Editing Muhammad al-Idrisi

{{Short description|Muslim geographer (1100–1165)}}
{{redirect|Edrisi|places in Iran|Edrisi, Iran (disambiguation){{!}}Edrisi, Iran}}
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{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Muhammad al-Idrisi
| native_name       = محمد الإدريسي
| native_name_lang  = ar
| image             = Estatua de Al-Idrisi bajo el baluarte de los Mallorquines, Ceuta (5).jpg
| image_size        = 
| caption           = Statue of al-Idrisi in [[Ceuta]]
| birth_date        = {{birth year|1100}}
| birth_place       = [[Ceuta]], [[Almoravid dynasty]]
| death_date        = {{death year and age|1165|1100}}
| death_place       = [[Ceuta]], [[Almohad Caliphate]]
| field             = [[Geographer]], [[cartographer]]
| work_institutions = 
| alma_mater        = 
| doctoral_advisor  = 
| doctoral_students = 
| known_for         = {{Lang|la|[[Tabula Rogeriana]]}}
| author_abbrev_bot = 
| author_abbrev_zoo = 
| prizes            = 
| footnotes         = 
| signature         = 
}}
'''Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani as-Sabti''', or simply '''al-Idrisi''' {{IPAc-en|ae|l|I|'|d|r|i:|s|i:}} ({{langx|ar|أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي القرطبي الحسني السبتي}}; {{langx|la|Dreses}}; 1100–1165), was an [[Arabs|Arab]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muhammad al-Idrisi {{!}} Geographer, Maps, & Biography {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad-al-Idrisi |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Muslim geographer and [[cartography|cartographer]] who served in the court of King [[Roger II of Sicily|Roger II]] at [[Palermo]], [[Sicily]]. Muhammad al-Idrisi was born in [[Ceuta#Medieval|Ceuta]], then belonging to the [[Almoravid dynasty]]. He created the {{Lang|la|[[Tabula Rogeriana]]}}, one of the most advanced [[early world maps|medieval world maps]].

[[File:Al'Idrisi's_World_Map.jpg|thumb|Reproduction of al-Idrisi's planisphere (as a globe) by the Sharjah Museum of Islamic Civilization ([[UAE]]).]]

==Early life==
Al-Idrisi hailed from the [[Hammudid dynasty]] of [[North Africa]] and [[Al-Andalus]], which was descended from [[Muhammad]] through the powerful [[Idrisid dynasty]].<ref name="Brotton">{{Cite web |url=https://www.factum-arte.com/resources/files/ff/publications_PDF/publication_al_idrisi_factum_foundation_daniel_crouch_2019_web.pdf |author=[[Jerry Brotton]], Daniel Crouch Rare Books and Adam Lowe |title=RE-CREATING THE LOST SILVER MAP OF AL-IDRISI – Entertainment for he who longs to travel the world |website=factumfoundation.org|access-date=2024-01-29}}</ref><ref name="Eggermont1975">{{cite book|author=Pierre Herman Leonard Eggermont|title=Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of Harmatelia|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=nG0_xoDS3hUC |page=7 }} |date=1 January 1975|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-6186-037-2|pages=7–}}</ref> Al-Idrisi was believed to be born the city of [[Ceuta]] in 1100, at the time controlled by the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]], where his great-grandfather had been forced to settle after the fall of [[Hammudid dynasty|Hammudid]] [[Taifa of Málaga|Málaga]] to the [[Zirids]] of [[Granada]].<ref name="Selin2008">{{cite book|author=Helaine Selin|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=kt9DIY1g9HYC |page=128 }} |date=16 April 2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2|pages=128–}}</ref> He spent much of his early life travelling through North Africa and Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain and Portugal of the times) and seems to have acquired detailed information on both regions. He visited [[Anatolia]] when he was barely 16. He studied in the university in [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]].<ref name="Brotton" />
His travels took him to many parts of Europe including [[Portugal]], the [[Pyrenees]], the French Atlantic coast, [[Hungary]], and [[Jórvík]] (now known as [[York]]).{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

