Editing Mosuo

{{Short description|Chinese minority people}}
{{Improve lead|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Mosuo<br />(also Moso, Musuo, Mosso and Naxi<ref name="Mòso o Mòsso">{{cite web|url=http://www.sapere.it/enciclopedia/M%C3%B2so+o+M%C3%B2sso.html|title=Mòso o Mòsso|access-date=11 September 2015}}</ref> )
| population = 50,000
| popplace = {{flag|China}}{{nbsp|2}}<small>([[Sichuan]]{{·}} [[Yunnan]])</small>
| languages = [[Na language|Na]]
| religions = [[Daba (religion)|Daba]],<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/m/yunnan/luguhu/2011-06/29/content_12801228.htm |title = Daba religion}}</ref> and [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
| related = [[Nakhi people|Nakhi]]
}}
[[File:Mosuo girl weaver in Old town Lijiang.JPG|thumb|right|Mosuo girl weaver in Old town Lijiang]]
[[File:摩梭人宗教儀式用服 20190928185804.jpg|thumb|Clothes of religious ceremonies of Moso, photo taken at Moso's Folk museum.]]

The '''Mosuo''' ({{zh|c=[[wikt:摩梭|摩梭]]|p=Mósuō}}; also spelled '''Moso''', '''Mosso''' or '''Musuo'''), often incorrectly referred to as the '''Naxi''',<ref name="Mòso o Mòsso"/> are an [[Ethnicity|ethnic group]] living in [[China]]'s [[Yunnan]] and [[Sichuan]] Provinces. Consisting of a population of approximately 50,000, many of them live in the Yongning region, around [[Lugu Lake]], in Labai, in Muli, and in Yanyuan.

Although the Mosuo are culturally distinct from the [[Nashi people|Nashi]], the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|Chinese government]] places them as members of the Nashi minority. The Nashi are about 320,000 people spread throughout different provinces in China. Their culture has been documented by indigenous scholars [[Lamu Gatusa]], Latami Dashi, Yang Lifen, and He Mei.<ref>The collection of papers that Latami Dashi edited, published in 2006, contains an extensive list of references in Chinese, and a bibliography of books and articles in other languages (especially English) compiled by He Sanna.</ref>

==Introduction==
The Mosuo are often referred to as China's "last [[Matrilineality|matrilineal]] society".<ref name="tandfonline.com">{{cite journal|last1=Mattison|first1=Siobhán M.|title=Economic impacts of tourism and erosion of the visiting system among the Mosuo of Lugu lake|journal=The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology|date=2010|volume=11|issue=2|pages=159–176|doi=10.1080/14442211003730736|s2cid=153747731}}</ref> The Mosuo themselves may also often use the description ''[[Matriarchy|matriarchal]]'', which they believe increases interest in their culture and thus attracts tourism.<ref name = LLMCDA-Matrilineal>Lugu Lake Mosuo Cultural Development Association (2006). {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060504080350/http://www.mosuoproject.org/matri.htm The Mosuo: Matriarchal/Matrilineal Culture]}}. Retrieved on: 2011-07-10.</ref> However, the terms ''matrilineal'' and ''matriarchal'' do not reflect the full complexity of their [[social organization]]. In fact, it is not easy to categorize Mosuo culture within traditional anthropological categories. They have aspects of a matriarchal culture: women are often the head of the house, inheritance is through the female line, and women make business decisions. However, unlike a matriarchy, the political power tends to be in the hands of males.<ref name="LLMCDA-Matrilineal"/> For instance, a man named Ge Ze A Che is the political leader of Luoshui village.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Lu|last1=Yuan|first2=Sam|last2=Mitchell|title=Land of the Walking Marriage: For the Mosuo of China, it's a woman's world.|url=http://public.gettysburg.edu/~dperry/Class%20Readings%20Scanned%20Documents/Intro/Yuan.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222162747/http://public.gettysburg.edu/~dperry/Class%20Readings%20Scanned%20Documents/Intro/Yuan.pdf |archive-date=Dec 22, 2024}}</ref> However, according to an article by NPR, there was once a time when the political leaders of Mosuo villages were in fact females.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/11/26/501012446/the-place-in-china-where-the-women-lead|title=The Place in China Where the Women Lead|website=[[NPR]]}}</ref> The anthropologist Peggy Reeves Sanday has argued that the Musuo should be considered a matriarchy.<ref>Anthropologists like Peggy Reeves Sanday favored redefining and reintroducing the word matriarchy, especially in reference to modern matrilineal societies: "matriarchies are not a mirror form of patriarchies but rather that a matriarchy "emphasizes maternal meanings where 'maternal symbols are linked to social practices influencing the lives of both sexes and where women play a central role in these practices'" Peggy Reeves Sanday, anthropologist, [http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/?GCOI=80140100164210 Women at the Center: Life in a Modern Matriarchy], Cornell University Press, 2002.</ref> Further, scholars have argued that while matrilineal arrangements are the normative pattern, domestic arrangements still vary geographically and by family circumstance.<ref name="tandfonline.com"/>

