Editing Mycotoxin

{{Short description|Toxin produced by a fungus}}
A '''mycotoxin''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] μύκης {{Transliteration|el|mykes}}, "fungus" and τοξικός {{Transliteration|el|toxikos}}, "poisonous")<ref>{{OEtymD|myco-}}</ref><ref>{{OEtymD|toxin}}</ref> is a [[toxicity|toxic]] [[secondary metabolite]] produced by [[fungi]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Richard JL |title=Some major mycotoxins and their mycotoxicoses – an overview |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol. |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=3–10 |year=2007 |pmid=17719115 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.019}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last1=Çimen |first1=Duygu |last2=Bereli |first2=Nilay |last3=Denizli |first3=Adil |date=2022-06-01 |title=Patulin Imprinted Nanoparticles Decorated Surface Plasmon Resonance Chips for Patulin Detection |journal=Photonic Sensors |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=117–129 |doi=10.1007/s13320-021-0638-1 |bibcode=2022PhSen..12..117C |s2cid=239220993 |issn=2190-7439|doi-access=free }}</ref> and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals.<ref name="Mycotoxins">{{cite journal |pmc=164220|year=2003|last1=Bennett|first1=J. W.|title=Mycotoxins|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3|pages=497–516|last2=Klich|first2=M|doi=10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003|pmid=12857779}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Food safety |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-safety |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> The term 'mycotoxin' is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops.<ref name=Turner09>{{cite journal |vauthors=Turner NW, Subrahmanyam S, Piletsky SA |title=Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: a review |journal=Anal. Chim. Acta |volume=632 |issue=2 |pages=168–80 |year=2009 |pmid=19110091 |doi=10.1016/j.aca.2008.11.010|bibcode=2009AcAC..632..168T }}</ref>

Examples of mycotoxins causing human and animal illness include [[aflatoxin]], [[citrinin]], [[fumonisins]], [[ochratoxin A]], [[patulin]], [[trichothecenes]], [[zearalenone]], and [[Ergot|ergot alkaloids]] such as [[ergotamine]].<ref name="Mycotoxins"/>

One mold species may produce many different mycotoxins, and several species may produce the same mycotoxin.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Robbins CA, Swenson LJ, Nealley ML, Gots RE, Kelman BJ |title=Health effects of mycotoxins in indoor air: a critical review |journal=Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=773–84 |year=2000 |pmid=11036728 |doi=10.1080/10473220050129419}}</ref>

==Production==
Most fungi are [[aerobic organism|aerobic]] (use oxygen) and are found almost everywhere in extremely small quantities due to the diminutive size of their [[spore]]s. They consume [[organic matter]] wherever [[humidity]] and [[temperature]] are sufficient. Where conditions are right, fungi [[cell growth|proliferate]] into [[colony (biology)|colonies]] and mycotoxin levels become high. The reason for the production of mycotoxins is not yet known; they are not necessary for the growth or the development of the fungi.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fox EM, Howlett BJ |title=Secondary metabolism: regulation and role in fungal biology |journal=Curr. Opin. Microbiol. |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=481–87 |year=2008 |pmid=18973828 |doi=10.1016/j.mib.2008.10.007}}</ref> Because mycotoxins weaken the receiving host, they may improve the environment for further fungal proliferation. The production of toxins depends on the surrounding intrinsic and extrinsic environments and these substances vary greatly in their toxicity, depending on the organism infected and its susceptibility, metabolism, and defense mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hussein HS, Brasel JM |title=Toxicity, metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals |journal=Toxicology |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=101–34 |year=2001 |pmid=11567776 |doi=10.1016/S0300-483X(01)00471-1|bibcode=2001Toxgy.167..101H }}</ref>

