Children's Houses, after Montessori's first school, the Casa dei Bambini in Rome in 1906. A typical classroom serves 20 to 30 children in mixed-age groups, staffed by a fully trained lead teacher and assistants. Classrooms are usually outfitted with child-sized tables and chairs arranged singly or in small clusters, with classroom materials on child-height shelves throughout the room. Activities are for the most part initially presented by the teacher, after which they may be chosen more or less freely by the children as interest dictates. A teacher's role within a Montessori classroom is to guide and consult students individually by letting each child create their own learning pathway. Classroom materials usually include activities for engaging in practical skills such as pouring and spooning, washing up, scrubbing tables and sweeping. Also materials for the development of the senses, mathematical materials, language materials, music, art and cultural materials, including more science-based activities like 'sink and float', Magnetic and Non magnetic and candle and air.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Montessori Preschool Program|url=http://www.montessori-namta.org/Index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=86|publisher=North American Montessori Teachers Association|access-date=25 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725235840/http://www.montessori-namta.org/Index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=86|archive-date=25 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Activities in Children's Houses are typically hands-on, tactile materials to teach concepts. For example, to teach writing, students use sandpaper letters. These are letters created by cutting letters out of sandpaper and placing them on wooden blocks. The children then trace these letters with their fingers to learn the shape and sound of each letter. Another example is the use of bead chains to teach math concepts, specifically multiplication. Specifically for multiples of 10, there is one bead that represents one unit, a bar of ten beads put together that represents 1×10, then a flat shape created by fitting 10 of the bars together to represent 10×10, and a cube created by fitting 10 of the flats together to represent 10×10×10. These materials help build a concrete understanding of basic concepts upon which much is built in the later years.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021|reason=Unsupported assertion that Alice Franchetti was a co-creator of the methodology}}

One of the most important benefits of a Montessori school experience is that each child is understood as an individual learner who will naturally seek to excel when their strengths, weaknesses, and interests are understood and taken into account.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2023 |title=Public or Private: Not all Montessori Schools are the Same! |url=https://www.milwaukee-montessori.org/public-or-private-not-all-montessori-schools-are-the-same |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=www.milwaukee-montessori.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Elementary classrooms ===

Elementary classrooms usually serve mixed-age 6- to 9-year-old and 9- to 12-year-old groupings; 6- to 12-year-old groups are also used. Lessons are typically presented to small groups of children, who are then free to follow up with independent work as their own interest and personal responsibility dictate. Montessori educators give interdisciplinary lessons examining subjects ranging from biology and history to theology, which they refer to as "great lessons." These lessons are typically given near the beginning of the school term and provide the basis for learning throughout the year. The lessons also offer inspiration and open doors to new areas of investigation.<ref>[http://www.ourkids.net/montessori-schools.php Guide to Montessori Education] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325183038/https://www.ourkids.net/montessori-schools.php |date=25 March 2019 }}.</ref>

Lessons include work in language, mathematics, history, the sciences, the arts, etc. Student-directed explorations of resources outside the classroom are integral to education.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Montessori Elementary Program|url=http://www.montessori-namta.org/Index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=87|publisher=North American Montessori Teachers Association|access-date=25 April 2011|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303080803/http://www.montessori-namta.org/Index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=87|url-status=dead}}</ref> Montessori used the term "cosmic education" to indicate both the universal scope of lessons to be presented and the idea that education should help children realize the human role in the interdependent functioning of the universe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Raimondo |first=Rossella |date=2018 |title=Cosmic Education in Maria Montessori: Arts and Sciences as Resources for Human Development |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228533377.pdf |journal=Studi sulla Formazione |volume=21 |pages=249–260 |doi=10.13128/Studi_Formaz-24669 |doi-broken-date=22 November 2024 |issn=2036-6981 |access-date=22 November 2024}}</ref>

Montessori schools are more flexible than traditional schools. In traditional schools, the students sit at tables or desks to do their work. At a Montessori school, the child gets to decide where they would like to work whether that is at a table or on the floor. It is about them going where they feel most comfortable. Anything a child would need during their learning experience is placed on a shelf, the shelf is easily accessible and the student can use any of all of the items available, based on their personal preferance. Montessori classrooms have an age range so that the younger students can look up to the older students and the older students can help the younger students as needed. It gives all age groups a chance to learn from one another.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Montessori Elementary Classroom Experience |url=https://amshq.org/About-Montessori/Inside-the-Montessori-Classroom/Elementary |access-date=29 June 2022 |website=amshq.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Middle and high school ===