==Lifestyle==

===Daily life===
Mosuo culture is primarily agrarian, with work based on farming tasks such as raising [[livestock]] (yak, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry) and growing crops, including grains and potatoes. The people are largely [[Self-sustainability|self-sufficient]] in diet, raising enough for their daily needs. Meat is an important part of their diet and, since they lack refrigeration, is preserved through salting or smoking. The Mosuo are renowned for their preserved pork, which may be kept for 10 years or more. They produce a local [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic]] [[Drink|beverage]] made from grain, called ''sulima'', which is similar to strong wine. Sulima is drunk regularly and usually offered to guests and at ceremonies and festivals.<ref name = LLMCDA-daily>Lugu Lake Mosuo Cultural Development Association (2006). {{usurped|1=[https://archive.today/20120912185016/http://www.mosuoproject.org/daily.htm The Mosuo: Daily Life]}}. Retrieved on: 2011-07-11.</ref>

Local economies tend to be [[barter]]-based. However, increased interaction with the outside world brings greater use of a cash-based trade system. Average incomes are low (US$150–200 per year), causing financial restrictions when cash is needed for activities such as education or travel. Electricity has been introduced in most Mosuo communities, but some villages still lack electric power.<ref name = LLMCDA-daily/>

Mosuo homes consist of four rectangular structures arranged in a square, around a central courtyard. The first floor houses livestock, including water buffalo, horses, geese, and poultry. The main cooking, eating and visiting areas are also on the first floor. The second floor is commonly used for storage and for the bedrooms.<ref name = LLMCDA-daily/>

===Role of women===
As soon as a Mosuo girl becomes old enough, she learns the tasks that she will perform for the rest of her life. Mosuo women do all the housework, including cleaning, tending the fire, cooking, gathering firewood, feeding the livestock, and spinning and weaving.<ref name="Kingdom">Kingdom of Women: The Matriarchal Mosuo of China (2007, 54 min.) Films for the Humanities and Societies</ref><ref name="Hua"/> In the past, due to isolation, Mosuo women produced all their own household goods. Today, due to increased trade with surrounding villages and cities, it is easier to obtain goods. Nevertheless, some Mosuo women, especially those of older generations, know how to use looms to produce cloth goods.

===Role of men===
[[File:Mosuo boys.jpg|thumb|Mosuo men]]

Mosuo men help to bring up the children of their sisters and female cousins, build houses, and are in charge of livestock and fishing,<ref name = "Kingdom" /> which they learn from their uncles and older male family members as soon as they are old enough. Some misleading authors claim men have no responsibility in Mosuo society — they have no jobs, rest all day, and conserve their strength for nighttime visits.<ref name = "Ladies">{{citation | title = The Ladies of the Lake: A Matriarchal Society | publisher = Journeymen Pictures| isbn = 978-1463105402 }}.</ref>

Men deal with the slaughter of livestock, in which women never participate. Slaughtered pigs, in particular, are kept whole and stored in a dry, airy place that keeps them edible for up to ten years.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} This is especially helpful when harsh winters make food scarce.

==Matrilineality== <!-- a redirect target for links from other articles -->
Except for the women and men who leave Mosuo society, Mosuo people usually learn who their father is through casual conversation and hints from family and neighbors. When a baby turns one year old, the mother and sister of the father will visit, bringing gifts. On major festivals, children visit their father's house. Fathers are not responsible for disciplining nor for providing for their children. Instead, they are expected to discipline and provide for their sisters' children and to be close to their nephews' biological children. Therefore, the Mosuo people "know their father but are not close to their father".

===Matriarch===
The matriarch (''Ah mi,'' or elder female, in Chinese) is the head of the house. The ''Ah mi'' has absolute power;<ref name="Kingdom" /> she decides the fate of all those living under her roof. In walking marriages, Mosuo women are responsible for much of the work done around the house and financial decisions. The matriarch also manages the money and jobs of each family member.<ref name="Ladies"/> When the ''Ah mi'' wishes to pass her duties on to the next generation, she will give this female successor the keys to the household storage,<ref name = "Kingdom" /> signifying the passing on of property rights and responsibility.

===History===
An important historical fact often missed in studies of the Mosuo was that their social organization has traditionally been feudal, with a small [[nobility]] controlling a larger [[peasant]] population.<ref name="Hua">Hua, Cai. ''A Society without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China.'' Asti Hustvedt, trans. New York: Zone Books, 2001.</ref> The Mosuo nobility practiced a "parallel line of descent" that encouraged cohabitation, usually within the nobility,<ref>Hua, Cai. ''A Society without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China'', p. 55. Asti Hustvedt, trans. New York, NY, USA: Zone Books, 2001.</ref> in which the father passed his social status to his sons, while the women passed their status to their daughters. Thus, if a Mosuo commoner female married a male serf, her daughter would be another commoner, while her son would have serf status.<ref name = "Hua"/>

Chuan-Kang Shih argued that matrilineality and "walking marriage" (''tisese'') is a primary institution of family, sex and reproduction, and marriage is secondary.<ref>Chuan-Kang Shih. "Genesis of Marriage among the Mosuo and Empire-Building in Late Imperial China." In ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' 60, no.2 (May 2001):381-412.</ref> As Shih argues, marriage, as different from ''tisese'', was introduced into Mosuo society through contact with other ethnic groups during the [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] empire-building process.

