Editing Musical notation

{{Short description|Visual representation of music}}
{{about|a notation for music|the "musical" notation in mathematics|Musical isomorphism}}
{{Redirect|Music markup|the XML application|Music Markup Language}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
[[File:Bachlut1.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Hand-written musical notation by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]] (1685–1750). This is the beginning of the Prelude from the Suite for [[Lute]] in G minor, BWV 995 (transcription of [[Cello Suites (Bach)|Cello Suite]] No. 5, BWV 1011).]]
'''Musical notation''' is any system used to visually represent music. Systems of notation generally represent the elements of a [[piece of music]] that are considered important for its performance in the context of a given musical tradition. The process of interpreting musical notation is often referred to as '''reading music'''.

Distinct methods of notation have been invented throughout history by various cultures. Much information about [[ancient music]] notation is fragmentary. Even in the same time frames, different styles of music and different cultures use different music notation methods.

For example, [[classical music|classical]] performers most often use [[sheet music]] using [[staff (music)|staves]], [[time signature]]s, [[key signature]]s, and [[notehead]]s for writing and deciphering [[Musical composition|pieces]]. But even so, there are far more systems just that, for instance in professional [[country music]], the [[Nashville Number System]] is the main method, and for [[string instrument]]s such as [[guitar]], it is quite common for [[tablature]] to be used by players.

The symbols used include ancient symbols and [[modern musical symbols|modern symbols]] made upon any media such as symbols cut into stone, made in [[clay tablet]]s, made using a pen on [[papyrus]] or [[parchment]] or [[manuscript paper]]; printed using a [[printing press]] ({{circa|1400}}), a [[computer printer]] ({{circa|1980}}) or other [[Music engraving|printing]] or [[Photocopier|modern copying technology]].

Although many ancient cultures used symbols to represent [[melody|melodies]] and [[rhythm]]s, none of them were particularly comprehensive, which has limited today's understanding of their music. The direct ancestor of the modern [[Western culture|Western]] system of notation emerged in [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]], in the context of the [[Christian Church]]'s attempts to standardize the performance of [[plainsong]] melodies so that chants could be standardized across different areas. Notation [[Renaissance music|developed further during the Renaissance]] and [[Baroque music]] eras. In the [[classical period (music)|classical period]] (1750–1820) and the [[Romantic music era]] (1820–1900), notation continued to develop as the [[music technology (mechanical)|technology for musical instruments]] developed. In the [[contemporary classical music]] of the 20th and 21st centuries, music notation has continued to develop, with the introduction of [[graphical notation (music)|graphical notation]] by some modern composers and the use, since the 1980s, of computer-based [[scorewriter]] programs for notating music. Music notation has been adapted to many kinds of music, including [[classical music]], [[popular music]], and [[traditional music]].

==History==
===Ancient Near East===
{{further|Music of Mesopotamia|Hurrian songs}}
[[File:Hurritische hymne.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|A tablet with the Hymn to Nikkal inscribed<ref>Giorgio Buccellati, "[http://128.97.6.202/urkeshpublic/music.htm Hurrian Music]", associate editor and webmaster Federico A. Buccellati Urkesh website (n.p.: IIMAS, 2003).</ref>]]
The earliest form of musical notation can be found in a [[cuneiform script|cuneiform]] tablet that was created at [[Nippur]], in [[Babylonia]] (today's [[Iraq]]), in about 1400 BCE. The [[Clay tablet|tablet]] represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in [[Harmony|harmonies]] of [[Interval (music)|thirds]], and that it was written using a [[diatonic scale]].{{sfnp|Kilmer|Civil|1986|p={{Page needed|date=June 2009}}}}

A tablet from about 1250 BCE shows a more developed form of notation.{{sfnp|Kilmer|1965|p={{Page needed|date=June 2009}}}} Although the interpretation of the notation system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a [[lyre]], the [[Musical tuning|tuning]] of which is described in other tablets.{{sfnp|West|1994|pp=161–163}} Research indicates these notations had dual purposes for liturgical and secular musical pieces since music was essential in both religious ceremonies and courtly activities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=L |first=West, M |date=1992-10-01 |title=Ancient Greek Music |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/47041 |journal=OUP Academic |language=en |doi=10.1093/o|doi-broken-date=24 February 2025 }}</ref> Although they are fragmentary, these tablets represent the earliest notated [[melody|melodies]] found anywhere in the world.{{sfnp|West|1994|p=161}}

[[File:Delphichymn.jpg|thumb|A photograph of the original stone at Delphi containing the second of the two [[Delphic Hymns]] to [[Apollo]]. The music notation is the line of occasional symbols ''above'' the main, uninterrupted line of Greek lettering.]]

===Ancient Greece===
{{further|Musical system of ancient Greece}}

[[Music of ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] musical notation was in use from at least the 6th century BCE until approximately the 4th century CE; only one complete composition ([[Seikilos epitaph]]) and a number of fragments using this notation survive.

The notation for sung music consists of letter symbols for the [[Pitch (music)|pitches]], placed above text syllables. Rhythm is indicated in a rudimentary way only, with long and short symbols. The [[Seikilos epitaph]] has been variously dated between the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.

Three hymns by [[Mesomedes]] of [[Crete]] exist in [[manuscript]]. The [[Delphic Hymns]], dated to the 2nd century BCE also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved.

Ancient Greek notation appears to have fallen out of use around the time of the [[decline of the Western Roman Empire]].

===Byzantine Empire===
{{further|Byzantine music}}
[[File:Stavropoleos-anastasimatar-macarie-viena-1823-p11.png|thumb|right|Byzantine music notation in the first edition (1823) of Macarie Ieromonahul's ''anastasimatarion'', a hymnal with daily chant (including resurrection troparia called ''apolytikia anastasima'') in [[Octoechos (liturgy)#Types of octoechos books|oktoechos]] order, each section began with the evening psalm 140 (here section of echos protos with Romanian written in Cyrillic script)]]

[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] music once included music for court ceremonies, but has only survived as vocal [[church music]] within various [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] traditions of monodic ([[Monophony|monophonic]]) chant written down in Byzantine round notation (see Macarie's ''[[Octoechos (liturgy)|anastasimatarion]]'' with the Greek text translated into [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and transliterated into its corresponding [[Romanian Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic script]]).<ref>Printed chant books with a modern simplified version of round notation were published since the 1820s and also used in Greece and Constantinople and in Old Church Slavonic translation within the slavophone Balkans and later on the territory of the autocephalous foundation of [[National awakening of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]].</ref>

Since the 6th century, Greek theoretical categories (''melos'', ''genos'', ''[[harmonia]]'', ''systema'') played a key role to understand and transmit Byzantine music, especially the tradition of [[Damascus]] had a strong impact on the pre-Islamic [[Near East]] comparable to the impact coming from [[Persian traditional music|Persian music]]. The earliest evidence are [[papyrus]] fragments of Greek tropologia. These fragments just present the hymn text following a modal signature or key (like "{{lang|el|ΠΛ Α}}" for ''echos plagios protos'' or "{{lang|el|Β}}" for ''echos devteros'').