==Tabula Rogeriana==
{{Main|Tabula Rogeriana}}{{No footnotes|date=May 2023|section}}[[File:TabulaRogeriana upside-down.jpg|thumb|upright=2|The {{Lang|la|[[Tabula Rogeriana]]}}, drawn by al-Idrisi for [[Roger II of Sicily]] in 1154, one of the most advanced [[early world maps|medieval world maps]].<ref name="Joseph J. Kerski">{{cite book|author=Joseph J. Kerski|title=Interpreting Our World 100 Discoveries That Revolutionized Geography|year=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-61069-920-4|page=15}}</ref> This modern consolidation, created from al-Idrisi's 70 double-page spreads, is shown upside-down as the originals had South at the top.]]
[[File:Al-Idrisi's world map.JPG|thumb|300px|Al-Idrisi's world map from 'Alî ibn Hasan al-Hûfî al-Qâsimî's 1456 copy. According to the French National Library, "Ten copies of the Kitab Rujar or {{Lang|la|Tabula Rogeriana|italic=no}} exist worldwide today. Of these ten, six contain at the start of the work a circular map of the world which is not mentioned in the text of al-Idris". The original text dates to 1154. South is at the top of the map.]]

Because of conflict and instability in [[Al-Andalus]] al-Idrisi joined contemporaries such as [[Abu al-Salt]] in Sicily, where the [[Italo-Normans|Norman]]s had overthrown Arabs formerly loyal to the [[Fatimid]]s.

Al-Idrisi incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Far East]] gathered by [[Islamic economics in the world|Islamic merchants]] and explorers and recorded on Islamic maps with the information brought by the Norman voyagers to create the most accurate map of the world in pre-modern times,<ref name=Scott/> which served as a concrete illustration of his ''Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq'', (Latin: ''Opus Geographicum''), which may be translated ''A Diversion for the Man Longing to Travel to Far-Off Places''.<ref>Title as given by John Dickie, ''Delizia! The Epic History of the Italians and their Food'' (New York, 2008) p. 17.</ref>

The {{Lang|la|[[Tabula Rogeriana]]}} was drawn by al-Idrisi in 1154 for the [[Italo-Normans|Norman]] King [[Roger II of Sicily]], after a stay of eighteen years at his court, where he worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map. The map, with legends written in Arabic, while showing the [[Eurasia]]n continent in its entirety, only shows the [[North Africa|northern part]] of the African continent and lacks details of the [[Horn of Africa]] and Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://bigthink.com/strange-maps/al-idrisi-map/ | title=The medieval mapmaker remembered for the wrong map | date=24 August 2023 }}</ref>

For Roger it was inscribed on a massive disc of solid silver, two metres in diameter.

On the geographical work of al-Idrisi, [[Samuel Parsons Scott|S.P. Scott]] wrote in 1904:

{{blockquote|The compilation of al-Idrisi marks an era in the [[history of science]]. Not only is its historical information most interesting and valuable, but its descriptions of many parts of the earth are still authoritative. For three centuries geographers copied his maps without alteration. The relative position of the lakes which form the Nile, as delineated in his work, does not differ greatly from that established by [[Samuel Baker|Baker]] and [[Henry Morton Stanley|Stanley]] more than seven hundred years afterwards, and their number is the same. The mechanical genius of the author was not inferior to his erudition. The celestial and terrestrial [[planisphere]] of silver which he constructed for his royal patron was nearly six feet in diameter, and weighed four hundred and fifty pounds; upon the one side the zodiac and the constellations, upon the other-divided for convenience into segments-the bodies of land and water, with the respective situations of the various countries, were engraved.<ref name=Scott>{{cite book | last=Scott | first=S.P.| year=1904| title=History of the Moorish Empire in Europe (Vol. 3)|publisher=Lippincott|location=Philadelphia | pages=461–462|url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofmoorish03scotuoft#page/461/mode/1up}}</ref>}}