===Adoption===
If there are no offspring of one sex, it is common for a child from another family to join an adoptive household.<ref name="Blumenfield">{{citation | last = Blumenfield | first = Tami | url = http://web.pdx.edu/~tblu2/Na/myths.pdf | title = The Na of Southwest China: Debunking the Myths | year = 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110720025007/http://web.pdx.edu/~tblu2/Na/myths.pdf | archive-date = 2011-07-20 }}.</ref> Such a child might come from a large family, or one too small to continue. Children raised in this sense are genealogically linked to their new households. They are treated as equal family members; in some instances, adopted females become the matriarchs of their adoptive families.<ref name="Blumenfield"/>

==Walking marriages==
One of the best known aspects of Mosuo culture is its practice of "walking marriage" (走婚 zǒu hūn in Chinese), although this practice remains poorly understood.<ref name=":0" /> Walking marriages are the most prominent form of marriage in Mosuo culture; however, it is not unheard of for women in Mosuo culture to marry outside of their culture, therefore participating in marriages other than walking marriages. In a walking marriage, both partners live under the roof of their respective extended families during the day; however, at night it is common for the man to visit and stay at the woman's house (if given permission) until sunrise. Therefore, they do not technically live in the same household, but they are free to visit when granted permission. Children of parents in a walking marriage are raised by the brothers of the mother (maternal uncles), who take on the responsibilities of the father since he is not typically around during the daytime.<ref name="Matrilineal Culture 2006">"Matriarchal/Matrilineal Culture." Matriarchal/Matrilineal Culture. Lugu Lake Mosuo Cultural Development Association, 2006. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.</ref>

Shih (2010) offers the most sophisticated anthropological account of Mosuo practices of sexual union. "All on-going sexual relationships in Mosuo culture are called "walking marriages." These bonds are "based on mutual affection."<ref name="Blumenfield" /> "When a Mosuo woman or man expresses interest in a potential partner, it is the woman who may give the man permission to visit her. These visits are usually kept secret, with the man visiting the woman's house after dark, spending the night, and returning to his own home in the morning."<ref name=":0" /> After the birth of the child, the man has no moral, cultural, or legal obligation to take care of the child. However, the child will be raised with adequate care and attention. The overwhelming support from the woman's extended family allows both the man and woman to engage in sexual relations with whomever they please.

===General practice===
"The Mosuo have large extended families, and several generations (great-grandparents, grandparents, parents, children, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, etc.) live together in the same house. Everyone lives in communal quarters, and there are no private bedrooms or living areas, except for women between certain ages (see the section on "coming of age", below) who may have their own private rooms."<ref name=":0" />{{quote without source|date=June 2024}}

"While a pairing may be long-term, the man never lives with the woman's family, or vice versa. Mosuo men and women continue to live with and be responsible to their respective families. The couple do not share property. The father usually has little responsibility for his offspring."<ref name=":0" />{{quote without source|date=June 2024}} However, this does not mean that men can wipe their hands free of responsibilities and spend every night participating in shenanigans. After work, they are obligated to go home and help raise their nieces and nephews. The children rely on the collective effort of the extended family rather than that of the biological father.<ref name="Matrilineal Culture 2006"/>

"A father may indicate an interest in the upbringing of his children by bringing gifts to the mother's family. This gives him status within the mother's family, while not actually making him part of the family."<ref name=":0" />{{quote without source|date=June 2024}}

===Matrilineal society===
Unlike other cultures, women in the Mosuo society dominate the household and family. They are responsible for housework, agricultural duties, and taking care of children. In a walking marriage, the ancestral line is most important on the wife's side of the family and the children of the couple reside and belong to the wife's family household.<ref name=":0" /> Considering women are responsible for most domestic jobs, they have a larger role in the walking marriage and are viewed with more respect and importance in this society.<ref>Yuan, Lu. "Land of the Walking Marriages." Natural History. Ed. Sam Mitchell. N.p.: n.p., n.d. 57-65. Print.</ref>

Husbands in walking marriages have a much less involved role than wives. The husbands in these relationships are generally the figures who are in charge of all religious and political decisions for the family.<ref name="Gong, Binglin 2010">Gong, Binglin, Huibin Yan, and Chun-Lei Yang. "Gender Differences in the Dictator Experiment: Evidence from the Matrilineal Mosuo and the Patriarchal Yi." SSRN Electronic Journal (2010): 1-25. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.</ref> Regarding the family responsibilities, the father or husband in the family does not have nearly as many responsibilities regarding the family as the wife does. In fact, the male relatives of the mother's side of the family, such as uncles and cousins, are generally the "father figure" to the husband's children.<ref name=":0"/> The mother's brothers occupy a central role in the household. Their roles include disciplining children, caring for them, and supporting the children financially.<ref name=":0"/> Since the husband and wife live with their separate immediate families, they help take care of the families' children and issues regarding their household. Even though fathers are involved in their sister's children's lives, they are not necessarily involved in their biological children's life. In walking marriages, the involvement of a father in his child's life is optional.<ref name=":0"/> If a father decides to be involved in the upbringing of his own biological child, he can bring gifts and help with work around the woman's household. This relationship can be performed regardless if the woman and man are still in the walking marriage and it gives the man a type of "official status" among the family without being fully involved.<ref name="Gong, Binglin 2010"/>