Unlike Western notation, Byzantine [[neume]]s used since the 10th century were always related to [[Mode (music)|modal]] steps (same modal degree, one degree lower, two degrees higher, etc.) in relation to such a clef or modal key ([[Enechema|modal signatures]]). Originally this key or the incipit of a common melody was enough to indicate a certain [[Melodic pattern|melodic model]] given within the [[echos]]. Next to [[ekphonetic notation]], only used in [[Lectionary|lectionaries]] to indicate formulas used during scriptural lessons, melodic notation developed not earlier than between the 9th and the 10th century, when a ''theta'' ({{lang|el|θ}}), ''oxeia'' ({{lang|el|/}}) or ''diple'' ({{lang|el|//}}) were written under a certain syllable of the text, whenever a longer [[melisma]] was expected. This primitive form was called "theta" or "diple notation".

Today, one can study the evolution of this notation in Greek monastic chant books like those of the [[Sticheron|sticherarion]] and the [[Irmologion|heirmologion]] (Chartres notation was rather used on [[Mount Athos]] and Constantinople, Coislin notation within the patriarchates of Jerusalem and Alexandria), while there was another gestic notation originally used for the ''asmatikon'' (choir book) and kontakarion (book of the soloist or monophonaris) of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite. The earliest books which have survived, are "kondakars" in Slavonic translation which already show a notation system known as [[Byzantine music#The Kievan Rus' and the earliest manuscripts of the cathedral rite|Kondakarian notation]].<ref>Only one Greek asmatikon written during the 14th century (Kastoria, Metropolitan Library, Ms. 8) preserved this gestic notation based on the practice of cheironomia, and transcribed the gestic signs into sticherarion notation in a second row. For more about kondakar, see {{harvp|Floros| Moran| 2009}} and {{harvp| Myers|1998}}.</ref> Like the [[Greek alphabet]] notational signs are ordered left to right (though the direction could be adapted like in certain [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]] manuscripts). The question of rhythm was entirely based on ''cheironomia'' (the interpretation of so-called great signs which derived from different chant books). These great signs ({{lang|el|μεγάλα σῃμάδια}}) indicated well-known melodic phrases given by gestures of the [[Cantor (Christianity)|choirleaders]] of the cathedral rite. They existed once as part of an oral tradition, developed Kondakarian notation and became, during the 13th century, integrated into Byzantine round notation as a kind of universal notation system.<ref>After the decline of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite during the fourth crusade (1201), its books ''kontakarion'' and ''asmatikon'' had been written in monastic scriptoria using Byzantine round notation. For more, see [[Byzantine music#The end of the cathedral rite in Constantinople|Byzantine music]].</ref>

Today the main difference between Western and Eastern neumes is that Eastern notation symbols are "differential" rather than absolute, i.e., they indicate pitch steps (rising, falling or at the same step), and the musicians know to deduce correctly, from the score and the note they are singing presently, which correct interval is meant. These step symbols themselves, or better "phonic neumes", resemble brush strokes and are colloquially called ''gántzoi'' ('hooks') in [[modern Greek]].

Notes as pitch classes or modal keys (usually memorised by modal signatures) are represented in written form only between these neumes (in manuscripts usually written in red ink). In modern notation they simply serve as an optional reminder and modal and tempo directions have been added, if necessary. In Papadic notation medial signatures usually meant a temporary change into another echos.

The so-called "great signs" were once related to cheironomic signs; according to modern interpretations they are understood as embellishments and microtonal attractions (pitch changes smaller than a [[semitone]]), both essential in Byzantine chant.<ref>See {{harvp|Alexandru|2000}} for a historical discussion of the great signs and their modern interpretations.</ref>

[[File:ChrysanthosTable.png|thumb|upright=1.8|center|Chrysanthos's ''Kanonion'' with a comparison between Ancient Greek tetraphonia (column 1), Western [[Solfeggio]], the ''Papadic Parallage'' (ascending: column 3 and 4; descending: column 5 and 6) according to the ''trochos system'', and his heptaphonic ''parallage'' according to the New Method (syllables in the fore-last and ''martyriai'' in the last column){{sfnp|Chrysanthos|1832|p=33}})]]

Since [[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] there are seven standard note names used for "solfège" (''parallagē'') ''pá, vú, g<sup>h</sup>á, d<sup>h</sup>i, ké, zō, nē'', while the older practice still used the four enechemata or intonation formulas of the four echoi given by the modal signatures, the authentic or ''kyrioi'' in ascending direction, and the plagal or ''plagioi'' in descending direction ([[Papadic Octoechos]]).<ref>{{harvp|Chrysanthos|1832}} made a difference between his monosyllabic and the traditional polysyllabic ''parallage.''</ref> With exception of ''vú and zō'' they do roughly correspond to Western solmization syllables as ''re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, do''. Byzantine music uses the eight natural, non-tempered scales whose elements were identified by ''Ēkhoi'', "sounds", exclusively, and therefore the absolute pitch of each note may slightly vary each time, depending on the particular ''Ēkhos'' used. Byzantine notation is still used in many Orthodox Churches. Sometimes cantors also use transcriptions into Western or Kievan staff notation while adding non-notatable embellishment material from memory and "sliding" into the natural scales from experience, but even concerning modern neume editions since the reform of Chrysanthos a lot of details are only known from an oral tradition related to traditional masters and their experience.

===13th-century Near East===
In 1252, [[Safi al-Din al-Urmawi]] developed a form of musical notation, where [[rhythm]]s were represented by [[Geometry|geometric]] representation. Many subsequent scholars of rhythm have sought to develop graphical geometrical notations. For example, a similar geometric system was published in 1987 by Kjell Gustafson, whose method represents a rhythm as a two-dimensional graph.{{sfnp|Toussaint|2004|loc=3}} Rhythmic notation during its early stages developed Eastern musical traditions while simultaneously establishing concepts that Western music used to build its notation systems later on.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoppin |first=Richard H. |title=Medieval music |date=1978 |publisher=W. W. Norton |isbn=978-0-393-09090-1 |edition=1st |series=The Norton introduction to music history |location=New York}}</ref>

===Early Europe===
{{Main|Neume}}

[[File:Head of Christ1.jpg|thumb|Music notation from an early 14th-century English [[Missal]]]]
The scholar and music theorist [[Isidore of Seville]], while writing in the early 7th century, considered that "unless sounds are held by the memory of man, they perish, because they cannot be written down."{{sfnp|Isidore of Seville|2006|p=95}} By the middle of the 9th century, however, a form of neumatic notation began to develop in monasteries in Europe as a [[mnemonic]] device for [[Gregorian chant]], using symbols known as [[neume]]s; the earliest surviving musical notation of this type is in the ''Musica Disciplina'' of [[Aurelian of Réôme]], from about 850. There are scattered survivals from the [[Iberian Peninsula]] before this time, of a type of notation known as [[Neume|Visigothic neumes]], but its few surviving fragments have not yet been deciphered.{{sfnp|Zapke|2007|p={{Page needed|date=May 2010|reason=A complex issue, to be sure, but this book has 480 pages. Surely it does not take that long to demonstrate that nothing at all has been deciphered.}}}} The problem with this notation was that it only showed melodic contours and consequently the music could not be read by someone who did not know the music already.