Montessori education for this level is less developed than programs for younger children. Montessori did not establish a teacher training program or a detailed plan of education for [[Adolescence|adolescents]] during her lifetime. However, a number of schools have extended their programs for younger children to the middle school and high school levels. In addition, several Montessori organizations have developed teacher training or orientation courses and a loose consensus on the plan of study is emerging. Montessori wrote that "The essential reform of our plan from this point of view may be defined as follows: during the difficult time of adolescence it is helpful to leave the accustomed environment of the family in town and to go to quiet surroundings in the country, close to nature."<ref>Montessori, 1989, p. 67</ref>

=== Digital technology ===

With the development of mobile touchscreen devices, some Montessori activities have been made into mobile apps.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2012/08/dev-lescapadou/|title=On Making Montessori Apps for the iPhone|author=Daniel Donahod|magazine=Wired|access-date=5 July 2016|date=20 August 2012|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301052431/https://www.wired.com/2012/08/dev-lescapadou/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2012/06/lettersounds/|title=Montessori Letter Sounds:Another Winning App from Les Trois Elles|author=Kristen Rutherford|magazine=Wired|access-date=5 July 2016|date=June 2012|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301040919/https://www.wired.com/2012/06/lettersounds/|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the 2020 school closures due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many Montessori schools faced a lack of digital and interactive resources as they shifted to hybrid and online learning. This resulted in attempts to bring core materials and lessons to the digital realm with the idea of connecting students at home with familiar materials, and to increase overall access and awareness. Pocket Montessori, which launched in 2020, started with a digital shelf and a few Montessori designed math materials and has since expanded to include a broader range of mathematical materials as well as additional geometry, and language based materials.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kincaid |first=Rachel |date=23 August 2022 |title=Montessori Educator Creates App in Response to 2020 Pandemic |url=https://www.montessoripost.com/2022/08/23/montessori-educator-creates-app-in-response-to-2020-pandemic |website=Montessori Post|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref>

Mobile applications have also been criticized due to the lack of physical interaction with objects, which does not align with the core Montessori principles.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Montessori Education in the Internet Age|url=https://www.childoftheredwoods.com/articles/mont-tech-fit|access-date=19 November 2021|website=Child of the Redwoods|language=en-US}}</ref>

Although not supported by all, most Montessori schools include new technologies with the purpose of preparing students for their future use. Ideally, digital technology is not used in the same way it would be used in most other contemporary classrooms. Instead it is used "in meaningful ways," not simply to replace "real-world activities with high-tech ones."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Stacy|date=11 August 2020|title=Computers and Technology in Montessori Schools|url=https://montessorifortoday.com/computers-and-technology-in-montessori-schools/|access-date=19 November 2021|website=Montessori For Today|language=en-us}}</ref>

Devices are not commonly used when students are being taught. When students have a question about something, they try to solve it themselves instead of turning to a device to try to figure out an answer.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cole |first=Shandy |title=Is Technology Integrated into Montessori Learning? |url=https://blog.fms.org/is-technology-integrated-into-montessori-learning |access-date=29 June 2022 |website=blog.fms.org |language=en}}</ref> When a device is used by a student, the teacher expects them to use it in a meaningful way. There has to be a specific purpose behind using technology. Before using a device, the student should ask themselves if using this device is the best way or if it is the only way to do a certain task. If the answer is yes to both of those questions, then that would be considered using technology in a meaningful way.<ref name="Jones" />

== Montessori's philosophy ==

=== Psychology ===

Montessori perceived specific elements of human psychology which her son and collaborator Mario Montessori identified as "human tendencies" in 1957. There is some debate about the exact list, but the following are clearly identified:<ref>{{cite book|last=Montessori|first=Mario|title=The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education|year=1966|publisher=Association Montessori Internationale|location=Amsterdam|url=http://amiusa.org/shop/the-human-tendencies-and-montessori-education|access-date=27 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314162508/http://amiusa.org/shop/the-human-tendencies-and-montessori-education|archive-date=14 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{columns-list|colwidth=26em|

* [[Abstraction#In psychology|Abstraction]]
* Activity
* Communication
* Exactness
* Exploration
* Manipulation (of the environment)
* Order
* Orientation
* Repetition
* Self-Perfection
* Work (also described as "purposeful activity")