==Major groups==
[[Aflatoxin]]s are a type of mycotoxin produced by ''[[Aspergillus]]'' species of fungi, such as ''[[Aspergillus flavus|A. flavus]]'' and ''[[Aspergillus parasiticus|A. parasiticus]]''.<ref name=Martins01>{{cite journal |vauthors=Martins ML, Martins HM, Bernardo F |title=Aflatoxins in spices marketed in Portugal |journal=Food Addit. Contam. |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=315–19 |year=2001 |pmid=11339266 |doi=10.1080/02652030120041|s2cid=30636872 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zain |first=Mohamed E. |date=2011-04-01 |title=Impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals |journal=Journal of Saudi Chemical Society |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=129–144 |doi=10.1016/j.jscs.2010.06.006 |issn=1319-6103|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Pitt |first=John I. |title=Chapter 30 - Mycotoxins |date=2013-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124160415000305 |work=Foodborne Infections and Intoxications (Fourth Edition) |pages=409–418 |editor-last=Morris |editor-first=J. Glenn |access-date=2023-09-12 |series=Food Science and Technology |place=San Diego |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-416041-5.00030-5 |isbn=978-0-12-416041-5 |editor2-last=Potter |editor2-first=Morris E.|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miller |first=J. David |date=1995-01-01 |title=Fungi and mycotoxins in grain: Implications for stored product research |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-474X%2894%2900039-V |journal=Journal of Stored Products Research |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1016/0022-474X(94)00039-V |issn=0022-474X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ebanks |first1=Fiona |last2=Nasrallah |first2=Hadi |last3=Garant |first3=Timothy M. |last4=McConnell |first4=Erin M. |last5=DeRosa |first5=Maria C. |date=2023-09-01 |title=Colorimetric detection of aflatoxins B1 and M1 using aptamers and gold and silver nanoparticles |journal=Advanced Agrochem |series=Special Issue on Functional Nucleic Acids |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=221–230 |doi=10.1016/j.aac.2023.07.003 |issn=2773-2371|doi-access=free }}</ref> The umbrella term aflatoxin refers to four different types of mycotoxins produced, which are B<sub>1</sub>, B<sub>2</sub>, G<sub>1</sub>, and G<sub>2</sub>.<ref name=Yin08>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yin YN, Yan LY, Jiang JH, Ma ZH |title=Biological control of aflatoxin contamination of crops |journal=J Zhejiang Univ Sci B |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=787–92 |year=2008 |pmid=18837105 |pmc=2565741 |doi=10.1631/jzus.B0860003}}</ref> Aflatoxin B<sub>1</sub>, the most toxic, is a potent [[carcinogen]] and has been directly correlated to adverse health effects, such as [[hepatocellular carcinoma|liver cancer]], in many animal species.<ref name=Martins01/> Aflatoxins are largely associated with [[Commodity|commodities]] produced in the [[tropics]] and [[subtropics]], such as [[cotton]], [[peanut]]s, [[spice]]s, [[pistachio]]s, and [[maize]].<ref name=Martins01/><ref name=Yin08/> According to the USDA, "They are probably the best known and most intensively researched mycotoxins in the world."<ref>https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/food-safety-basics/molds-food-are-they-dangerous {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref>

[[Ochratoxin]] is a mycotoxin that comes in three secondary metabolite forms, A, B, and C. All are produced by ''[[Penicillium]]'' and ''Aspergillus'' species. The three forms differ in that Ochratoxin B (OTB) is a nonchlorinated form of Ochratoxin A (OTA) and that Ochratoxin C (OTC) is an ethyl ester form Ochratoxin A.<ref name=Bayman06>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bayman P, Baker JL |title=Ochratoxins: a global perspective |journal=Mycopathologia |volume=162 |issue=3 |pages=215–23 |year=2006 |pmid=16944288 |doi=10.1007/s11046-006-0055-4|s2cid=4540706 }}</ref> ''Aspergillus ochraceus'' is found as a [[contaminant]] of a wide range of commodities including [[beverage]]s such as beer and wine. ''Aspergillus carbonarius'' is the main species found on vine fruit, which releases its toxin during the juice making process.<ref name=Mateo07>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mateo R, Medina A, Mateo EM, Mateo F, Jiménez M |title=An overview of ochratoxin A in beer and wine |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol. |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=79–83 |year=2007 |pmid=17716764 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.029}}</ref> OTA has been labeled as a carcinogen and a nephrotoxin, and has been linked to tumors in the human urinary tract, although research in humans is limited by [[confounding|confounding factors]].<ref name=Bayman06/><ref name=Mateo07/>

[[Citrinin]] is a toxin that was first isolated from ''[[Penicillium citrinum]]'', but has been identified in over a dozen species of ''Penicillium'' and several species of ''[[Aspergillus]]''. Some of these species are used to produce human foodstuffs such as cheese (''[[Penicillium camemberti]]''), sake, [[miso]], and [[soy sauce]] (''[[Aspergillus oryzae]]''). Citrinin is associated with [[yellowed rice]] disease in Japan and acts as a [[nephrotoxin]] in all animal species tested.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bennett|first=JW|author2=Klich, M|title=Mycotoxins.|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|date=Jul 2003|volume=16|issue=3|pages=497–516|pmid=12857779|doi=10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003|pmc=164220}}</ref> Although it is associated with many human foods ([[wheat]], [[rice]], [[maize|corn]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s, [[rye]], and food colored with [[Monascus]] pigment) its full significance for human health is unknown. Citrinin can also act synergistically with Ochratoxin A to depress [[RNA synthesis]] in murine kidneys.<ref name=Bennett03/>