[[File:EarlyMusicNotation.JPG|thumb|Early music notation]]

Notation had developed far enough to notate melody, but there was still no system for notating rhythm. A mid-13th-century treatise, ''[[De Mensurabili Musica]]'', explains a set of six [[rhythmic modes]] that were in use at the time,{{sfnp|Christensen|2002|p=628}} although it is not clear how they were formed. These rhythmic modes were all in triple time and rather limited rhythm in chant to six different repeating patterns. This was a flaw seen by German music theorist [[Franco of Cologne]] and summarised as part of his treatise ''Ars Cantus Mensurabilis'' (the art of measured chant, or [[mensural notation]]). He suggested that individual notes could have their own rhythms represented by the shape of the note. Not until the 14th century did something like the present system of fixed note lengths arise.{{citation needed|date=June 2017}} The use of regular measures (bars) became commonplace by the end of the 17th century.{{citation needed|date=June 2017}}

The founder of what is now considered the standard music staff was [[Guido of Arezzo|Guido d'Arezzo]],{{sfnp|Otten|1910}} an Italian Benedictine monk who lived from about 991 until after 1033. He taught the use of [[solmization]] syllables based on a hymn to [[Saint John the Baptist]], which begins [[Ut Queant Laxis]] and was written by the [[Lombards|Lombard]] historian [[Paul the Deacon]]. The first stanza is:

# '''Ut''' queant laxis
# '''re'''sonare fibris,
# '''Mi'''ra gestorum
# '''fa'''muli tuorum,
# '''Sol'''ve polluti
# '''la'''bii reatum,
# '''S'''ancte '''I'''ohannes.

Guido used the first syllable of each line, Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, and Si, to read notated music in terms of [[Guidonian hand#Hexachord in Middle Ages|hexachords]]; they were not note names, and each could, depending on context, be applied to any note. In the 17th century, Ut was changed in most countries except France to the easily singable, open syllable Do, believed to have been taken either from the name of the Italian theorist [[Giovanni Battista Doni|Giovanni Battista '''Do'''ni]], or from the Latin word '''''Do'''minus'', meaning ''Lord''.{{sfnp|McNaught|1893|p=43}}

Christian monks developed the first forms of modern European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,{{sfnp|Hall|Neitz|Battani|2003|p=100}} and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives. The [[Baroque]] style, which encompassed music, art, and architecture, was particularly encouraged by the post-Reformation Catholic Church as such forms offered a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor.{{sfnp|Murray|1994|page=45}}

==Modern staff notation==
{{Main|List of musical symbols}}

[[File:Chopin Prelude 7.png|thumb|upright=1.8|An example of modern musical notation: Prelude, Op. 28, No. 7, by [[Frédéric Chopin]] {{audio|Chopin Prelude 7.mid|Play}}]]

Modern music notation is used by musicians of many different genres throughout the world. The staff (or stave, in British English) consists of 5 parallel horizontal lines which acts as a framework upon which pitches are indicated by placing oval note-heads on (ie crossing) the staff lines, between the lines (ie in the spaces) or above and below the staff using small additional lines called [[ledger line]]s. Notation is read from left to right, which makes setting music for right-to-left scripts difficult. The '''pitch''' of a note is indicated by the vertical position of the note-head within the staff, and can be modified by [[accidental (music)|accidentals]]. The '''duration''' (note length or [[note value]]) is indicated by the form of the note-head or with the addition of a note-stem plus beams or flags. A stemless hollow oval is a [[whole note]] or semibreve, a hollow rectangle or stemless hollow oval with one or two vertical lines on both sides is a [[double whole note]] or breve. A stemmed hollow oval is a [[half note]] or minim. Solid ovals always use stems, and can indicate [[quarter note]]s (crotchets) or, with added beams or flags, smaller subdivisions. Additional symbols such as [[dotted note|dots]] and [[Tie (music)|ties]] can lengthen the duration of a note.

A staff of written music generally begins with a [[clef]], which indicates the pitch-range of the staff. The [[treble clef]] or G clef was originally a letter G and it identifies the second line up on the five line staff as the note G above middle C. The [[bass clef]] or F clef identifies the second line down as the note F below middle C. While the treble and bass clef are the most widely used, other clefs, which identify middle C, are used for some instruments, such as the [[alto clef]] (for [[viola]] and [[alto trombone]]) and the [[tenor clef]] (used for some [[cello]], [[bassoon]], [[Trombone|tenor trombone]], and [[double bass]] music). Some instruments use mainly one clef, such as violin and flute which use [[treble clef]], and [[double bass]] and [[tuba]] which use [[bass clef]]. Some instruments, such as [[piano]] and [[pipe organ]], regularly use both treble and bass clefs.

Following the clef, the [[key signature]] is a group of 0 to 7 [[sharp (music)|sharp]] ([[Sharp (music)|♯]]) or [[flat (music)|flat]] ([[Flat (music)|♭]]) signs placed on the staff to indicate the [[key (music)|key]] of the piece or song by specifying that certain notes are sharp or flat throughout the piece, unless otherwise indicated with [[accidental (music)|accidentals]] added before certain notes. When a flat ([[Flat (music)|♭]]) sign is placed before a note, the pitch of the note is lowered by one semitone. Similarly, a sharp sign ([[Sharp (music)|♯]]) raises the pitch by one semitone. For example, a sharp on the note D would raise it to [[D♯ (musical note)|D♯]] while a flat would lower it to [[D♭ (musical note)|D♭]]. [[Double sharp]]s and [[double flat]]s are less common, but they are used. A double sharp is placed before a note to make it two semitones higher, a double flat - two semitones lower. A [[natural sign]] placed before a note renders that note in its "natural" form, which means that any sharp or flat applied to that note from the key signature or an accidental, is cancelled. Sometimes a [[courtesy accidental]] is used in music where it is not technically required, to remind the musician of what pitch is required.

Following the key signature is the [[time signature]]. The time signature typically consists of two numbers, with one of the most common being {{music|time|4|4}}. The top "4" indicates that there are four beats per measure (also called [[Bar (music)|bar]]). The bottom "4" indicates that each of those beats are quarter notes. Measures divide the piece into groups of [[beat (music)|beats]], and the time signatures specify those groupings. {{music|time|4|4}} is used so often that it is also called "[[common time]]", and it may be indicated with {{music|commontime}} rather than numbers. Other frequently used time signatures are {{music|time|3|4}} (three beats per bar, with each beat being a quarter note); {{music|time|2|4}} (two beats per bar, with each beat being a quarter note); {{music|time|6|8}} (six beats per bar, with each beat being an eighth note) and {{music|time|12|8}} (twelve beats per bar, with each beat being an eighth note; in practice, the eighth notes are typically put into four groups of three eighth notes. {{music|time|12|8}} is a [[compound time]] type of time signature). Many other time signatures exist, such as {{music|time|2|2}} or {{music|time|3|8}}.

Many short [[classical music]] pieces from the [[classical period (music)|classical era]] and songs from [[traditional music]] and [[popular music]] are in one time signature for much or all of the piece. Music from the [[Romantic music]] era and later, particularly [[contemporary classical music]] and [[rock music]] genres such as [[progressive rock]] and the [[hardcore punk]] subgenre [[mathcore]], may use [[mixed meter]]; songs or pieces change from one meter to another, for example alternating between bars of {{music|time|5|4}} and {{music|time|7|8}}.

Directions to the player regarding matters such as [[tempo]] (e.g., [[Andante (tempo)|Andante]]) and [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]] (e.g., forte) appear above or below the staff. Terms indicating the [[musical expression]] or "feel" to a song or piece are indicated at the beginning of the piece and at any points where the mood changes (e.g., "Gelassen") For vocal music, lyrics are written near the pitches of the melody. For short pauses (breaths), [[retake]]s (retakes are indicated with a ' mark) are added.