}}

==== "Planes" of development ====

Montessori observed four distinct periods, or "planes", in human development, extending from birth to 6 years, from 6 to 12, from 12 to 18, and from 18 to 24. She saw different characteristics, learning modes, and developmental imperatives active in each of these planes and called for educational approaches specific to each period.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Montessori|first=Maria|title=The Four Planes of Development|journal=AMI Communications|year=1969|issue=2/3|pages=4–10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Grazzini|first=Camillo|title=The Four Planes of Development: A Constructive Rhythm of Life|journal=Montessori Today|date=Jan–Feb 1988|volume=1|issue=1|pages=7–8|url=https://www.mariamontessori.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/The-Four-Planes-of-Development-A-Constructive-Rhythm-of-Life-Camillo-Grazzini.pdf|access-date=4 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008225844/https://www.mariamontessori.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/The-Four-Planes-of-Development-A-Constructive-Rhythm-of-Life-Camillo-Grazzini.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The first plane extends from birth to around six years of age. During this period, Montessori observed that the child undergoes striking physical and psychological development. The first-plane child is seen as a concrete, sensorial explorer and learner engaged in the developmental work of psychological self-construction and building functional independence. Montessori introduced several concepts to explain this work, including the absorbent mind, sensitive periods, and normalization.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merrett |first1=Stephen |title=The Demand for Water: Four Interpretations |journal=Water International |date=March 2004 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=27–29 |doi=10.1080/02508060408691745 |bibcode=2004WatIn..29...27M |s2cid=154849732 }}</ref>

[[File:Sandpaper letters.jpg|thumb|Educational materials like sandpaper letters are designed to appeal to young children's senses.]]

Montessori described the young child's behavior of effortlessly assimilating the sensorial stimuli of his or her environment, including information from the senses, language, culture, and the development of concepts with the term "absorbent mind." She believed that this is a power unique to the first plane, and that it fades as the child approached age six.<ref name="Montessori1967">{{cite book |last=Montessori |first=Maria |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780440550563 |title=The Absorbent Mind |publisher=Delta |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-440-55056-3 |location=New York |pages=207 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Montessori also observed and discovered periods of special sensitivity to particular stimuli during this time which she called the "sensitive periods." In Montessori education, the classroom environment responds to these periods by making appropriate materials and activities available while the periods are active in each individual young child. She identified the following periods and their durations:<ref name="Standing" />

* [[Social behavior]]—from around {{frac|2|1|2}} to 4 years old
* Sensory refinement—from birth to around 4 years old
* Order—from around 1 to 3 years old
* Interest in small objects—from around 18 months to 3 years old
* [[Language acquisition|Acquisition of language]]—from birth to around 6 years old

Finally, Montessori observed in children from three to six years old a psychological state she termed "normalization."<ref>"[http://www.montessori-namta.org/The-Process-of-Normalization The Process of Normalization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202032929/http://www.montessori-namta.org/The-Process-of-Normalization |date=2017-02-02 }}." ''North American Montessori Teacher's Association.''</ref> Normalization arises from concentration and focus on activity which serves the child's developmental needs, and is characterized by the ability to concentrate as well as "spontaneous discipline, continuous and happy work, social sentiments of help and sympathy for others."<ref name="Montessori1967" />

The second plane of development extends from around six years to twelve years old. During this period, Montessori observed physical and psychological changes in children, and she developed a classroom environment, lessons, and materials, to respond to these new characteristics. Physically, she observed the loss of baby teeth and the lengthening of the legs and torso at the beginning of the plane, and a period of uniform growth following. Psychologically, she observed the "herd instinct", or the tendency to work and socialize in groups, as well as the powers of reason and imagination. Developmentally, she believed the work of the second-plane child is the formation of intellectual independence, of moral sense, and of social organization.<ref name="Montessori1994">{{cite book |last=Montessori |first=Maria |title=From Childhood to Adolescence |publisher=ABC-Clio |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-85109-185-0 |location=Oxford, England |pages=7–16}}</ref>

The third plane of development extends from around twelve years to around eighteen years of age, encompassing the period of [[adolescence]]. Montessori characterized the third plane by the physical changes of [[puberty]] and adolescence, but also psychological changes. She emphasized the psychological instability and difficulties in the concentration of this age, as well as the creative tendencies and the development of "a sense of justice and a sense of personal dignity." She used the term "valorization" to describe the adolescents' drive for an externally derived evaluation of their worth. Developmentally, Montessori believed that the work of the third plane child is the construction of the adult self in society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Montessori |first=Maria |title=From childhood to adolescence: including "Erdkinder" and the functions of the university |date=1996 |publisher=Clio Press |isbn=978-1-85109-185-0 |edition=New. ed., repr. and rev |series=The clio montessori series |location=Oxford |pages=59–81}}</ref>