Al-Idrisi's work influenced a number of Islamic scholars including [[Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi]], [[Hafiz-i Abru]], and [[Ibn Khaldun]] but his work was unknown in Western Europe and had little influence on the development of [[History of cartography#Modern era|Renaissance cartography]].<ref>Ahmad, 1992, pp. 170-173</ref>

===Description of islands in the North Sea===
Al-Idrisi in his famous {{Lang|la|[[Tabula Rogeriana]]}} mentioned ''Irlandah-al-Kabirah'' ([[Great Ireland]]).<ref>Dunn, 2009, p. 452.</ref> According to him, "from the extremity of [[Iceland]] to that of Great Ireland," the sailing time was "one day." Although historians note that both al-Idrisi and the [[Norsemen|Norse]] tend to understate distances, the only location this reference is thought to have possibly pointed to, must likely have been in [[Greenland]].<ref>Ashe, 1971, p. 48.</ref>

===Description of Chinese trade===
{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2023}}
Al-Idrisi mentioned that Chinese [[Junk (ship)|junk]]s carried leather, swords, iron and silk. He mentions the glassware of the city of [[Hangzhou]] and labels [[Quanzhou]]'s silk as the best.
In his records of Chinese trade, al-Idrisi also wrote about the [[Silla|Silla Dynasty]] (one of Korea's historical Dynasties, and a major trade partner to China at the time), and was one of the first Arabs to do so. Al-Idrisi's References to Silla led other Arab merchants to seek Silla and its trade, and contribute to many Arab's perception of Silla as the ideal East-Asian country.

==Nuzhat al-Mushtaq==
<!-- Commented out: [[File:Al-Idrisi's world map uright.JPG|thumb|World map by al-Idirisi]] -->

As well as the maps, al-Idrisi produced a compendium of geographical information with the title ''Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi'khtiraq al-'afaq''. The title has been translated as ''The book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands''<ref>{{harvnb|Ahmad|1992}}</ref> or ''The pleasure of him who longs to cross the horizons''.<ref name=corpus104>{{harvnb|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|p=104}}</ref> It has been preserved in nine manuscripts, seven of which contain maps.<ref name="Ducène">{{cite journal|last1=Ducène|first1=Jean-Charles|title=Les coordonnées géographiques de la carte manuscrite d'al-Idrisi|journal=Der Islam|date=2011|volume=86|pages=271–285}}</ref>

The translated title of this work (in the "pleasure of him ..." form) attracted favourable comment from the team selecting lists of names for features expected to be discovered by the New Horizons probe reconnoitring the [[Pluto]] system. The [[Al-Idrisi Montes]] is a geographical feature in that system named after him.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Horizons|first1=New|title=Team|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1pz1AF-fe0TV9YcNl502ThK04hxigxtv04GqtJ380E3I/edit#gid=0|website=Pluto Name Bank Proposal 2015-07-07|publisher=NASA|access-date=2015-08-05}}</ref>

In the introduction, al-Idrisi mentions two sources for [[geographical coordinates]]: [[Claudius Ptolemy]] and "an astronomer" that must be [[Ishaq ibn al-Hasan al-Zayyat]]; and states that he has cross-checked oral reports from different informers to see if geographical coordinates were consistent.<ref name="Ducène"/>

===Publication and translation===

An abridged version of the Arabic text was published in Rome in 1592 with title: ''De geographia universali or Kitāb Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī dhikr al-amṣār wa-al-aqṭār wa-al-buldān wa-al-juzur wa-al-madā' in wa-al-āfāq'' which in English would be ''Recreation of the desirer in the account of cities, regions, countries, islands, towns, and distant lands''.{{sfn|Ahmad|1960|p=158}}{{sfn|Al-Idrisi|1592}} This was one of the first Arabic books ever printed.<ref name=corpus104/> The first translation from the original Arabic was into Latin. The [[Maronite]]s Gabriel Sionita and Joannes Hesronita translated an abridged version of the text which was published in Paris in 1619 with the title of ''Geographia nubiensis''.{{sfn|Sionita| Hesronita|1619}} Not until the middle of the 19th century was a complete translation of the Arabic text published. This was a translation into French by [[Pierre Amédée Jaubert]].{{sfn|Jaubert| 1836–1840}} More recently sections of the text have been translated for particular regions. Beginning in 1970 a critical edition of the complete Arabic text was published.{{sfn|Al-Idrisi|1970–1984}}