===Advantages to a walking marriage===
Other than the child receiving exceptional care and attention from the extended family, there are many inconspicuous advantages for participating in a walking marriage. For example: divorce is never an issue because the man and woman are not legally bound together, thus sharing very few of the same responsibilities. There are also never any disputes over who owns custody of the child since the child belongs to the mother's extended family and takes the mother's last name. In the case of a parent's death, the child still has a prodigious amount of care and affection from the extended family.<ref name="Blumenfield" />

===Myths and controversies===
Outsiders often believe the following myths:

====Mosuo women have many partners====
"While it is possible for a Mosuo woman to change partners as often as she likes, few Mosuo women have more than one partner at a time. Anthropologists call this system '[[serial monogamy]].' Most Mosuo form long-term relationships and do not change partners frequently.<ref name="LLMCDA-Matrilineal" /> Some of these pairings may even last a lifetime."{{Quote without source|date=June 2024}}

But, in other anthropologists' views, it is a more recent change, "in the face of political campaigns and cultural integration with the [[Han Chinese]]", and "previous generations often continued with multiple partners even after a child was born. Some older Na report having upwards of 30, 40, even 50 partners throughout their lifetime"<ref name="Blumenfield" /> and despite these changes, "notions of exclusivity are not entrenched, and the Na language has no word for 'jealousy'."<ref name="Blumenfield" />

====Fathers of children are commonly not known====
The large majority of women know their children's fathers; it is actually a source of embarrassment if a mother cannot identify a child's father.<ref name="Blumenfield" /> But, "unlike many cultures which castigate mothers and children without clear paternity, Na children induce no such censure".<ref name="Blumenfield" /> The father of a child born from a walking marriage will not see his child during the day, but rather at night time. The father doesn't play as large a role in the development of the child. "At a child's birth, the father, his mother and sisters come to celebrate, and bring gifts. On [[Chinese New Year|New Year's Day]], a child visits the father to pay respect to him and his household. A father also participates in the coming-of-age ceremony. Though he does not have an everyday role, the father is nevertheless an important partner."<ref name=":0" />

==Customs==
[[File:Mosuo girls.jpg|thumb|Mosuo women]]

===Coming of age===
The coming-of-age ceremony, which occurs at the age of thirteen, is one of the most important events in a Mosuo child's life. Before this ceremony, Mosuo children all dress the same and are restricted from certain aspects of Mosuo life, particularly those that involve religious rites. Also, a child who dies before this ceremony does not receive the traditional funeral. Once they come of age, girls are given their skirts, and boys are given their trousers (thus, it is called the "skirt ceremony" for girls, and the "trouser ceremony" for boys).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stacey|first1=Judith|title=Unhitching the Horse From the Carriage: Love and Marriage Among the Mosuo|journal=Utah Law Review|date=2009}}</ref>

After coming of age, Mosuo females can get their own private bedroom, called a "flowering room"; and, once past [[puberty]], can begin to invite partners for "walking marriages".

===Hearth===
This is the center of the household. It combines the worship of nature, ancestors, and spirits.<ref name="Kingdom"/> Behind the hearth is a slab of stone (called ''guo zhuang'' in Chinese) and an ancestral altar where Mosuo household members leave a food offering. They do this before each meal, even when having tea.<ref name="Hua"/>

===Funeral===
Death is the domain of men,<ref name="Kingdom"/> who make all funeral arrangements. It is the only time men prepare food for family and guests. Usually, every family in the village will send at least one male to help with the preparations. Dabas and Lamas are invited to recite prayers for the deceased. Mosuo believe that if a spirit does not have assistance of a Daba, it will be lost.<ref name="Kingdom"/> Without Lamas, a spirit will not be able to attain reincarnation.<ref name="Kingdom"/> Caskets are small and square, with the deceased's body placed in the fetal position so that it can be reborn in the next life. During cremation, a decorated horse is led around the fire, which Mosuo believe will help carry the deceased's spirit away. Afterwards, friends and family gather to pay their last respects and wish the deceased an easy journey to their ancestral land.<ref name="Kingdom"/>

===Dogs===
While some Asian cultures practice the custom of eating dogs, this is strictly forbidden to the Mosuo.<ref name="Kingdom"/> In Mosuo culture, a myth describes that long ago, dogs had life spans of 60 years while humans had life spans of thirteen years. Humans felt their life span was too short, so they traded it with the dogs in exchange for paying homage to them.<ref name="Hua"/> Therefore, dogs are valued members of the family. They are never killed, and they most certainly are never eaten. During the initiation rites into adulthood, Mosuo adolescents pray before the family dogs.<ref name="Kingdom"/>

==Religion==
Religion is a major part of Mosuo life. It is made up of two coexisting beliefs: their own syncretic faith called [[Daba (religion)|Daba]] and the influence of [[Tibetan Buddhism]].