In music for [[musical ensemble|ensembles]], a "[[sheet music|score]]" shows music for all players together, with the staves for the different instruments and/or voices stacked vertically. The [[conducting|conductor]] uses the score while leading an [[orchestra]], [[concert band]], [[choir]] or other large ensemble. Individual performers in an ensemble play from "parts" which contain only the music played by an individual musician. A score can be constructed from a complete set of parts and vice versa. The process was laborious and time consuming when parts were hand-copied from the score, but since the development of [[scorewriter]] computer software in the 1980s, a score stored electronically can have parts automatically prepared by the program and quickly and inexpensively printed out using a computer printer.

===Variations on staff notation===
[[File:Lead-sheet-wikipedia.svg|thumb|A lead sheet]]
[[File:Chord chart.svg|thumb|A chord chart. {{audio|Chord chart.mid|Play}}]]
* [[Percussion notation]] conventions are varied because of the wide range of percussion instruments. Percussion instruments are generally grouped into two categories: pitched (e.g. [[glockenspiel]] or [[tubular bells]]) and non-pitched (e.g. [[bass drum]] and [[snare drum]]). The notation of non-pitched percussion instruments is less standardized. Pitched instruments use standard Western classical notation for the pitches and rhythms. In general, notation for unpitched percussion uses the five line staff, with different lines and spaces representing different [[drum kit]] instruments. Standard Western rhythmic notation is used to indicate the rhythm.
* [[Figured bass]] notation originated in [[Baroque music|Baroque]] [[Figured bass|basso continuo]] parts. It is also used extensively in [[accordion]] notation. The bass notes of the music are conventionally notated, along with numbers and other signs that determine which chords the harpsichordist, organist or lutenist should improvise. It does not, however, specify the exact pitches of the harmony, leaving that for the performer to improvise.
* A [[lead sheet]] specifies only the melody, lyrics and harmony, using one staff with [[chord notation|chord symbols]] placed above and lyrics below. It is used to capture the essential elements of a [[popular music|popular song]] without specifying how the song should be arranged or performed.
* A [[chord chart]] or "chart" contains little or no melodic or voice-leading information at all, but provides basic harmonic information about the [[chord progression]]. Some chord charts also contain rhythmic information, indicated using [[slash notation]] for full beats and rhythmic notation for rhythms. This is the most common kind of written music used by professional [[session musician]]s playing [[jazz]] or other forms of [[List of popular music genres|popular music]] and is intended primarily for the [[rhythm section]] (usually containing [[piano]], [[guitar]], [[Bass guitar|bass]] and [[drum]]s).
* Simpler chord charts for songs may contain only the chord changes, placed above the lyrics where they occur. Such charts depend on prior knowledge of the melody, and are used as reminders in performance or informal [[group singing]]. Some chord charts intended for [[rhythm section]] accompanists contain only the chord progression.
* The [[shape note]] system is found in some church hymnals, [[sheet music]], and song books, especially in the [[Southern United States]]. Instead of the customary elliptical note head, note heads of various shapes are used to show the position of the note on the major scale. [[Sacred Harp|''The Sacred Harp'']] is one of the most popular tune books using shape notes.

==In various countries==

===Korea===
[[File:시용향악보 (時用鄕樂譜).jpg|thumb|''Jeongganbo musical notation system'']]
''Jeongganbo'' is a traditional musical notation system created during the time of [[Sejong the Great]] that was the first East Asian system to represent rhythm, pitch, and time.{{sfnp|Gnanadesikan|2011|p={{Page needed|date=October 2018}}}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Gukak|url=http://english.donga.com/List/3/all/26/251893/1|website=The DONG-A ILBO|publisher=dongA.com|access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> Among various kinds of Korean traditional music, Jeong-gan-bo targets a particular genre, Jeong-ak ({{lang|ko|정악, 正樂}}).

Jeong-gan-bo specifies the pitch by writing the pitch's name down in a box called 'jeong-gan'. One jeong-gan is one beat each, and it can be split into two, three or more to hold half beats and quarter beats, and more.

Also, there are many markings indicating things such as ornaments. Most of these were later created by Ki-su Kim.

===India===
{{Main|Swaralipi}}
[[File:Bhat notation1.jpg|thumb|Indian music, early 20th century.]]
The [[Samaveda]] text (1200 BCE – 1000 BCE) contains notated melodies, and these are probably the world's oldest surviving ones.<ref name="brunonettle">Bruno Nettl, Ruth M. Stone, James Porter and Timothy Rice (1999), The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0824049461}}, pages 242–245</ref> The musical notation is written usually immediately above, sometimes within, the line of Samaveda text, either in syllabic or a numerical form depending on the Samavedic ''Sakha'' (school).<ref>KR Norman (1979), Sāmavedic Chant by Wayne Howard (Book Review), Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 13, No. 3, page 524;

Wayne Howard (1977), Samavedic Chant, Yale University Press, {{ISBN|978-0300019568}}</ref> The Indian scholar and musical theorist [[Pingala]] (c. 200 BCE), in his ''Chanda Sutra'', used marks indicating long and short syllables to indicate meters in Sanskrit poetry.

A rock inscription from circa 7th–8th century CE at [[Kudumiyanmalai]], Tamil Nadu contains an early example of a musical notation. It was first identified and published by archaeologist/epigraphist [[D. R. Bhandarkar]].{{sfnp|Bhandarkar|1913–1914}} Written in the Pallava-grantha script of the 7th century, it contains 38 horizontal lines of notations inscribed on a rectangular rock face (dimension of around 13 by 14 feet). Each line of the notation contains 64 characters (characters representing musical notes), written in groups of four notes. The basic characters for the seven notes, 'sa ri ga ma pa dha ni', are seen to be suffixed with the vowels a, i, u, e. For example, in the place of 'sa', any one of 'sa', 'si', 'su' or 'se' is used. Similarly, in place of ri, any one of 'ra', 'ri', 'ru' or 're' is used. Horizontal lines divide the notation into 7 sections. Each section contains 4 to 7 lines of notation, with a title indicating its musical 'mode'. These modes may have been popular at least from the 6th century CE and were incorporated into the Indian 'raga' system that developed later. But some of the unusual features seen in this notation have been given several non-conclusive interpretations by scholars.{{sfnp|Widdess|1979}}

In the notation of Indian [[rāga]], a solfege-like system called [[swara|sargam]] is used. As in Western solfege, there are names for the seven basic pitches of a major scale (Shadja, Rishabha, Gandhara, Madhyama, Panchama, Dhaivata and Nishada, usually shortened to Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni). The tonic of any scale is named Sa, and the dominant Pa. Sa is fixed in any scale, and Pa is fixed at a fifth above it (a [[Pythagorean tuning|Pythagorean]] fifth rather than an [[Equal temperament|equal-tempered]] fifth). These two notes are known as achala swar ('fixed notes').

Each of the other five notes, Re, Ga, Ma, Dha and Ni, can take a 'regular' (shuddha) pitch, which is equivalent to its pitch in a standard major scale (thus, shuddha Re, the second degree of the scale, is a whole-step higher than Sa), or an altered pitch, either a half-step above or half-step below the shuddha pitch. Re, Ga, Dha and Ni all have altered partners that are a half-step lower (Komal-"flat") (thus, komal Re is a half-step higher than Sa).

Ma has an altered partner that is a half-step higher ({{lang|hi-Latn|teevra}}-"sharp") (thus, {{lang|hi-Latn|tivra}} Ma is an augmented fourth above Sa). Re, Ga, Ma, Dha and Ni are called {{lang|hi-Latn|vikrut swar}} ('movable notes'). In the written system of Indian notation devised by Ravi Shankar, the pitches are represented by Western letters. Capital letters are used for the achala swar, and for the higher variety of all the vikrut swar. Lowercase letters are used for the lower variety of the vikrut swar.