===Andalusian-American contact===

Al-Idrisi's geographical text, ''Nuzhat al-Mushtaq'', is often cited by proponents of [[pre-Columbian Andalusian-Americas contact theories]]. In this text, al-Idrisi wrote the following on the Atlantic Ocean:

{{blockquote|The Commander of the Muslims Ali ibn Yusuf ibn Tashfin sent his admiral Ahmad ibn Umar, better known under the name of Raqsh al-Auzz to attack a certain island in the Atlantic, but he died before doing that. [...] Beyond this ocean of fogs it is not known what exists there. Nobody has the sure knowledge of it, because it is very difficult to traverse it. Its atmosphere is foggy, its waves are very strong, its dangers are perilous, its beasts are terrible, and its winds are full of tempests. There are many islands, some of which are inhabited, others are submerged. No navigator traverses them but bypasses them remaining near their coast. [...] And it was from the town of Lisbon that the adventurers set out known under the name of Mughamarin [Adventurers], penetrated the ocean of fogs and wanted to know what it contained and where it ended. [...] After sailing for twelve more days they perceived an island that seemed to be inhabited, and there were cultivated fields. They sailed that way to see what it contained. But soon [[barque]]s encircled them and made them prisoners, and transported them to a miserable hamlet situated on the coast. There they landed. The navigators saw there people with red skin; there was not much hair on their body, the hair of their head was straight, and they were of high stature. Their women were of an extraordinary beauty.<ref name=Hamidullah>Mohammed Hamidullah (Winter 1968). "Muslim Discovery of America before Columbus", ''Journal of the Muslim Students' Association of the United States and Canada'' '''4''' (2): 7–9 [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=646] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020191955/http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=646 |date=20 October 2013 }}</ref>}}

This translation by Professor [[Muhammad Hamidullah]] is however questionable, since it reports, after having reached an area of "sticky and stinking waters", the ''Mugharrarin'' (also translated as "the adventurers") moved back and first reached an uninhabited island where they found "a huge quantity of sheep the meat of which was bitter and uneatable" and, then, "continued southward" and reached the above reported island where they were soon surrounded by barques and brought to "a village whose inhabitants were often fair-haired with long and flaxen hair and the women of a rare beauty". Among the villagers, one spoke Arabic and asked them where they came from. Then the king of the village ordered them to bring them back to the continent where they were surprised to be welcomed by Berbers.<ref>Idrisi, Nuzhatul Mushtaq&nbsp;– "La première géographie de l'Occident", comments by Henri Bresc and Annliese Nef, Paris, 1999</ref>{{Verify source|date=November 2008}}

Apart from the marvellous and fanciful reports of this history, the most probable interpretation{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} is that the ''Mugharrarin'' reached the [[Sargasso Sea]], a part of the ocean covered by [[seaweed]], which is very close to [[Bermuda]] yet one thousand miles away from the American mainland. Then while coming back, they may have landed either on the [[Azores]], or on [[Madeira]] or even on the westernmost [[Canary Islands|Canary Island]], [[El Hierro]] (because of the sheep). Last, the story with the inhabited island might have occurred either on [[Tenerife]] or on [[Gran Canaria]], where the ''Mugharrarin'' presumably met members of the [[Guanches|Guanche]] tribe. This would explain why some of them could speak Arabic (some sporadic contacts had been maintained between the Canary Islands and Morocco) and why they were quickly deported to Morocco where they were welcomed by Berbers. Yet, the story reported by Idrisi is an indisputable account of a certain knowledge of the Atlantic Ocean by Andalusians and Moroccans.<ref>{{Google books |id=P54YAQAAMAAJ |title=The journal: account of the first voyage and discovery of the Indies |page=197 }}</ref>