The fourth plane of development extends from around eighteen years to around twenty-four years old. Montessori wrote comparatively little about this period and did not develop an educational program for the age. She envisioned young adults prepared by their experiences in Montessori education at the lower levels ready to fully embrace the study of culture and the sciences in order to influence and lead civilization. She believed that economic independence in the form of work for money was critical for this age, and felt that an arbitrary limit to the number of years in university-level study was unnecessary, as the study of culture could go on throughout a person's life.<ref name="Montessori1994" />{{rp|82–93}}

=== Relationship to peace ===

Montessori believed that education had an important role in achieving [[world peace]],<ref name="Standing" />{{rp|80}} stating in her 1936 book ''Education and Peace'' that "[p]reventing conflicts is the work of politics; establishing peace is the work of education."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Montessori |first=Maria |url=https://archive.org/details/educationpeace0010mont/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Education and peace |date=1949 |publisher=Oxford : Clio |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-85109-168-3 |edition=new |series=Clio Montessori Series |volume=10 |location=Oxford |publication-date=1992 |pages=24 |language=en |translator-last=Lane |translator-first=Helen R. |trans-title=Educazione e Pace}}</ref> She felt that children allowed to develop according to their inner laws of development would give rise to a more peaceful and enduring civilization. From the 1930s to the end of her life, she gave a number of lectures and addresses on the subject.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van Hook |first1=Stephanie |chapter=Peace Education: Education and Peace |pages=91–95 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UeesEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 |editor1-last=Murray |editor1-first=Angela |editor2-last=Ahlquist |editor2-first=Eva-Maria Tebano |editor3-last=McKenna |editor3-first=Maria |editor4-last=Debs |editor4-first=Mira |title=The Bloomsbury Handbook of Montessori Education |date=2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-27561-4 }}</ref>

== Studies ==

With an estimated 60,000 Montessori schools worldwide, there have been attempts by researchers to evaluate the effectiveness of Montessori education.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Robson |first1=David |last2=Franco |first2=Alessia |date=2023-01-31 |title=Montessori: The World's Most Influential School? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230131-does-the-montessori-method-actually-work |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201021804/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230131-does-the-montessori-method-actually-work |archive-date=2023-02-01 |work=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Results of these studies have been mixed as there are two main issues with most studies attempting to research the method. The first issue is controlling for the variables in a live classroom while the second is determining the [[Effect size|effect sizes]] of the method versus other factors such as socioeconomic status.<ref name="Marshall2017" />

=== Positive evidence of efficacy ===

A 1975 study found that students in a Montessori program from pre-K to grade 2 scored higher on the ''[[Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales]]'' compared to those in traditional programs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Louise B. |last2=Dyer |first2=Jean L. |last3=Stevenson |first3=Harold |last4=White |first4=Sheldon H. |date=1975 |title=Four Preschool Programs: Their Dimensions and Effects |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1165878 |journal=Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development |volume=40 |issue=5/6 |pages=1–170 |doi=10.2307/1165878 |jstor=1165878 |issn=0037-976X}}</ref> In 1981, a review found that Montessori programs performed as well as or better than other early childhood education models in specific areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chattin-McNichols |first=John P. |date=1981 |title=The Effects of Montessori School Experience |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42642922 |journal=Young Children |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=49–66 |jstor=42642922 |issn=0044-0728}}</ref>

A 2006 study found that Montessori education, when implemented faithfully, fostered social and academic skills that were equal to or superior to those seen in other types of schools.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lillard |first1=Angeline |last2=Else-Quest |first2=Nicole |date=2006-09-29 |title=Evaluating Montessori Education |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1132362 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=313 |issue=5795 |pages=1893–1894 |doi=10.1126/science.1132362 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> A study in 2007 in [[Milwaukee Public Schools]] found that students who had attended Montessori from ages 3 to 11 outperformed their high school classmates in math and science.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dohrmann |first1=Kathryn Rindskopf |last2=Nishida |first2=Tracy K. |last3=Gartner |first3=Alan |last4=Lipsky |first4=Dorothy Kerzner |last5=Grimm |first5=Kevin J. |date=2007 |title=High School Outcomes for Students in a Public Montessori Program |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02568540709594622 |journal=Journal of Research in Childhood Education |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=205–217 |doi=10.1080/02568540709594622 |issn=0256-8543}}</ref> A [[meta-analysis]] in 2003 found that Montessori education had some of the strongest positive effects on student achievement compared to other comprehensive school reform programs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Borman |first1=Geoffrey D. |last2=Hewes |first2=Gina M. |last3=Overman |first3=Laura T. |last4=Brown |first4=Shelly |date=2003 |title=Comprehensive School Reform and Achievement: A Meta-Analysis |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/00346543073002125 |journal=Review of Educational Research |language=en |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=125–230 |doi=10.3102/00346543073002125 |issn=0034-6543}}</ref>