===Daba===
Daba has been a part of Mosuo culture for thousands of years, handed down through generations by word of mouth. It functions as a repository of most of the Mosuo culture and history. It is based on [[Animism|animistic]] principles and involves ancestor worship and the worship of a mother goddess: "The Mosuo are alone among their neighbors to have a guardian mother goddess rather than a patron warrior god".<ref name = "Mathieu 2003">Mathieu, Christine. ''A History and Anthropological Study of the Ancient Kingdoms of the Sino-Tibetan Borderland – Naxi and Mosuo'', ''Mellen Studies in Anthropology'', Vol. 11, 2003.</ref>

The primary tasks of the priest (or [[shaman]]), also called ''daba'', are to perform exorcisms and assist deceased spirits.<ref name="Kingdom"/> Priests drink alcohol until they go into a trance and can converse with these spirits. Since the Mosuo have no written language, there is no religious script, nor is there a temple. All Daba priests are male, and they live in their mother's house with their brothers and sisters. When not pursuing their religious duties, they engage in everyday tasks such as fishing and herding.<ref name="academia.edu">On the Twenty-Eight Lunar Mansions Systems in Dabaism and Dongbaism and on the analysis of the two writing systems according to an innovative interpretation, cf. XU Duoduo. (2015). A Comparison of the Twenty-Eight Lunar Mansions Between Dabaism and Dongbaism. ''Archaeoastronomy and Ancient Technologies'', 3, 2: 61-81 (Links: 1. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170301105945/http://www.academia.edu/16722054/Xu_Duoduo._A_comparison_of_the_twenty-eight_lunar_mansions_between_Dabaism_and_Dongbaism academia.edu]}}; 2. [http://aaatec.org/vol3n2.php Archaeoastronomy and Ancient Technologies]).</ref>

On a day-to-day basis, Daba plays a far smaller role in the lives of the Mosuo. The daba is mostly called on to perform traditional ceremonies at key events, such as naming a child, a child's coming-of-age ceremony, a funeral, or special events such as the Spring Festival. The daba is also called on to perform specific rites if someone is sick.

A cultural crisis is emerging. Due to past Chinese government policies, which made being a Daba priest illegal (this policy has now ceased), there are very few remaining dabas, most of whom are old men. This leads some Mosuo to worry that Mosuo history and heritage may be lost when the current generation of Dabas are gone.

===Buddhism===
Buddhism has started to play a larger role in their culture in recent years. Today Tibetan-style Buddhism is the predominant religion, but it has been somewhat adapted to Mosuo society. Like the Buddhist population of Tibet, both lay and monastic Buddhists among the Mosuo eat meat. Mosuo [[lama]]s offer prayers of thanks and prayers for the dead,<ref name="Kingdom"/> offer basic religious and secular education to young children, and counsel adults. In families with more than one male child, one will most often be sent to be a monk.<ref name="Blumenfield"/>

The Mosuo even have their own "living Buddha", a man said to be a reincarnation of one of the great Tibetan spiritual leaders. He usually lives in [[Lijiang, Yunnan|Lijiang]], but returns to the main Tibetan temple in Yongning for important spiritual holidays. Many Mosuo families will send at least one male to be trained as a monk, and in recent years, the number of such monks has increased quite significantly. The current Mosuo Living Buddha died of old age in April 2011. {{citation needed|reason=unsourced|date=August 2016}}

In most Mosuo homes, a statue of some Buddhist deity can be found above the cooking fire; the family will usually put a small portion of whatever they are cooking in the fire, as an offering to their deity. Tibetan Buddhist holidays and festivals are participated in by the entire Mosuo community.

==Economy==
The Mosuo are primarily farmers. Subsistence is mostly based on agriculture. Farmers work "seven hours a day and seven months a year".<ref>Hua, Cai. ''A Society without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China'', p. 41. Asti Hustvedt, trans. New York: Zone Books, 2001.</ref> In the past, they cultivated [[oats]], [[buckwheat]], and [[flax]] exclusively.<ref name="Hua, Cai page 40">Hua, Cai. ''A Society without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China'', p. 40. Asti Hustvedt, trans. New York: Zone Books, 2001.</ref> This changed under [[Han Chinese|Han]] influence at the end of the nineteenth century. Since then, these farmers have also cultivated, among other things, corn, sunflowers, soybeans, potatoes and other vegetables such as pumpkins and beans. Potatoes were their main staple for a while until the mid-twentieth century when they began growing rice, which today makes up more than half of annual production.<ref name="Hua, Cai page 40"/> In recent years, subsistence for some Mosuo has shifted dramatically from agriculture due to a thriving tourist industry<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Mattison|first1=Siobhán M.|last2=Scelza|first2=Brooke|last3=Blumenfield|first3=Tami|title=Paternal Investment and the Positive Effects of Fathers among the Matrilineal Mosuo of Southwest China|journal=American Anthropologist|date=2014|volume=116|issue=3|pages=591–610|doi=10.1111/aman.12125}}</ref>

Mosuo also keep a variety of livestock. Since the early twentieth century they have raised buffalo, cows, horses, and goats which originated from Han and Tibetan regions. However, their preferred stock is pigs. Pork plays several important roles in Mosuo society. It is fed to guests, is the obligatory offering at funerals, and used as payment or reimbursement. Hua (2001) insists that it is "a kind of currency and... a symbol of wealth".<ref>Hua, Cai. ''A Society without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China'', p. 42. Asti Hustvedt, trans. New York: Zone Books, 2001.</ref>

Once a year, regions of Mosuo males gather for a livestock fair. They travel for miles on buses, horses, or foot to attend.<ref name="Kingdom" /> Here men sell and trade livestock to supplement household incomes.