[[Ergot]] alkaloids are compounds produced as a toxic mixture of alkaloids in the [[sclerotium|sclerotia]] of species of ''[[Claviceps]]'', which are common pathogens of various grass species. The ingestion of ergot sclerotia from infected cereals, commonly in the form of bread produced from contaminated flour, causes [[ergotism]], the human disease historically known as [[ergotism|St. Anthony's Fire]]. There are two forms of ergotism: gangrenous, affecting blood supply to extremities, and convulsive, affecting the [[central nervous system]]. Modern methods of grain cleaning have significantly reduced ergotism as a human disease; however, it is still an important veterinary problem. Ergot alkaloids have been used pharmaceutically.<ref name=Bennett03/>

[[Patulin]] is a toxin produced by the ''[[Penicillium expansum|P. expansum]]'', ''Aspergillus'', ''Penicillium'', and ''[[Paecilomyces]]'' fungal species. ''P. expansum'' is especially associated with a range of moldy [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s, in particular rotting apples and figs.<ref name=Moss08>{{cite journal |author=Moss MO |title=Fungi, quality and safety issues in fresh fruits and vegetables |journal=J. Appl. Microbiol. |volume=104 |issue=5 |pages=1239–43 |year=2008 |pmid=18217939 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03705.x|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Trucksess08>{{cite journal |vauthors=Trucksess MW, Scott PM |title=Mycotoxins in botanicals and dried fruits: A review |journal=Food Addit. Contam. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=181–92 |year=2008 |pmid=18286408 |doi=10.1080/02652030701567459|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is destroyed by the [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] process and so is not found in apple beverages, such as [[cider]]. Although patulin has not been shown to be carcinogenic, it has been reported to damage the [[immune system]] in animals.<ref name=Moss08/> In 2004, the [[European Community]] set limits to the concentrations of patulin in food products. They currently stand at 50 μg/kg in all fruit juice concentrations, at 25 μg/kg in solid apple products used for direct consumption, and at 10 μg/kg for children's apple products, including apple juice.<ref name=Moss08/><ref name=Trucksess08/>

[[Fusarium]] toxins are produced by over 50 species of ''Fusarium'' and have a history of infecting the grain of developing cereals such as [[wheat]] and [[maize]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cornely OA |title=''Aspergillus'' to Zygomycetes: causes, risk factors, prevention, and treatment of invasive fungal infections |journal=Infection |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=296–313 |year=2008 |pmid=18642109 |doi=10.1007/s15010-008-7357-z|s2cid=22919557 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schaafsma AW, Hooker DC |title=Climatic models to predict occurrence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol. |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=116–25 |year=2007 |pmid=17900733 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.08.006}}</ref> They include a range of mycotoxins, such as: the [[fumonisins]], which affect the nervous systems of [[horse]]s and may cause cancer in [[rodent]]s; the [[trichothecenes]], which are most strongly associated with chronic and fatal toxic effects in animals and humans; and [[zearalenone]], which is not correlated to any fatal toxic effects in animals or humans. Some of the other major types of ''Fusarium'' toxins include: [[enniatin]]s such as [[beauvericin]]), [[butenolide]], [[equisetin]], and [[fusarin]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Desjardins AE, Proctor RH |title=Molecular biology of ''Fusarium'' mycotoxins |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol. |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=47–50 |year=2007 |pmid=17707105 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.024}}</ref>