Other systems exist for non-twelve-tone [[equal temperament]] and non-Western music, such as the Indian ''[[Swaralipi]]''.

===Russia===
{{further|Znamenny chant}}
[[File:Example of hooks and banners notation.PNG|thumb|right|An example of Znamenny notation with so-called "red marks", Russia, 1884. "Thy [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Cross]] we honour, oh Lord, and Thy holy Resurrection we praise."]]
[[File:Kryuki.jpg|thumb|Hand-drawn [[lubok]] featuring 'hook and banner notation']]
Znamenny Chant is a singing tradition used in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] which uses a "hook and banner" notation. Znamenny Chant is [[unison]], [[melisma]]tic [[liturgy|liturgical]] singing that has its own specific notation, called the ''stolp'' notation. The symbols used in the stolp notation are called ''{{Transliteration|ru|kryuki|links=no}}'' ({{langx|ru|крюки|links=no}}, 'hooks') or ''{{Transliteration|ru|znamyona}}'' ({{langx|ru|знамёна|links=no}}, 'banners'). Often the names of the signs are used to refer to the stolp notation. Znamenny melodies are part of a system, consisting of Eight Modes (intonation structures; called glasy); the melodies are characterized by fluency and well-balancedness.{{sfn|Kholopov|2003|loc=192}} There exist several types of Znamenny Chant: the so-called ''Stolpovoy'', ''Malyj'' (Little) and ''Bolshoy'' (Great) Znamenny Chant. Ruthenian Chant ([[Prostopinije]]) is sometimes considered a sub-division of the Znamenny Chant tradition, with the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovite]] Chant (Znamenny Chant proper) being the second branch of the same musical continuum.

Znamenny Chants are not written with notes (the so-called linear notation), but with special signs, called ''Znamëna'' (Russian for "marks", "banners") or ''Kryuki'' ("hooks"), as some shapes of these signs resemble hooks. Each sign may include the following components: a large black hook or a black stroke, several smaller black 'points' and 'commas' and lines near the hook or crossing the hook. Some signs may mean only one note, some 2 to 4 notes, and some a whole melody of more than 10 notes with a complicated rhythmic structure. The stolp notation was developed in [[Kievan Rus']] as an [[East Slavs|East Slavic]] refinement of the [[Byzantine music|Byzantine]] [[neumatic]] musical notation.

The most notable feature of this notation system is that it records transitions of the melody, rather than [[Musical note|note]]s. The signs also represent a mood and a gradation of how this part of melody is to be sung (tempo, strength, devotion, meekness, etc.) Every sign has its own name and also features as a spiritual symbol. For example, there is a specific sign, called "little dove" (Russian: голубчик ''(golubchik)''), which represents two rising sounds, but which is also a symbol of the [[Holy Ghost]]. Gradually the system became more and more complicated. This system was also ambiguous, so that almost no one, except the most trained and educated singers, could sing an unknown melody at sight. The signs only helped to reproduce the melody, not coding it in an unambiguous way.
(See [[#Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]])

===China===
{{Main|Chinese musical notation}}

[[File:Qinnotation.png|thumb|Chinese [[Guqin notation]], 1425]]
The earliest known examples of text referring to music in China are inscriptions on musical instruments found in the Tomb of [[Marquess|Marquis]] Yi of Zeng (d. 433 B.C.). Sets of 41 chimestones and 65 bells bore lengthy inscriptions concerning pitches, scales, and transposition. The bells still sound the pitches that their inscriptions refer to. Although no notated musical compositions were found, the inscriptions indicate that the system was sufficiently advanced to allow for musical notation. Two systems of pitch nomenclature existed, one for relative pitch and one for absolute pitch. For relative pitch, a [[solmization]] system was used.{{sfnp|Bagley|2004}}

[[Gongche notation]] used Chinese characters for the names of the scale.

===Japan===
{{further|Shakuhachi musical notation|Kunkunshi}}
[[File:Tempyo Biwa Fu.jpg|thumb|''Tempyō Biwa Fu'' {{lang|ja|天平琵琶譜}} (circa 738 AD), musical notation for [[Biwa]]. ([[Shōsōin]], at Nara, Japan)]]
Japanese music is highly diversified, and therefore requires various systems of notation. In Japanese [[shakuhachi]] music, for example, glissandos and timbres are often more significant than distinct pitches, whereas [[taiko]] notation focuses on discrete strokes.

[[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyuan]] [[sanshin]] music uses [[kunkunshi]], a notation system of [[kanji]] with each character corresponding to a finger position on a particular string.

===Indonesia===<!--[[Kepatihan notation]]'s see also links here-->
{{Main|Gamelan notation}}

Notation plays a relatively minor role in the oral traditions of [[Indonesia]]. However, in [[Java]] and [[Bali]], several systems were devised beginning at the end of the 19th century, initially for archival purposes. Today the most widespread are cipher notations ("not angka" in the broadest sense) in which the pitches are represented with some subset of the numbers 1 to 7, with 1 corresponding to either highest note of a particular octave, as in [[Sundanese script|Sundanese]] [[gamelan]], or lowest, as in the [[kepatihan notation]] of [[Java]]nese [[gamelan]].

Notes in the ranges outside the central octave are represented with one or more dots above or below the each number. For the most part, these cipher notations are mainly used to notate the skeletal melody (the [[balungan]]) and vocal parts ([[gerong]]an), although transcriptions of the elaborating instrument variations are sometimes used for analysis and teaching. Drum parts are notated with a system of symbols largely based on letters representing the vocables used to learn and remember drumming patterns; these symbols are typically laid out in a grid underneath the skeletal melody for a specific or generic piece.

The symbols used for drum notation (as well as the vocables represented) are highly variable from place to place and performer to performer. In addition to these current systems, two older notations used a kind of staff: the [[Surakarta|Solo]]nese script could capture the flexible rhythms of the [[Sindhen|pesinden]] with a squiggle on a horizontal staff, while in [[Yogyakarta]] a ladder-like vertical staff allowed notation of the balungan by dots and also included important drum strokes. In Bali, there are a few books published of [[Gamelan gender wayang]] pieces, employing alphabetical notation in the old Balinese script.

Composers and scholars both Indonesian and foreign have also mapped the [[slendro]] and [[pelog]] [[Musical tuning|tuning]] systems of gamelan onto the western staff, with and without various symbols for [[microtonal music|microtones]]. The Dutch composer [[Ton de Leeuw]] also invented a three line staff for his composition ''Gending''. However, these systems do not enjoy widespread use.

In the second half of the twentieth century, Indonesian musicians and scholars extended cipher notation to other oral traditions, and a [[diatonic and chromatic|diatonic scale]] cipher notation has become common for notating western-related genres (church hymns, popular songs, and so forth). Unlike the cipher notation for gamelan music, which uses a "fixed Do" (that is, 1 always corresponds to the same pitch, within the natural variability of gamelan tuning), Indonesian diatonic cipher notation is "moveable-Do" notation, so scores must indicate which pitch corresponds to the number 1 (for example, "1=C").