The Mosuo fish on [[Lake Lugu]] and also set land-based fish traps; however, they do not use motorboats, and catching fish in open water using their very primitive gear is not easy.

==Language==
{{Main|Na language}}

The Mosuo speak [[Na language|Na]] (a.k.a. [[Narua language|Narua]]), a [[Naish languages|Naish language]] (closely related to [[Naxi language|Naxi]]), a member of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language family]]. Although there is no question that the language of the Mosuo and that of the Naxi are closely related, some Mosuo speakers resent the use of the language name Naxi, which is commonly used to refer to the dialect of the town of [[Lijiang]] and the surrounding villages. A more adequate name is Na, used in several linguistic publications.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Tone in Yongning Na : lexical tones and morphotonology|last=Michaud|first=Alexis|isbn=9783946234869|publisher=Language Science Press|location=Berlin|oclc=992500105|date = 2017-04-26}}</ref> The name "Narua" is used in the Summer Institute of Linguistics' inventory of languages, Ethnologue. [https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nru Narua] A collection of audio recordings is available online for the dialects of Yongning,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yongning Na corpus |url=https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Yongning_Na?lang=en |url-status=live |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Pangloss Collection |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203013712/https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Yongning_Na?lang=en |archive-date=Dec 3, 2024}}</ref> Lataddi,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lataddi Na corpus |url=https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Lataddi_Narua?lang=en |url-status=live |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Pangloss Collection |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208162048/https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Lataddi_Narua |archive-date=Dec 8, 2024}}</ref> Qiansuo,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Qiansuo Na corpus |url=https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Qiansuo_Na?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Pangloss Collection}}</ref> and Lijiazui,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lijiazui Na corpus |url=https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Na_de_Lijiazui?lang=en |url-status=live |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Pangloss Collection |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241221200503/https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Na_de_Lijiazui? |archive-date=Dec 21, 2024}}</ref> and a trilingual dictionary has also been posted online.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Michaud |first=Alexis |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01204638/ |title=Na (Mosuo) – English – Chinese dictionary |last2=Latami |first2=Dashilamu |last3=Milan |first3=Pascale-Marie |last4=Galliot |first4=Benjamin |publisher=Lexica |year=2024 |edition=version 2.0 |location=France |language=en}}</ref> Two book-length descriptions of the language are available,<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=A descriptive grammar of Yongning Na (Mosuo)|last=Lidz|first=Liberty|publisher=University of Texas, Department of linguistics Ph. D. dissertation|year=2010}}</ref> as well as several research articles.

Yongning Na, which is spoken in Yongning township, Lijiang municipality, Yunnan, China, has been documented by Jacques and Michaud (2011).<ref>Jacques, Guillaume, and Alexis Michaud. 2011. "[http://www.benjamins.nl/series/dia/28-4/02jac.additional.pdf Approaching the historical phonology of three highly eroded Sino-Tibetan languages]." ''Diachronica'' 28:468-498.</ref>

==Script==
[[File:Mosuo symbols.jpg|thumb|right|A chart of ancient Mosuo symbols (and meanings written in Chinese) found at the Mosuo Cultural Museum, Lugu Lake]]

Like other Chinese, the Mosuo today use [[Chinese character|Han script]] for daily communication. The [[Tibetan script]] may sometimes be used for religious purposes.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}

The Mosuo also have their own native religion, called [[Daba (religion)|Daba]], which uses 32 symbols.<ref>XU Duoduo. (2017). From Daba Script to Dongba Script: A Diachronic Exploration of the History of Moso Pictographic Writings. ''Libellarium: Journal for the Research of Writing, Books, and Cultural Heritage Institutions'', X, 1: 1-47 (Links: 1. [http://www.libellarium.org/index.php/libellarium/article/view/246 Libellarium]; 2. [https://www.academia.edu/35516432/From_Daba_Script_to_Dongba_Script_A_Diachronic_Exploration_of_the_History_of_Moso_Pictographic_Writings academia.edu]).</ref><ref>Often mistaken for a written script, these symbols do not represent a written language. There is currently no written form of Naru, the native Mosuo language; it is a purely oral language in which all history, tradition, and ceremonies are passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth.</ref> "They follow a "primal" belief system. However, the head ritual specialists of the Daba religion, who are called daba, have advanced beyond the stage of spirit-possessed shamans, and also are in possession of a number of sacred texts. Therefore, these practitioners should be categorized as a type of priest."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zhaolin|first1=Song|title=Popular Religion and Shamanism|date=2011|publisher=Brill|pages=423|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Knui-SpO4GQC&q=daba+script&pg=PA423|isbn=978-9004174559}}</ref> However, there are currently efforts underway to develop a written form of the Mosuo language.<ref name="academia.edu"/>

==Intercultural exchanges==
The Han are the ethnic majority of China, one of the 56 [[ethnic groups of China]]. In the Yongning region during the [[Ming Dynasty]], the Mosuo integrated many Han ideals.<ref name="Kingdom"/> The Mosuo also accepted Buddhism and adapted it to fit their values. Neither the Cultural Revolution nor trade between different cultures fundamentally changed Mosuo beliefs. But recently, Mosuo society has been rapidly changing.