==Occurrence==
Although various wild mushrooms contain an assortment of poisons that are definitely fungal metabolites causing noteworthy health problems for humans, they are rather arbitrarily excluded from discussions of mycotoxicology. In such cases the distinction is based on the size of the producing fungus and human intention.<ref name=Bennett03>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bennett JW, Klich M |title=Mycotoxins |journal=Clin. Microbiol. Rev. |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=497–516 |year=2003 |pmid=12857779 |pmc=164220 |doi=10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003}}</ref> Mycotoxin exposure is almost always accidental whereas with mushrooms improper identification and ingestion causing [[mushroom poisoning]] is commonly the case. Ingestion of misidentified mushrooms containing mycotoxins may result in hallucinations. The cyclopeptide-producing ''[[Amanita phalloides]]'' is well known for its toxic potential and is responsible for approximately 90% of all mushroom fatalities.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Berger KJ, Guss DA |title=Mycotoxins revisited: Part I |journal=J. Emerg. Med. |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=53–62 |year=2005 |pmid=15657006 |doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2004.08.013}}</ref> The other primary mycotoxin groups found in mushrooms include: [[orellanine]], [[monomethylhydrazine]], disulfiram-like, hallucinogenic indoles, muscarinic, isoxazole, and gastrointestinal (GI)-specific irritants.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Berger KJ, Guss DA |title=Mycotoxins revisited: Part II |journal=J. Emerg. Med. |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=175–83 |year=2005 |pmid=15707814 |doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2004.08.019}}</ref> The bulk of this article is about mycotoxins that are found in microfungi other than poisons from mushrooms or macroscopic fungi.<ref name=Bennett03/>

===In indoor environments===
Buildings are another source of mycotoxins and people living or working in areas with mold increase their chances of adverse health effects. Molds growing in buildings can be divided into three groups – primary, secondary, and tertiary colonizers. Each group is categorized by the ability to grow at a certain water activity requirement. It has become difficult to identify mycotoxin production by indoor molds for many variables, such as (i) they may be masked as derivatives, (ii) they are poorly documented, and (iii) the fact that they are likely to produce different metabolites on building materials. Some of the mycotoxins in the indoor environment are produced by ''[[Alternaria]]'', ''[[Aspergillus]]'' (multiple forms), ''[[Penicillium]]'', and ''[[Stachybotrys]]''.<ref name= "Mycotoxin production by indoor molds.">{{cite journal|pmid=12781669|year=2003|last1=Fog Nielsen|first1=K|title=Mycotoxin production by indoor molds|volume=39|issue=2|pages=103–17|journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology|doi=10.1016/S1087-1845(03)00026-4}}</ref> ''Stachybotrys chartarum'' contains a higher number of mycotoxins than other molds grown in the indoor environment and has been associated with allergies and respiratory inflammation.<ref name=Pestka08>{{cite journal |vauthors=Pestka JJ, Yike I, Dearborn DG, Ward MD, Harkema JR |title=''Stachybotrys chartarum'', trichothecene mycotoxins, and damp building-related illness: new insights into a public health enigma |journal=Toxicol. Sci. |volume=104 |issue=1 |pages=4–26 |year=2008 |pmid=18007011 |doi=10.1093/toxsci/kfm284|doi-access=free }}</ref> The infestation of ''S. chartarum'' in buildings containing gypsum board, as well as on ceiling tiles, is very common and has recently become a more recognized problem. When gypsum board has been repeatedly introduced to moisture, ''S. chartarum'' grows readily on its cellulose face.<ref name=Godish01>{{cite book |author=Godish, Thad |title=Indoor environmental quality |publisher=Lewis Publishers |location=Chelsea, Mich |year=2001 |pages=183–84 |isbn=978-1-56670-402-1}}</ref> This stresses the importance of moisture controls and ventilation within residential homes and other buildings. The negative health effects of mycotoxins are a function of the [[concentration]], the duration of exposure, and the subject's sensitivities. The concentrations experienced in a normal home, office, or school are often too low to trigger a health response in occupants.

In the 1990s, public concern over mycotoxins increased following multimillion-dollar [[mold health issues|toxic mold]] settlements. The lawsuits took place after a study by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Center for Disease Control]] (CDC) in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], reported an association between mycotoxins from ''Stachybotrys'' spores and pulmonary hemorrhage in infants. However, in 2000, based on internal and external reviews of their data, the CDC concluded that because of flaws in their methods, the association was not proven. ''Stachybotrys'' spores in animal studies have been shown to cause lung hemorrhaging, but only at very high concentrations.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Update: Pulmonary hemorrhage/hemosiderosis among infants – Cleveland, Ohio, 1993–1996 |journal=MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=180–4 |year=2000 |pmid=11795499 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4909a3.htm |author1= Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}</ref>

One study by the Center of Integrative Toxicology at [[Michigan State University]] investigated the causes of Damp Building Related Illness (DBRI). They found that ''Stachybotrys'' is possibly an important contributing factor to DBRI. So far animal models indicate that airway exposure to ''S. chartarum '' can evoke allergic sensitization, inflammation, and cytotoxicity in the upper and lower respiratory tracts. Trichothecene toxicity appears to be an underlying cause of many of these adverse effects. Recent findings indicate that lower doses (studies usually involve high doses) can cause these symptoms.<ref name=Pestka08/>