Idrisi describes an island of cormorants with which has been tentatively identified as [[Corvo, Azores]] but on weak grounds.<ref>{{Google books |id=2WJWAAAAMAAJ |page=135 |title=Land to the West: St. Brendan's Voyage to America }}</ref>

==Medical dictionary==
Among the lesser known works of al-Idrisi is a medical dictionary that he compiled in which he brings down a list of [[wikt:simple#Noun|simple]] [[Medicinal plants|drugs]] and plants and their curative effects, used by [[physicians]], [[apothecaries]] and merchants in his day.<ref>Al-Idrîsî (1995); [[Fuat Sezgin]] & Eckhard Neubauer (eds.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=we7kpwAACAAJ Al-Idrisi, Compendium of the properties of diverse plants and various kinds of simple drugs: kitab al-Jami' li-sifat ashtat al-nabat wa-durub anwa' al-mufradat]'', Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University: Frankfurt am Main 1995</ref> The list is unique, as it includes the names of drugs in as many as 12 languages (among which are [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]]), including some sixty [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] terms transliterated into Arabic and which are thought to have been passed down to him by [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] Jewish informants. At the end of the section on medicinal herbs which are described under each letter of the alphabet, he gives an index of their entries.<ref>Hamarneh (1973), p. 92</ref> One of the books of herbal medicine frequently cited by al-Idrisi is [[Marwan ibn Ganah]]'s ''Kitāb al-Talḫīṣ'',<ref>Amar & Serri (2005), p. 193</ref> who in turn had been influenced by the Andalusian physician [[Ibn Juljul]].<ref>Bos & Käs (2016), p. 213 (note 146)</ref>

==In popular culture==
* Al-Idrisi was the main character in [[Tariq Ali]]'s book entitled ''A Sultan in Palermo''.
* Al-Idrisi is a major character in [[Karol Szymanowski]]'s 1926 opera ''[[King Roger]]''.
* Al-Idrisi is a supporting character in [[Zeyn Joukhadar]]'s novel ''The Map of Salt and Stars''<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/19/books/review/jennifer-zeynab-joukhadar-map-of-salt-and-stars.html|title=In a Novel, Mystical Maps and Intertwined Journeys in Syria|newspaper=The New York Times|date=June 2018|last1=Joinson|first1=Suzanne |author-link=Suzanne Joinson}}</ref>
*In 2019, Factum Foundation created an interpretation of Al-Idrisi's world map, a silver disk 2m in diameter based on the maps contained in the [[Bodleian Library]]'s copy of the ''Nuzhat al-Mushtaq''.<ref name="Brotton" />