===Modernity===
With improved technology, there are better roads and transportation. Young Mosuo men and women use these modes to leave their villages and find employment in neighboring cities. Television has brought the ideas of the modern world and an image of a more affluent lifestyle. Also, men have begun to take jobs independent of the household and earn their own income. Older Mosuo fear emerging property conflicts as a consequence. Care for the family, with younger children generations leaving the villages, is also a concern.<ref name="Kingdom"/>

===Tourism===
[[File:Lake Lugu With Moshui-Zu Woman.JPG|thumb|On Lake Lugu]]

Mosuo living near Lugu Lake inhabit an aesthetically pleasing region. Photographers, television crews, writers, and artists are drawn to their homes. This increased attention has also brought tourists. Tourism is primarily domestic and typically occurs as a part of organized tour groups to view a culture that seems "exotic". Tourism has influenced kinship and parenting practices, with Mosuo residing in areas where tourism is prevalent being less likely to adhere to strict matrilineal norms.<ref name=":0"/>

==Films==
There are many documentaries made about the Mosuo, in English and Mandarin, and there has even been a [[film festival]] dedicated to some of them. Most films perpetuate the myth that women run the society, some even claiming that men have no say in political or household matters and do not work.
* "Without Fathers or Husbands" (1995, 26 min., Royal Anthropological Institute). Made by Chinese born, French educated anthropologist Cai Hua. It does not make claims about matriarchy.
* "A World without Fathers and Husbands" Eric Blavier (2000, 52 min.)
* "The Ladies of the Lake: A Matriarchal Society" (20 min.)
*''[[Elsewhere (2001 film)|Elsewhere]]'' (2001)
* ''Mosso, the Land of Free Love: The Last Matriarchy'' (2006, 50 min.)
* ''Mosso, the Land of Free Love: Walking Marriage'' (2006, 50 min.)
* ''Kingdom of Women: The Matriarchal Mosuo of China'' (2007, 54 min.)
* [https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2005/07/introduction_to.html# "Frontline World: The Women's Kingdom"] (July 19, 2005, 9 min.)
* "Frontline World: stories from a small planet" (June 27, 2006, 9 min)
* [''Mosuo Song Journey''], by Diedie Weng and Carol Bliss (2007, 37 minutes)
* [http://silkrainmedia.com/kingdomofwomen/ ''Kingdom of Women - A Reflection of a Matriarchal Society on Lugu Lake''] (58 minutes)
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120920081903/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/taboo/galleries/episode-sex/ "Taboo: Sex"]}}, National Geographic Channel (2008)
* ''[[The Mosuo Sisters]]'' (2012, 80 min.). A tale of two sisters living in the shadow of two Chinas directed by [[Marlo Poras]].<ref name="THEMOSUOSISTERS">{{IMDb title|id=tt2750294|title=The Mosuo Sisters}}</ref>
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vg9Lv224580 "Free Love," National Geographic Channel (2008)]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1tEuJPha0d0 "The Fall of Womenland," Director: Xiaodan He (2009)]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_l9D7tEixc "The Land Where Women Rule: Inside China's Last Matriarchy." Broadly staff. 2016. Broadly. October. 2016.]
*''Sunny Side of Sex'' (2011)<ref>Bergman, S. (Producer & Director). (2011). ''Sunny Side of Sex: a documentary series by Sunny Bergman'' [Motion Picture]. The Netherlands: Viewpoint Productions.</ref> by Sunny Bergman

==See also==
* [[Chiefdom of Yongning]]
* [[Chinese marriage]]
* [[Kettu Kalyanam]]
* [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
* [[List of matrilineal or matrilocal societies]]
* [[Lugu Lake]]
* [[Matriarchy]]
* [[Matrilineality]]
* [[Matrilocal residence]]
* [[Mosuo women]]
* [[Nashi people]]
* [[Sambandam]]
* [[Yang Erche Namu]], a notable Chinese writer, singer and TV star of Mosuo ethnicity