A 2017 longitudinal study found that students randomly assigned to Montessori schools scored higher on academic tests than peers assigned to traditional public schools.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lillard |first1=Angeline S. |last2=Heise |first2=Megan J. |last3=Richey |first3=Eve M. |last4=Tong |first4=Xin |last5=Hart |first5=Alyssa |last6=Bray |first6=Paige M. |date=2017-10-30 |title=Montessori Preschool Elevates and Equalizes Child Outcomes: A Longitudinal Study |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=8 |page=1783 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01783 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=5670361 |pmid=29163248}}</ref>

A 2021 study found that adults who attended Montessori schools for at least two years scored significantly higher on measures of general well-being, engagement, [[Trust (social science)|social trust]], and self-confidence compared to those who attended conventional schools. These benefits were linked to key Montessori features like self-determination, meaningful activities, and social stability. While the findings suggest that Montessori education may enhance adult well-being, the authors note that unmeasured factors, such as parental influence, could also play a role.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lillard |first1=Angeline S. |last2=Meyer |first2=M. Joseph |last3=Vasc |first3=Dermina |last4=Fukuda |first4=Eren |date=2021-11-25 |title=An Association Between Montessori Education in Childhood and Adult Wellbeing |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.721943 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=8656358 |pmid=34899465}}</ref>

=== Mixed or conditional evidence of efficacy ===

A 2017 review found substantial support for Montessori practices, such as phonics-based literacy and sensory-based mathematics, but concluded that the effects were stronger when Montessori programs adhered to the original method, as opposed to modern, adapted versions.<ref name="Marshall2017" /> A book the same year emphasized the importance of adherence to the traditional model for better outcomes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lillard |first=Angeline Stoll |title=Montessori: the Science Behind the Genius |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-998152-6 |edition=3rd |location=New York |pages=351–376 |translator-last=Claremont |translator-first=Claude A.}}</ref>

In 2012, a study showed that children in “classic Montessori” programs, where students have greater exposure to Montessori materials, performed better than those in “supplemented Montessori” or conventional classrooms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lillard |first=Angeline S. |date=2012 |title=Preschool children's development in classic Montessori, supplemented Montessori, and conventional programs |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022440512000039 |journal=Journal of School Psychology |language=en |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=379–401 |doi=10.1016/j.jsp.2012.01.001|pmid=22656079 }}</ref>

In 2020, a study of 195 public Montessori schools across 10 U.S. states found that Montessori students scored lower than district peers in 3rd-grade math but had better ELA outcomes at 3rd and 8th grade. Economically disadvantaged and Black students at Montessori schools achieved higher proficiency rates than their peers in district schools, and Montessori schools had smaller Black-White achievement gaps.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=L. Snyder |first1=Allyson |last2=Tong |first2=Xin |last3=Lillard |first3=Angeline S. |date=2022 |title=Standardized Test Proficiency in Public Montessori Schools |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15582159.2021.1958058 |journal=Journal of School Choice |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=105–135 |doi=10.1080/15582159.2021.1958058 |issn=1558-2159|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Inconclusive evidence of efficacy ===

A 2005 study of a public Montessori magnet school in [[Buffalo, New York]], found no evidence that Montessori enrollment improved academic achievement relative to traditional programs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lopata |first1=Christopher |last2=Wallace |first2=Nancy V. |last3=Finn |first3=Kristin V. |date=2005-09-01 |title=Comparison of Academic Achievement Between Montessori and Traditional Education Programs |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02568540509594546 |journal=Journal of Research in Childhood Education |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=5–13 |doi=10.1080/02568540509594546 |issn=0256-8543}}</ref>