Some toxicologists have used the Concentration of No Toxicological Concern (CoNTC) measure to represent the airborne concentration of mycotoxins that are expected to cause no hazard to humans (exposed continuously throughout a 70–yr lifetime). The resulting data of several studies have thus far demonstrated that common exposures to airborne mycotoxins in the built indoor environment are below the CoNTC, however agricultural environments have potential to produce levels greater than the CoNTC.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hardin BD, Robbins CA, Fallah P, Kelman BJ |title=The concentration of no toxicologic concern (CoNTC) and airborne mycotoxins |journal=J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A |volume=72 |issue=9 |pages=585–98 |year=2009 |pmid=19296408 |doi=10.1080/15287390802706389 |bibcode=2009JTEHA..72..585H |s2cid=799085 }}</ref>

===In food===
Mycotoxins can appear in the food chain as a result of [[plant pathology#Fungi|fungal infection]] of [[agriculture|crop]]s, either by being eaten directly by humans or by being used as livestock feed.

In 2004 in Kenya, 125 people died and nearly 200 others required medical treatment after eating [[aflatoxin]]-contaminated maize.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lewis L, Onsongo M, Njapau H, etal |title=Aflatoxin contamination of commercial maize products during an outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis in eastern and central Kenya |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume=113 |issue=12 |pages=1763–67 |year=2005 |pmid=16330360 |pmc=1314917 |doi=10.1289/ehp.7998 |url=http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/members/2005/7998/7998.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120629132515/http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/members/2005/7998/7998.html |archive-date=2012-06-29 }}</ref>
The deaths were mainly associated with homegrown maize that had not been treated with fungicides or properly dried before storage. Due to food shortages at the time, farmers may have been harvesting maize earlier than normal to prevent thefts from their fields, so that the grain had not fully matured and was more susceptible to infection.

Spices are susceptible substrate for growth of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxin production.<ref name="pmid26229535">{{cite journal |vauthors= Jeswal P, Kumar D |title= Mycobiota and Natural Incidence of Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin A, and Citrinin in Indian Spices Confirmed by LC-MS/MS |journal= International Journal of Microbiology |volume= 2015 |pages= 1–8 |year= 2015 |pmid= 26229535 |pmc= 4503550 |doi= 10.1155/2015/242486 |quote= <small>• The results of this study suggest that the spices are susceptible substrate for growth of mycotoxigenic fungi and further mycotoxin production.<br />• Red chilli, black pepper, and dry ginger are the most contaminated spices in which AFs, OTA, and CTN were present in high concentration.</small>|doi-access= free }}</ref> Red chilli, black pepper, and dry ginger were found to be the most contaminated spices.<ref name="pmid26229535"/>

Physical methods to prevent growth of mycotoxin‐producing fungi or remove toxins from contaminated food include temperature and humidity control, [[Food irradiation|irradiation]] and photodynamic treatment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yue|last2=Yamdeu|first2=Joseph Hubert Galani|last3=Gong|first3=Yun Yun|last4=Orfila|first4=Caroline|title=A review of postharvest approaches to reduce fungal and mycotoxin contamination of foods|journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety|year=2020|language=en|volume=19|issue=4|pages=1521–1560|doi=10.1111/1541-4337.12562|pmid=33337083|issn=1541-4337|doi-access=free}}</ref> Mycotoxins can also be removed chemically and biologically using antifungal/anti‐mycotoxins agents and antifungal plant [[metabolite]]s.<ref name=":0" />

===In animal food===
{{main|Mycotoxins in animal feed}}
[[Dimorphic fungi]], which include [[Blastomyces dermatitidis]] and [[Paracoccidioides brasiliensis]], are known causative agents of endemic systemic [[mycoses]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuria |first1=Joseph N. |last2=Gathogo |first2=Stephen M. |title=Concomitant fungal and Mycobacterium bovis infections in beef cattle in Kenya |journal=Onderstepoort J Vet Res |date=4 March 2013 |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=4 pages |doi=10.4102/ojvr.v80i1.585 |pmid=23902371 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