<gallery>
Image:Surakarta gamelan notation slendro.png|A short melody in slendro notated using the Surakarta method.{{sfnp|Lindsay|1992|pp=43–45}}
Image:Yogyakarta gamelan notation slendro.png|The same notated using the Yogyakarta method or 'chequered notation'.{{sfnp|Lindsay|1992|pp=43–45}}
Image:Kepatihan gamelan notation slendro.png|The same notated using Kepatihan notation.{{sfnp|Lindsay|1992|pp=43–45}}
Image:Western gamelan notation slendro.png|The same approximated using Western notation.{{sfnp|Lindsay|1992|pp=43–45}} {{audio|Western gamelan notation slendro.mid|Play}}
</gallery>

=== Judea ===
{{Main|Hebrew cantillation}}
[[File:Example of biblical Hebrew trope.svg|thumb|Example of biblical Hebrew Trope]]
Ancient Jewish texts include a series of marks assigning musical cantillation notes. Known in Hebrew as Ta'amim and Yiddish as Trope, there are records of these marks from the 6th and 7th centuries, having been passed down as a tradition for Jewish prayers and texts. Traditionally a series of marks written above and around the accompanying Hebrew texts, Trope marks represent a short musical motif. Throughout the Jewish diaspora there are variations in the accompanying melodies. There are three main systems of Hebrew cantillation: The Babylonian System, The Palestinian System, and the Tiberian System.

==Other systems and practices==

===Cipher notation===
[[File:AmazingGraceNumberedMusicalNotation.png|right|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Amazing Grace]] in numbered notation.]]
{{Main|Numbered musical notation}}
Cipher notation systems assigning Arabic numerals to the [[major scale]] degrees have been used at least since the Iberian organ tablatures of the 16th-century and include such exotic adaptations as ''[[Siffernotskrift]]''. The one most widely in use today is the Chinese ''Jianpu'', discussed in the [[Numbered musical notation|main article]]. Numerals can also be assigned to different scale systems, as in the Javanese ''[[kepatihan]]'' notation [[#Indonesia|described above]].

===Solfège===
{{Main|Solfège}}
Solfège is a way of assigning syllables to names of the musical scale. In order, they are today: ''Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do{{'}}'' (for the octave). The classic variation is: ''Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do{{'}}''. The first Western system of functional names for the musical notes was introduced by [[Guido of Arezzo]] (c. 991 – after 1033), using the beginning syllables of the first six musical lines of the Latin hymn [[Ut queant laxis]]. The original sequence was ''Ut Re Mi Fa Sol La'', where each verse started a scale note higher. "Ut" later became "Do". The equivalent syllables used in Indian music are: ''Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni''. See also: [[solfège]], [[swara|sargam]], [[Kodály method#Hand signs|Kodály hand signs]].

[[Tonic sol-fa]] is a type of notation using the initial letters of solfège.

===Letter notation===
{{Main|Letter notation}}
The notes of the 12-tone scale can be written by their letter names A–G, possibly with a trailing [[Accidental (music)|accidental]], such as A{{music|sharp}} or B{{Music|flat}}.

====ABC====
[[ABC notation]] is a compact format using plain text characters, readable by computers and by humans. More than 100,000 tunes are now transcribed in this format.<ref>{{Cite web |title=abc |url=http://www.music-notation.info/en/formats/abc.html |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=www.music-notation.info}}</ref>

===Tablature===
{{Main|Tablature}}
Tablature was first used in the [[Medieval music|Middle Ages]] for organ music and later in the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] for [[lute]] music.{{sfnp|Apel|1961|pp=xxiii, 22}} In most lute tablatures, a staff is used, but instead of pitch values, the lines of the staff represent the strings of the instrument. The [[fret]]s to finger are written on each line, indicated by letters or numbers. Rhythm is written separately with one or another variation of standard note values indicating the duration of the fastest moving part. Few seem to have remarked on the fact that tablature combines in one notation system both the physical and technical requirements of play (the lines and symbols on them and in relation to each other representing the actual performance actions) with the unfolding of the music itself (the lines of tablature taken horizontally represent the actual temporal unfolding of the music). In later periods, lute and guitar music was written with standard notation. Tablature caught interest again in the late 20th century for popular [[guitar]] music and other fretted instruments, being easy to transcribe and share over the internet in [[ASCII tab|ASCII format]].

===Piano-roll-based notations===
Some chromatic systems have been created taking advantage of the layout of black and white keys of the standard piano keyboard. The "staff" is most widely referred to as "[[Piano roll#In digital audio workstations|piano roll]]", created by extending the black and white piano keys.

====Klavar notation====
{{Main|Klavarskribo}}
{{lang|eo|Klavarskribo}} (sometimes shortened to '''klavar''') is a music notation system that was introduced in 1931 by the [[Netherlands|Dutchman]] Cornelis Pot. The name means "keyboard writing" in [[Esperanto]]. It differs from conventional music notation in a number of ways and is intended to be easily readable. Many klavar readers are from the Netherlands.

===Chromatic staff notations===
Over the past three centuries, hundreds of music notation systems have been proposed as alternatives to traditional western music notation. Many of these systems seek to improve upon traditional notation by using a "chromatic staff" in which each of the 12 pitch classes has its own unique place on the staff. An example is Jacques-Daniel Rochat's [[Dodeka music notation]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dodekamusic.com/|title=Dodeka: the fastest way to learn to play music|website=Dodeka Music}}</ref>{{sfnp|Rochat|2018}} These notation systems do not require the use of standard key signatures, accidentals, or clef signs. They also represent interval relationships more consistently and accurately than traditional notation, e.g. major 3rds appear wider than minor 3rds. Many of these systems are described and illustrated in Gardner Read's "Source Book of Proposed Music Notation Reforms".

===Graphic notation===
{{Main|Graphic notation (music)}}
The term 'graphic notation' refers to the contemporary use of non-traditional symbols and text to convey information about the performance of a piece of music. Composers such as [[Johanna Beyer]]. [[Christian Wolff (composer)|Christian Wolff]], [[Carmen Barradas]], [[Earle Brown]], [[Yoko Ono]], [[Anthony Braxton]], [[John Cage]], [[Morton Feldman]], [[Cathy Berberian]], [[Graciela Castillo]], [[Krzysztof Penderecki]], [[Cornelius Cardew]], [[Pauline Oliveros]] and [[Roger Reynolds]] are among the early generation of practitioners. The book [[Notations]], by John Cage and [[Alison Knowles]], is another example of this kind of notation.

===Simplified music notation===
{{Main|Simplified music notation}}
[[Simplified Music Notation]] is an alternative form of musical notation designed to make [[sight reading|sight-reading]] easier. It is based on [[modern musical symbols|classical staff notation]], but incorporates [[sharp (music)|sharps]] and [[flat (music)|flats]] into the shape of the [[note heads]]. [[Musical note|Note]]s such as [[sharp (music)|double sharps]] and [[flat (music)|double flats]] are written at the [[pitch (music)|pitch]] they are actually played at, but preceded by [[symbol]]s called ''history signs'' that show they have been [[transposition (music)|transposed]].

===Modified Stave Notation===
{{Main|Modified Stave Notation}}
[[Modified Stave Notation]] (MSN) is an alternative way of notating music for people who cannot easily read ordinary musical notation even if it is enlarged.

===Parsons code===
{{Main|Parsons code}}
Parsons code is used to encode music so that it can be easily searched.