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Carte générale du globe tirée de la géographie d'El-Edrisi, milieu du XIIe s. de l'ère vulgaire - btv1b100601717.jpg | Another version, huge resolution
File:12th-century map of the Indian Ocean by Al-Idrisi.jpg|Al-Idrisi's map of the Indian Ocean.
File:Al-Idrisi-Azerbaijan.JPG|Al-Idrisi's map of North West [[Persian Empire|Persia]] what is modern day [[Iranian Azerbaijan]] and the [[Caspian Sea]].
File:Muhammad al-Idrisi - Oxford transcript of V-4.jpg|Al-Idrisi's map of the northern shoreline of [[Marmara Region]].
File:Muhammad al-Idrisi - Oxford transcript of VI-4.jpg|Al-Idrisi's map of the [[Balkans]].
File:Muhammad al-Idrisi - Saint Petersburg transcript of VI-5.jpg|Al-Idrisi's map of the [[Balkans]].
File:1154 Tabula Rogeriana noroeste Peninsula Iberica Al Idrisi copia mas antigua.jpg|Al-Idrisi's map of the [[Iberian Peninsula]].
File:1154 Tabula Rogeriana Al Idrisi transcripcion de Konrad Miller 1928 detalle.jpg|Al-Idrisi's map of the Iberian Peninsula.
File:Al-Idrisi Finland.jpg|Al-Idrisi's description of [[Finland]]
File:Senegal River according to al-Idrisi.jpg|Map of the [[Senegal River]] according to al-Idrisi.
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography|Biography}}
*[[Al-Bakri]]
*[[Ibn Jubayr]]
*[[Abu al-Salt]]
*[[History of cartography]]
*[[Islamic geography]]
*[[List of scientists]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Ahmad |editor-first=S. Maqbul |translator=Ahmad |year=1960| title=India and the neighbouring territories in the "Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi'khtiraq al-'afaq" of al-Sharif al-Idrisi |location=Leiden|publisher= Brill}}
*{{cite book | editor1-last=Harley | editor1-first=J.B. | editor1-link=John Brian Harley | editor2-last=Woodward | editor2-first=D. |  editor2-link=David Woodward (cartographer) |year=1992 | title=The History of Cartography Vol. 2 Book 1: Cartography in the traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies | last=Ahmad  | first=S. Maqbul |chapter=Cartography of al-Sharīf al-Idrīsī | publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-31635-2 | pages=156–174 | chapter-url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/HOC_VOLUME2_Book1_chapter7.pdf }}
*{{cite book| last=Al-Idrisi | year=1592 | title= De Geographia Universali: Kitāb Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī dhikr al-amṣār wa-al-aqṭār wa-al-buldān wa-al-juzur wa-al-madā' in wa-al-āfāq | publisher= Medici |location=Rome}}
*{{cite book | last=Al-Idrisi | year=1970–1984 | title= Opus geographicum: sive "Liber ad eorum delectationem qui terras peragrare studeant." (9 Fascicles) | publisher=Istituto Universitario Orientale|location=Naples |editor=Bombaci, A. |display-editors=etal | language=ar }} A critical edition of the Arabic text.
* Al-Idrîsî (1995), ''Kitâb al-Jâmi' li- sifât ashtât al-nabât wa-durûb anwâ' al-mufradât / Compendium of the Properties of Diverse Plants and Various Kinds of Simple Drugs'', vols. I-III, [[Fuat Sezgin]] (ed). {{ISBN|3-8298-0287-0}} ({{OCLC|1096433042}})
* {{cite journal |last1=Amar |first1=Z. |author-link1=Zohar Amar|last2=Serri |first2=Yaron |title=Traces of Hebrew Language Traditions in al-Idrīsī's Medical Dictionary |script-title=he:שקיעים של מסורת לשון עברית במילון התרופות של אלאדריסי |journal=Lĕšonénu: A Journal for the Study of the Hebrew Language and Cognate Subjects |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=179–194 |publisher=[[Academy of the Hebrew Language]] |jstor=24331467 |date=2005 |language=he}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Bos |first1=Gerrit |last2=Käs |first2=Fabian |author-link1=:de:Gerrit Bos |title=Arabic Pharmacognostic Literature and Its Jewish Antecedents: Marwān ibn Ǧanāḥ (Rabbi Jonah), Kitāb al-Talḫīṣ |journal=Aleph |publisher=Indiana University Press |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=145–229|date=2016 |doi=10.2979/aleph.16.1.145 |jstor=10.2979/aleph.16.1.145 |s2cid=171046217}}
*Ferrer-Gallardo, X. and Kramsch, O. T. (2016), Revisiting Al-Idrissi: The EU and the (Euro)Mediterranean Archipelago Frontier. ''Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie'', 107: 162–176. doi:10.1111/tesg.12177 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tesg.12177/abstract
*{{cite book |author-last=Hamarneh |author-first=Sami Khalaf |title=Origins of Pharmacy and Therapy in the Near East |publisher=The Naito Foundation |location=Tokyo |year=1973|oclc=1104696 }}
*{{cite book | last= Jaubert | first=P. Amédée |author-link=Pierre Amédée Jaubert| year=1836–1840 | title=Géographie d'Édrisi traduite de l'arabe en français d'après deux manuscrits de la Bibliothèque du roi et accompagnée de notes (2 Vols) | publisher=L'imprimerie Royale |location=Paris}} Volume&nbsp;1: [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k102005m Gallica] / [https://archive.org/details/gographiededrisi01idri Internet Archive]; Volume&nbsp;2: [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1020060 Gallica] / [https://archive.org/details/gographiededrisi02idri Internet Archive]. Complete translation of ''Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī ikhtirāq al-āfāq'' into French.
*{{cite book|editor1-link=Nehemia Levtzion| editor1-last=Levtzion | editor1-first=Nehemia | editor2-last=Hopkins | editor2-first=John F.P. |title=Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa | publisher=Marcus Weiner Press |location=New York, NY | year=2000 | isbn=978-1-55876-241-1 |pages=104–131}} First published in 1981. Section on the Maghrib and Sudan from ''Nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq''.
*{{cite book|last1= Sionita | first1= Gabriel | last2= Hesronita | first2= Joannes | year=1619  | title= Geographia nubiensis: id est accuratissima totius orbis in septem climata divisi descriptio, continens praesertim exactam vniuersae Asiae, & Africae, rerumq[ue] in ijs hactenus incognitarum explicationem | publisher= Hieronymi Blageart |location=Paris }}
*{{cite book |title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings |first=Okasha |last=El Daly |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2016  }}177
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Idrisi |volume= 14 |last= Beazley |first= Charles Raymond |author-link= Charles Raymond Beazley | pages = 289-290 |short= 1}}
*{{cite journal|last=Beeston|first=A.F.L.|title=Idrisi's Account of the British Isles|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=13 |year=1950|pages=265–280|jstor=609275|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00083464|issue=2 |s2cid=162817057 | ref=none}}
*{{cite book | last=Edrisi | year=1866 | title= Description de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne |translator=R. Dozy |translator2=M.J. de Goeje |location=Leiden | publisher=E.J. Brill | url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=ltUOAAAAQAAJ }} | ref=none }}
*{{cite encyclopedia | last=Oman | first=G. | year=1971 | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam | volume=3 | edition=2nd | article=Al-Idrīsī | publisher=Brill |location=Leiden | pages=1032–1035 | ref=none | article-url=https://archive.org/stream/EncyclopaediaDictionaryIslamMuslimWorldEtcGibbKramerScholars.13/03.EncycIslam.NewEdPrepNumLeadOrient.EdEdComCon.LewMenPelScha.etc.UndPatIUA.v3.H-Iram.PhotRepr.Leid.EJBrill.1971.1986.#page/n1063/mode/1up | title-link=Encyclopaedia of Islam }}