There were outbreaks of dog food containing [[aflatoxin]] in North America in late 2005 and early 2006,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Jan06/dogs.dying.ssl.html|title=Dogs keep dying: Too many owners remain unaware of toxic dog food|publisher=Cornell University Chronicle|author=Susan S. Lang|date=2006-01-06}}</ref> and again in late 2011.<ref>{{cite web |title=More Aflatoxin-Related Dog Food Recalls Revealed |url=http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2011/12/more-aflatoxin-related-dog-food-recalls-revealed/ |work=[[Food Safety News]] |date=2011-12-29 |access-date=2012-05-12}}</ref>

Mycotoxins in animal fodder, particularly [[silage]], can decrease the performance of farm animals and potentially kill them.<ref name=MiS>{{cite web |title=Mycotoxins in Silage |url=http://en.engormix.com/MA-mycotoxins/articles/mycotoxins-silage-t2796/p0.htm |date=4 November 2013 |first1=Oscar |last1=Queiroz |first2=Maria |last2=Rabaglino |first3=Adegbola |last3=Adesogan}}</ref><ref name="auto"/> Several mycotoxins reduce milk yield when ingested by [[dairy cattle]].<ref name=MiS/>

===In dietary supplements===
Contamination of medicinal plants with mycotoxins can contribute to adverse human health problems and therefore represents a special hazard.<ref name="pmid24594211">{{cite journal |vauthors= Ashiq S, Hussain M, Ahmad B |title= Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in medicinal plants: a review |journal= Fungal Genetics and Biology |volume= 66 |pages= 1–10 |year= 2014 |pmid= 24594211 |doi= 10.1016/j.fgb.2014.02.005 |quote= <small>The increase in use of medicinal plants may lead to an increase in the intake of mycotoxins therefore contamination of medicinal plants with mycotoxins can contribute to adverse human health problems and therefore represents a special hazard. Numerous natural occurrences of mycotoxins in medicinal plants and traditional herbal medicines have been reported from various countries including Spain, China, Germany, India, Turkey and from Middle East as well.</small>}}<!--This is a review article--></ref><ref name="pmid26473926">{{cite journal |vauthors= Do KH, An TJ, Oh SK, Moon Y |title= Nation-Based Occurrence and Endogenous Biological Reduction of Mycotoxins in Medicinal Herbs and Spices |journal= Toxins |volume= 7 |issue= 10 |pages= 4111–30 |year= 2015 |pmid= 26473926 |pmc= 4626724 |doi= 10.3390/toxins7104111 |quote= <small>However, inevitable contaminants, including mycotoxins, in medicinal herbs and spices can cause serious problems for humans in spite of their health benefits.</small>|doi-access= free }}<!--This is a review article--></ref> Numerous natural occurrences of mycotoxins in medicinal plants and herbal medicines have been reported<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Xinjie |last2=Wang |first2=Danhua |last3=Kim |first3=Myunghee |date=2021-04-16 |title=Development of an immuno-electrochemical glass carbon electrode sensor based on graphene oxide/gold nanocomposite and antibody for the detection of patulin |journal=Food Chemistry |language=en |volume=342 |pages=128257 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128257 |pmid=33051098 |s2cid=222352001 |issn=0308-8146|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Regal |first1=Patricia |last2=Díaz-Bao |first2=Mónica |last3=Barreiro |first3=Rocío |last4=Fente |first4=Cristina |last5=Cepeda |first5=Alberto |date=2017-03-24 |title=Design of a Molecularly Imprinted Stir-Bar for Isolation of Patulin in Apple and LC-MS/MS Detection |journal=Separations |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=11 |doi=10.3390/separations4020011 |issn=2297-8739|doi-access=free |hdl=10347/22495 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> from various countries including Spain, China, Germany, India, Turkey and from the Middle East.<ref name="pmid24594211"/> In a 2015 analysis of plant-based dietary supplements, the highest mycotoxin concentrations were found in [[milk thistle]]-based supplements, at up to 37&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="pmid26168136">{{cite journal |vauthors= Veprikova Z, Zachariasova M, Dzuman Z, Zachariasova A, Fenclova M, Slavikova P, Vaclavikova M, Mastovska K, Hengst D, Hajslova J |title= Mycotoxins in Plant-Based Dietary Supplements: Hidden Health Risk for Consumers |journal= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume= 63 |issue= 29 |pages= 6633–43 |year= 2015 |pmid= 26168136 |doi= 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02105 |bibcode= 2015JAFC...63.6633V |quote= <small>The highest mycotoxin concentrations were found in milk thistle-based supplements (up to 37 mg/kg in the sum).</small>}}</ref>