== Trademark and branding ==

In 1967, the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|US Patent and Trademark Office]] ruled that "the term 'Montessori' has a generic and/or descriptive significance."<ref>''American Montessori Society, Inc. v. Association Montessori Internationale'', 155 U.S.P.Q. 591, 592 (1967)</ref> According to many Montessori advocates, the lack of trademark protection has led to public misconceptions of the method due to some schools' using the term without adhering to Montessori principles.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rosen |first1=Barbara |date=9 February 1998 |title=The Many Faces of Montessori |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/02/09/news/the-many-faces-of-montessori.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206092100/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/02/09/news/the-many-faces-of-montessori.html |archive-date=6 December 2017 |access-date=2 January 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

In the [[Philippines]], officials from the [[Department of Education (Philippines)|Department of Education]] commented on the misuse of the term "Montessori" as well as "[[international school]]s."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Esplanada |first1=Jerry |date=11 March 2009 |title=How many are really 'international schools'? |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/learning/view/20090511-204296/How-many-are-really-international-schools |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005010717/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/learning/view/20090511-204296/How-many-are-really-international-schools |archive-date=5 October 2013 |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]}}</ref> In June 1997, the government issued Order 65 to allow schools to use the term "Montessori" only if they meet certain requirements.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Soliven |first1=Preciosa S. |title=The Montessori movement in the Philippines |url=https://www.philstar.com/other-sections/education-and-home/2010/04/15/566236/montessori-movement-philippines |access-date=15 February 2022 |work=The Philippine Star}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[List of Montessori schools]]
* [[Waldorf Education]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=Montessori education}}

* {{Cite EB1922 |wstitle= Montessori System |volume = 31 |last= Chisholm |first= Hugh |author-link= Hugh Chisholm|short=x}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.edutopia.org/article/public-school-makes-case-montessori-all|title=A Public School Makes the Case for 'Montessori for All', edutopia.org, April 25, 2019|newspaper=Edutopia }}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.furman.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/195/rileypdfFiles/MontessoriFullReportforprint.pdf|title=An Evaluation of Montessori Education in South Carolina's Public Schools-Full Report, THE RILEY INSTITUTE AT FURMAN, 2018}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Randolph |first1=Justus J. |last2=Bryson |first2=Anaya |last3=Menon |first3=Lakshmi |last4=Henderson |first4=David K. |last5=Kureethara Manuel |first5=Austin |last6=Michaels |first6=Stephen |last7=rosenstein |first7=debra leigh walls |last8=McPherson |first8=Warren |last9=O'Grady |first9=Rebecca |last10=Lillard |first10=Angeline S. |title=Montessori education's impact on academic and nonacademic outcomes: A systematic review |journal=Campbell Systematic Reviews |date=September 2023 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=e1330 |doi=10.1002/cl2.1330 |pmid=37554998 |pmc=10406168 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Sophie |title=An exploration of parental perceptions surrounding the influence of the Montessori ethos towards education on aspects of children's development |journal=Education 3-13 |date=19 January 2024 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/03004279.2024.2303234 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Beatty |first1=Barbara |title=The Dilemma of Scripted Instruction: Comparing Teacher Autonomy, Fidelity, and Resistance in the Froebelian Kindergarten, Montessori, Direct Instruction, and Success for All |journal=Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education |date=March 2011 |volume=113 |issue=3 |pages=395–430 |doi=10.1177/016146811111300305 }}

== External links ==
{{NSRW Poster|Montessori System|Montessori education}}

{{commons category|Montessori education}}

* [https://montessori-ami.org/ Association Montessori Internationale (AMI)]
* [https://montessori.edu/ The International Montessori Index (AMI)]
* [http://amiusa.org Association Montessori International/USA (AMI/USA)]
* [http://amshq.org American Montessori Society (AMS)]
* [http://www.montessori.org The Montessori Foundation]
* {{librivox book | title=The Montessori Method | author=Maria MONTESSORI}}
* [https://www.archive.org/stream/montessorisystem00kilprich?ref=ol#page/n1/mode/1up Digitized library book copy of ''The Montessori System Examined''] on [https://archive.org Internet Archive]
* [http://www.macte.org/ Montessori Accreditation Council for Teacher Education]
* [https://montessoribib.ku.edu/ Montessori Bibliography Online]
* [https://montessoriline.com/ Montessori Education Related Articles]
* [https://momandi.in/ Mother Toddler Program]

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[[Category:Montessori education| ]]
[[Category:Education theory]]
[[Category:Educational practices]]
[[Category:Pedagogical movements and theories]]
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