===Braille music===
{{Main|Braille music}}
Braille music is a complete, well developed, and internationally accepted musical notation system that has symbols and notational conventions quite independent of print music notation. It is linear in nature, similar to a printed language and different from the two-dimensional nature of standard printed music notation. To a degree Braille music resembles musical markup languages<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.musicmarkup.info/scope/markuplanguages.html |title=musicmarkup.info |access-date=1 June 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040624055626/http://musicmarkup.info/scope/markuplanguages.html |archive-date=24 June 2004 |url-status=dead }}</ref> such as [[MusicXML]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stewart |first=Darin |date=1 December 2003 |url=http://emusician.com/ar/emusic_xml_music/ |title=XML for Music |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926232651/http://emusician.com/ar/emusic_xml_music/ |url-status=dead |archivedate=26 September 2011 |website=emusician.com}}</ref> or [[Notation Interchange File Format|NIFF]].

===Integer notation===
In [[integer notation]], or the [[integer]] model of pitch, all [[pitch class]]es and [[interval (music)|interval]]s between pitch classes are designated using the numbers 0 through 11.

===Rap notation===
The standard form of rap notation is the "flow diagram", where rappers line up their lyrics underneath "beat numbers".{{sfnp|Edwards|2009|p=67}} Hip-hop scholars also make use of the same flow diagrams that rappers use: the books ''How to Rap'' and ''How to Rap 2'' extensively use the diagrams to explain rap's triplets, flams, rests, rhyme schemes, runs of rhyme, and breaking rhyme patterns, among other techniques.{{sfnp|Edwards|2013|p=53}} Similar systems are used by musicologists Adam Krims in his book ''Rap Music and the Poetics of Identity''{{sfnp|Krims|2001|pp=59–60}} and Kyle Adams in his work on rap's flow.{{sfnp|Adams|2009}} As rap usually revolves around a strong 4/4 beat,{{sfnp|Edwards|2009|p=69}} with certain syllables aligned to the beat, all the notational systems have a similar structure: they all have four beat numbers at the top of the diagram, so that syllables can be written in-line with the beat.{{sfnp|Edwards|2009|p=69}}

===Tin Whistle Fingering Charts===

It is being used for six-hole woodwind instruments, basically for Irish folk songs. Tin whistle tabs are particularly useful for those unfamiliar with sheet music notation.

==Music notation on computers==
{{See also|Comparison of free software for audio#Notation|l1=Open-source notation software}}
===Unicode===

The [[Musical Symbols (Unicode block)|Musical Symbols Unicode block]] encodes an extensive system of formal musical notation.

The [[Miscellaneous Symbols]] block has a few of the more common symbols:
* {{unichar|2669|Quarter note}}
* {{unichar|266A|Eighth note}}
* {{unichar|266B|Beamed eighth notes}}
* {{unichar|266C|Beamed sixteenth notes}}
* {{unichar|266D|Music flat sign}}
* {{unichar|266E|Music natural sign}}
* {{unichar|266F|Music sharp sign}}

The [[Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs]] block has three [[emoji]] that may include depictions of musical notes:
* {{unichar|1F3A7|Headphone}}
* {{unichar|1F3B5|Musical note}}
* {{unichar|1F3B6|Multiple musical notes}}

===Software===
{{See also|Scorewriter|Comparison of scorewriters}}

Various computer programs have been developed for creating music notation (called ''scorewriters'' or ''music notation software''). Music may also be stored in various digital file formats for purposes other than graphic notation output.

==Perspectives of musical notation in composition and musical performance==
According to Philip Tagg and [[Richard Middleton (musicologist)|Richard Middleton]], musicology and to a degree European-influenced musical practice suffer from a 'notational centricity', a methodology slanted by the characteristics of notation.{{sfnp|Tagg|1979|pp=28–32}}{{sfnp|Middleton|1990|pp=104–106}} A variety of 20th- and 21st-century composers have dealt with this problem, either by adapting standard Western musical notation or by using graphic notation.{{Clarify|date=October 2018}}<!--How does changing the style of notation encourage musicologists to ignore notation in favor of other approaches, such as recordings or spectrograms?--> These include [[George Crumb]], [[Luciano Berio]], [[Krzystof Penderecki]], [[Earle Brown|Earl Brown]], [[John Cage]], [[Witold Lutoslawski]], and others.{{sfnp|Pierce|1973|p={{Page needed|date=October 2018}}}}{{sfnp|Cogan|1976|p={{Page needed|date=October 2018}}}}