==External links==
*{{cite encyclopedia | last = Ahmad | first = S. Maqbul | article=Al-Idrīsī, Abū, 'Abd Allāh Muḥ̣ammad Ibn Muḥ̣ammad Ibn 'Abd Allāh Ibn Idrīs, Al-Sharīf Al-Idrīsī  | article-url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830902126.html |  encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography|Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | via = Encyclopedia.com | orig-date=1970–80 | year = 2008 | ref=none }}
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042038?query=al-idrisi&ct= Britannica]
* [http://classes.bnf.fr/idrisi/index.htm Online exhibition], [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] (French)
* [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3200.ct001903 Idrisi's world map], [[Library of Congress]].  Konrad Miller's 1927 consolidation and transliteration, with high-resolution zoom browser.
*[http://hos.ou.edu/galleries//03Medieval/Idrisi/ Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries] High resolution images of works by al-Idrisi in .jpg and .tiff format.
* [http://www.clarklabs.org/products/idrisi-taiga.cfm IDRISI GIS home page]
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/650 "Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa: Containing a Description of the Several Nations for the Space of Six Hundred Miles up the River Gambia"] features English translations of work by al-Idrisi. The manuscript dates from 1738.
* [http://islamport.com/d/3/bld/1/42/381.html Original Nuzhatul Mushtaq text]

{{Islamic geography}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Idrisi, Muhammad}}
[[Category:Geographers of the medieval Islamic world]]
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[[Category:Hammudid dynasty]]
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