==Health effects==
Some of the health effects found in animals and humans include death, identifiable diseases or health problems, weakened immune systems without specificity to a toxin, and as allergens or irritants. Some mycotoxins are harmful to other micro-organisms such as other fungi or even bacteria; [[penicillin]] is one example.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Keller NP, Turner G, Bennett JW |title=Fungal secondary metabolism – from biochemistry to genomics |journal=Nat. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=937–47 |year=2005 |pmid=16322742 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1286|s2cid=23537608 }}</ref> It has been suggested that mycotoxins in stored animal feed are the cause of rare [[phenotype|phenotypical]] sex changes in hens that causes them to look and act male.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Melina|first1=Remy|title=Sex-Change Chicken: Gertie the Hen Becomes Bertie the Cockerel|url=http://www.livescience.com/13514-sex-change-chicken-gertie-hen-bertie-cockerel.html|website=Live Science|date=31 March 2011|access-date=12 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-12906196|title='Sex-change' chicken shocks Cambridgeshire owner|work=BBC News|date=31 March 2011|access-date=31 March 2011}}</ref> Mycotoxins impact on health may be "very hard" and can be categorized in three forms "as mutagenic, [[carcinogen]]ic, and [[Genotoxicity|genotoxic]]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yousefi|first1=Mohammad|last2=Mohammadi|first2=Masoud Aman|last3=Khajavi|first3=Maryam Zabihzadeh|last4=Ehsani|first4=Ali|last5=Scholtz|first5=Vladimír|date=2021|title=Application of Novel Non-Thermal Physical Technologies to Degrade Mycotoxins|journal=Journal of Fungi|language=en|volume=7|issue=5|pages=395|doi=10.3390/jof7050395|pmid=34069444|pmc=8159112|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===In humans===
Mycotoxicosis is the term used for poisoning associated with exposures to mycotoxins. Mycotoxins have the potential for both acute and chronic health effects via ingestion, skin contact,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors =  Boonen J, Malysheva S, Taevernier L, Diana Di Mavungu J, De Saeger S, De Spiegeleer B | year = 2012 | title = Human skin penetration of selected model mycotoxins | journal = Toxicology | volume = 301 | issue = 1–3| pages = 21–32 | doi = 10.1016/j.tox.2012.06.012 | pmid = 22749975 | bibcode = 2012Toxgy.301...21B }}</ref> inhalation, and entering the blood stream and lymphatic system. They inhibit protein synthesis, damage [[macrophage]] systems, inhibit particle clearance of the lung, and increase sensitivity to bacterial endotoxin.<ref name=Godish01/> Testing for mycotoxicosis can be conducted using [[Affinity chromatography#Immunoaffinity|immunoaffinity]] columns.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-16|title=Immunoaffinity and further Clean-up Columns|url=https://www.lctech.de/en/products/immunoaffinity-and-further-clean-up-columns.html|access-date=2021-01-21|website=www.lctech.de|language=en-EN|archive-date=2021-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305041216/https://www.lctech.de/en/products/immunoaffinity-and-further-clean-up-columns.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The symptoms of mycotoxicosis depend on the type of mycotoxin; the concentration and length of exposure; as well as age, health, and sex of the exposed individual.<ref name=Bennett03/> The synergistic effects associated with several other factors such as genetics, diet, and interactions with other toxins have been poorly studied. Therefore, it is possible that vitamin deficiency, caloric deprivation, excessive alcohol use, and infectious disease status can all have compounded effects with mycotoxins.<ref name=Bennett03/>

==Mitigation==
Mycotoxins greatly resist decomposition or being broken down in digestion, so they remain in the food chain in meat and dairy products. Even temperature treatments, such as cooking and freezing, do not destroy some mycotoxins.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bullerman, L., Bianchini, A. |title=Stability of mycotoxins during food processing |journal=International Journal of Food Microbiology |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–46 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.035|pmid=17804104 }}</ref>

===Removal===
In the feed and food industry, it has become common practice to add mycotoxin binding agents such as [[montmorillonite]] or [[bentonite]] clay in order to effectively adsorb the mycotoxins.<ref name=Kabak06>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kabak B, Dobson AD, Var I |title=Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination of food and animal feed: a review |journal=Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. |volume=46 |issue=8 |pages=593–619 |year=2006 |pmid=17092826 |doi=10.1080/10408390500436185|s2cid=25728064 }}</ref> To reverse the adverse effects of mycotoxins, the following criteria are used to evaluate the functionality of any binding additive:
* Efficacy of active component verified by scientific data
* A low effective inclusion rate
* Stability over a wide pH range
* High capacity to absorb high concentrations of mycotoxins
* High affinity to absorb low concentrations of mycotoxins
* Affirmation of chemical interaction between mycotoxin and adsorbent
* Proven ''in vivo'' data with all major mycotoxins
* Non-toxic, environmentally friendly component