==See also==
* [[List of musical symbols]] of modern notation.
* [[Hebrew cantillation]]
* [[Helmholtz pitch notation]]
* [[Colored music notation]]
* [[Eye movement in music reading]]
* [[Guido of Arezzo]], inventor of modern musical notation
* [[History of music publishing]]
* [[List of scorewriters]]
* [[Mensural notation]]
* [[Rhythmic mode|Modal notation]]
* [[Music engraving]], drawing music notation for the purpose of mechanical reproduction
* [[Music OCR]], the application of optical character recognition to interpret sheet music
* [[Neume]] ([[plainchant]] notation)
* [[Pitch class]]
* [[Rastrum]], a five-pointed writing implement used to draw parallel staff lines across a blank piece of sheet music
* [[Scorewriter]]
* [[Semasiography]]
* [[Sight-reading]]
* [[Sheet music]]
* [[Time unit box system]], a notation system useful for polyrhythms
* [[Tongan music notation]], a subset of standard music notation
* [[Tonnetz]]
* [[Znamenny chant]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
{{div col|colwidth=36em}}
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* {{cite book |author-link=Yuri Kholopov|last=Kholopov |first=Yuri |year=2003 |title=Гармония. Теоретический курс |trans-title=Harmony: A Theoretical Course |edition=2nd |location=Moscow; Saint Petersburg |publisher=Lan |isbn=5-8114-0516-2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kilmer |first=Anne Draffkorn |year=1965 |title=The Strings of Musical Instruments: Their Names, Numbers, and Significance |encyclopedia=Studies in Honor of Benno Landsberger on His Seventy-fifth Birthday, April 21, 1965 |series=Assyriological Studies |volume=16 |editor-first1=Hans G. |editor-last1=Güterbock |editor-first2=Thorkild |editor-last2=Jacobsen |pages=261–268 |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kilmer |first1=Anne Draffkorn |first2=Miguel |last2=Civil |year=1986 |title=Old Babylonian Musical Instructions Relating to Hymnody |journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=94–98 |doi=10.2307/1359953 |jstor=1359953 |s2cid=163942248 }}
* {{cite book |last=Krims |first=Adam |year=2001 |title=Rap Music and the Poetics of Identity |location=Cambridge and New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
* {{cite book |last=Lindsay |first=Jennifer |year=1992 |title=Javanese Gamelan |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-588582-1 }}
* {{cite journal |last=McNaught |first=W. G. |date=January 1893 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nNYPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=The History and Uses of the Sol-fa Syllables |journal=Proceedings of the Musical Association |volume=19 |pages=35–51 |doi=10.1093/jrma/19.1.35 |issn=0958-8442 }}
* {{cite book |last=Middleton |first=Richard |year=1990 |title=Studying Popular Music |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Open University Press |isbn=0-335-15275-9 }}
*{{cite book |last=Murray |first=Chris |year=1994 |title=Dictionary of the Arts |location=New York |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-3205-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarts00newyrich }}
*{{Cite journal | last = Myers| first = Gregory | doi = 10.1017/S0961137100001406 | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–46 | title = The medieval Russian Kondakar and the choirbook from Kastoria: a palaeographic study in Byzantine and Slavic musical relations | journal = Plainsong and Medieval Music | date = 1998 | s2cid = 163125078 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Otten |first=J. |year=1910 |title=Guido of Arezzo |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07065a.htm |access-date=30 May 2010 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pierce |first=Brent |year=1973 |title=New Choral Notation (A Handbook) |location=New York |publisher=Walton Music Corporation }}
*{{Cite book |last=Rochat |first=Jacques-Daniel |title=Dodeka: la révolution musicale |date=2018 |publisher=Crea 7 |isbn=9782970127505 |location=Chexbres |oclc=1078658738 |language=fr }}
* {{cite book |last=Tagg |first=Philip |year=1979 |title=Kojak—50 Seconds of Television Music: Toward the Analysis of Affect in Popular Music |series=Skrifter från Musikvetenskapliga Institutionen, Göteborg 2 |location=Göteborg |publisher=Musikvetenskapliga Institutionen, Göteborgs Universitet |isbn=91-7222-235-2 }} English translation of "Kojak—50 sekunders tv-musik".
* {{cite book |last=Toussaint |first=Godfried |year=2004 |url=http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/research/reports/2004/SOCS-TR-2004.6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707184208/http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/research/reports/2004/SOCS-TR-2004.6.pdf |archive-date=7 July 2012 |title=A Comparison of Rhythmic Similarity Measures |series=Technical Report SOCS-TR-2004.6 |location=Montréal |publisher=School of Computer Science, McGill University }}
* {{cite journal |last=West |first=Martin Litchfield |date= May 1994 |title=The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts |journal=Music & Letters |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=161–179 |doi=10.1093/ml/75.2.161 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Widdess |first=D. R |date=1979 |title=The Kudumiyamalai inscription: a source of early Indian music in notation |journal=Musica Asiatica |volume=2 |pages=115–150 |publisher=Oxford University Press }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Zapke |editor-first=Susana |year=2007 |title=Hispania Vetus: Musical-Liturgical Manuscripts from Visigothic Origins to the Franco-Roman Transition (9th–12th Centuries) |others=Foreword by Anscario M Mundó |location=Bilbao |publisher=Fundación BBVA |isbn=978-84-96515-50-5 }}
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=36em}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gayou |first=Évelyne |url=http://cec.concordia.ca/econtact/12_4/Gayou_transcrire.html |title=Transcrire les musiques électroacoustiques |journal=EContact! |volume=12 |issue=4 ''Perspectives on the Electroacoustic Work / Perspectives sur l'œuvre électroacoustique'' |date=August 2010 |location=Montréal |publisher=[[Canadian Electroacoustic Community]] |language=fr|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Gould |first=Elaine |year=2011 |title=[[Behind Bars: The Definitive Guide to Music Notation]] |location=London |publisher=Faber Music|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Hall |first=Rachael |year=2005 |url=http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Rhythms/Poets/arcadia.pdf |title=Math for Poets and Drummers |publisher=[[Saint Joseph's University]] |access-date=21 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616225617/http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Rhythms/Poets/arcadia.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2012 |url-status=dead|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Karakayali |first=Nedim |year=2010 |title=Two Assemblages of Cultural Transmission: Musicians, Political Actors and Educational Techniques in the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe |journal=[[Journal of Historical Sociology]]|volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=343–71 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6443.2010.01377.x |hdl=11693/22234 |hdl-access=free|ref=none}}
* {{cite conference |last=Lieberman |first=David |year=2006 |url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1174472 |title=Game Enhanced Music Manuscript |book-title=Graphite '06: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques in Australasia and South East Asia, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), 29 November–2 December 2006 |conference=4th International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques in Australasia and South East Asia |editor1=Y Tina Lee |editor2=Siti Mariyam Shamsuddin |editor3=Diego Gutierrez |editor4=Norhaida Mohd Suaib |pages=245–50 |location=New York |publisher=ACM Press |isbn=1-59593-564-9|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Gardner Read |last=Read |first=Gardner |year=1978 |title=Modern Rhythmic Notation |publisher=Victor Gollance|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Read |first=Gardner |year=1987 |title=Source Book of Proposed Music Notation Reforms |publisher=Greenwood Press|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Reisenweaver |first=Anna |year=2012 |title=Guido of Arezzo and His Influence on Music Learning |journal=Musical Offerings |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=37–59 |doi=10.15385/jmo.2012.3.1.4 |url=http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol3/iss1/4 |doi-access=free|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book | publisher=Hercules | isbn =0-916586-24-3 | last =Savas | first =Savas I. | title =Byzantine Music in Theory and Practice | location =Boston | year =1965 | url =http://www.byzantinechant.org/Resources/SavasSavas_combined%20%28small%29.pdf | access-date=27 January 2013|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Schneider |first=Albrecht |year=1987 |title=Musik, Sound, Sprache, Schrift: Transkription und Notation in der Vergleichenden Musikwissenschaft und Musikethnologie |trans-title=Music, sound, language, writing: Transcription and notation in comparative musicology and music ethnology |language=de |journal=Zeitschrift für Semiotik |volume=9 |issue=3–4 |pages=317–43|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Sotorrio |first=José A. |year=1997 |title=Bilinear Music Notation: A New Notation System for the Modern Musician <!--Place of publication needed.--> |publisher=Spectral Music |isbn=978-0-9548498-2-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Stone |first=Kurt |year=1980 |title=Music Notation in the Twentieth Century: A Practical Guidebook |url=https://archive.org/details/musicnotationint0000ston |url-access=registration |publisher=W. W. Norton |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Strayer |first=Hope R. |year=2013 |title=From Neumes to Notes: The Evolution of Music Notation |journal=Musical Offerings |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.15385/jmo.2013.4.1.1 |url=http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol4/iss1/1 |doi-access=free|ref=none}}
* {{cite book | last=Tortiglione |first=Paolo |year=2012 |title=Semiography and Semiology of Contemporary Music |location=Milan |publisher=Rugginenti |isbn=9788876656163 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Habib Hassan Touma |last=Touma |first=Habib Hassan |year=1996 |title=The Music of the Arabs |edition=new expanded |translator1=Laurie Schwartz |location=Portland, Oregon |publisher=Amadeus Press |isbn=0-931340-88-8 |type=book with accompanying CD recording|ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Charles Francis Abdy |year=1903 |title=The Story of Notation |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofnotation00willuoft|ref=none}}
{{div col end}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|d=Q233861|b=Music Theory/Music Notation Systems|n=no|voy=no|s=Portal:Sheet music|species=no|mw=Extension:Score|m=no|wikt=musical notation|q=no|v=Beginners Music Theory/Music Notation}}
* [http://www.g-culture.org/ioannis/tag/byzantine-music-notation/ Byzantine Music Notation]. Contains a Guide to Byzantine Music Notation (neumes).
* [http://253.ccarh.org CCARH—Center for Computer Assisted Research in the Humanities] Information on Stanford University Course on music representation. Links page shows examples of different notations.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311024006/http://www.musicmarkup.info/ Music Markup Language]. XML-based language for music notation.
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Musical Notation |volume=19 |pages=96–87 |short=1}}
* [http://www.senzatempo.de/ston2012070100.html Synopsis of Musical Notation Encyclopedias (An index from topics of CWN into the books of Gould, Vinci, Wanske, Stone and Read.)]
* Gehrkens, Karl Wilson [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19499 ''Music Notation and Terminology'']. Project Gutenberg.
* Gilbert, Nina. "[http://ninagilbert.googlepages.com/British.html Glossary of U.S. and British English musical terms]." Posted 17 June 1998; updated 7 September 2000.

{{Musical notation|state=expanded}}
{{Concert music}}
{{Music topics}}

{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Musical notation| ]]
[[Category:Mathematical notation]]