==Bibliography==
* {{cite news |last=Barber |first=Nigel |title=Chinese tribe without marriage points to future |publisher=Huffington Post |date=2014-01-25 |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mosuo-tribe-no-marriage_b_4310981}}
* Dashi, Latami (editor). 摩梭社会文化研究论文集 (1960–2005)，云南大学出版社，主编：拉他咪达石
* {{cite journal |last1=Gong |first1=Binglin |last2=Yan |first2=Huibin |last3=Yang |first3=Chun-Lei |title=Gender Differences in the Dictator Experiment: Evidence from the Matrilineal Mosuo and the Patriarchal Yi |journal=Experimental Economics |date=2015 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=302–313 |doi=10.1007/s10683-014-9403-2|s2cid=254461390 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Hamon |editor-first1=Raeann R. |editor-last2=Ingoldsby |editor-first2=Bron B. |title=Mate Selection: Across Cultures |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |year=2003}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hardenberg |first=Roland J. |title=Die Moso (China) im interkulturellen Vergleich : Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des komparativen Ansatzes in der Ethnologie |journal=Paideuma |volume=54 |year=2008 |pages=109–127 |issn=0078-7809}}
* {{cite book |last=Hua |first=Cai |title=A Society Without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China |location=New York |publisher=Zone Books |year=2001}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mattison |first1=Siobhán M. |last2=Scelza |first2=Brooke |last3=Blumenfield |first3=Tami |year=2014 |title=Paternal Investment and the Positive Effects of Fathers among the Matrilineal Mosuo of Southwest China |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=591–610|doi=10.1111/aman.12125 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Mattison |first=Siobhán M. |year=2010 |title=Economic impacts of tourism and erosion of the visiting system among the Mosuo of Lugu lake |journal=The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=159–176 |doi=10.1080/14442211003730736 |url=https://www.academia.edu/837221}}
* "Matriarchal/Matrilineal Culture." Matriarchal/Matrilineal Culture. Lugu Lake Mosuo Cultural Development Association, 2006. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.
* {{cite book |last1=Namu |first1=Yang Erche |last2=Mathieu |first2=Christine |title=Leaving Mother Lake: A Girlhood at the Edge of the World |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-316-12471-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Shih |first=Chuan-kang |title=Quest for Harmony: The Moso Traditions of Sexual Union & Family Life |publisher=Stanford |year=2010 |isbn=9780804761994}}
* {{cite book |last=Stacey |first=Judith |author-link=Judith Stacey |title=Unhitched: Love, Sex, and Family Values from West Hollywood to Western China |location=New York |publisher=New York University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8147-8382-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Stockard |first=Janice E. |title=Marriage in Culture: Practice and Meaning Across Diverse Societies |date=2002 |publisher=Harcourt |isbn=9780155063860 |url=https://archive.org/details/marriageincultur0000stoc}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Martha |last2=Edenstein |first2=Monica |title=A World Full of Women |publisher=Pearson |location=Boston |year=2009}}
* Waihong, Choo. ''The Kingdom of Women: Life, Love and Death in China's Hidden Mountains''. I B Tauris, London, 2017, {{ISBN|978-1-7845-3724-1}}, {{ISBN|1-7845-3724-1}}
* Xu, Duoduo. (2015). A Comparison of the Twenty-Eight Lunar Mansions Between Dabaism and Dongbaism. ''Archaeoastronomy and Ancient Technologies'', 3, 2: 61-81 (links: 1. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170301105945/http://www.academia.edu/16722054/Xu_Duoduo._A_comparison_of_the_twenty-eight_lunar_mansions_between_Dabaism_and_Dongbaism academia.edu]}}; 2. [http://aaatec.org/vol3n2.php Archaeoastronomy and Ancient Technologies]).
* Xu, Duoduo. (2017). From Daba Script to Dongba Script: A Diachronic Exploration of the History of Moso Pictographic Writings. ''Libellarium: Journal for the Research of Writing, Books, and Cultural Heritage Institutions'', X, 1: 1-47 (Links: 1. [http://www.libellarium.org/index.php/libellarium/article/view/246 Libellarium]; 2. [https://www.academia.edu/35516432/From_Daba_Script_to_Dongba_Script_A_Diachronic_Exploration_of_the_History_of_Moso_Pictographic_Writings academia.edu]).
* Yuan, Lu. "Land of the Walking Marriages." Natural History. Ed. Sam Mitchell. N.p.: n.p., n.d. 57–65. Print.

==References==
{{Reflist}}<!--added above External links/Sources by script-assisted edit-->

==Further media==
* Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/qMTJt2RnJAk Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190506032914/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qMTJt2RnJAk&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]}}{{cbignore}}: {{cite magazine|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qMTJt2RnJAk|title=China's Last Matriarchy: The Land Where Women Rule|magazine=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] Asia|date=2018-10-23}}{{cbignore}}<!--This is from an official YouTube account-->

==External links==
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20050306204444/http://www.21cep.com/travel/su/girl.htm Girl's kingdom]}} (via archive.org)
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20050411054700/http://www.autef.com/Trips/YunMosuo.html The Mosuo]}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051029161818/http://www.autef.com/Trips/Yuntibetroots.html Pictures of Mosuo in Buddhist prayers]}}
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/26/world/asia/china-mosuo-lugu-lake-matrilineal-society.html Kingdom of Daughters]
* [http://utopianist.com/2011/06/5-societies-run-by-women-and-what-we-can-learn-from-them/ 5 Successful Societies Run by Women]

{{Ethnic groups in China}}
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[[Category:Ethnic groups in Sichuan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Yunnan]]
[[Category:Nakhi people]]
[[Category:Matriarchy]]