Since not all mycotoxins can be bound to such agents, the latest approach to mycotoxin control is mycotoxin deactivation. By means of enzymes ([[esterase]], [[de-epoxidase]]), [[yeast]] (''[[Trichosporon mycotoxinvorans]]''), or bacterial strains ([[Eubacterium]] BBSH 797 developed by [[Biomin]]), mycotoxins can be reduced during pre-harvesting contamination. Other removal methods include physical separation, washing, milling, [[nixtamalization]], heat-treatment, radiation, extraction with solvents, and the use of chemical or biological agents. Irradiation methods have proven to be effective treatment against mold growth and toxin production.<ref name=Kabak06/>

===Regulations===
Many international agencies are trying to achieve universal standardization of regulatory limits for mycotoxins. Currently, over 100 countries have regulations regarding mycotoxins in the feed industry, in which 13 mycotoxins or groups of mycotoxins are of concern.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=van Egmond HP, Schothorst RC, Jonker MA |title=Regulations relating to mycotoxins in food: perspectives in a global and European context |journal=Anal. Bioanal. Chem. |volume=389 |issue=1 |pages=147–57 |year=2007 |pmid=17508207 |doi=10.1007/s00216-007-1317-9|doi-access=free }}</ref> The process of assessing a regulated mycotoxin involves a wide array of in-laboratory testing that includes extracting, clean-up columns,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-16|title=Multi-Mycotoxin SPE-Column CossTOX|url=https://www.lctech.de/en/products/immunoaffinity-and-further-clean-up-columns/multi-mycotoxin-spe-column-cosstox.html|access-date=2021-01-21|website=www.lctech.de|language=en-EN|archive-date=2021-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305033202/https://www.lctech.de/en/products/immunoaffinity-and-further-clean-up-columns/multi-mycotoxin-spe-column-cosstox.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and separation techniques.<ref name=Shephard08>{{cite journal |author=Shephard GS |title=Determination of mycotoxins in human foods |journal=Chem. Soc. Rev. |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=2468–77 |year=2008 |pmid=18949120 |doi=10.1039/b713084h}}</ref> Most official regulations and control methods are based on high-performance liquid techniques (e.g., [[high-performance liquid chromatography|HPLC]]) through international bodies.<ref name=Shephard08/> It is implied that any regulations regarding these toxins will be in co-ordinance with any other countries with which a trade agreement exists. Many of the standards for the method performance analysis for mycotoxins is set by the [[European Committee for Standardization]] (CEN).<ref name=Shephard08/> However, one must take note that scientific risk assessment is commonly influenced by culture and politics, which, in turn, will affect trade regulations of mycotoxins.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kendra DF, Dyer RB |title=Opportunities for biotechnology and policy regarding mycotoxin issues in international trade |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol. |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=147–51 |year=2007 |pmid=17727996 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.036 |url=https://naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=9852&content=PDF |access-date=2018-12-29 |archive-date=2021-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428035917/https://naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=9852&content=PDF |url-status=dead |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Food-based mycotoxins were studied extensively worldwide throughout the 20th century. In Europe, [[statutory]] levels of a range of mycotoxins permitted in food and animal feed are set by a range of European [[Directive (European Union)|directives]] and [[European Commission|EC]] regulations. The [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) has regulated and enforced limits on concentrations of mycotoxins in foods and feed industries since 1985. It is through various compliance programs that the FDA monitors these industries to guarantee that mycotoxins are kept at a practical level. These compliance programs sample food products including peanuts and peanut products, tree nuts, corn and corn products, cottonseed, and milk. There is still a lack of sufficient surveillance data on some mycotoxins that occur in the U.S.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wood GE |title=Mycotoxins in foods and feeds in the United States |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3941–49 |date=1 December 1992|pmid=1474031|doi=10.2527/1992.70123941x |s2cid=1991432 }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Mold growth, assessment, and remediation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Mycotoxins|lcfirst=yes}}
{{wiktionary|mycotoxin}}
*[http://www.aspergillus.org.uk/content/mycotoxin-metabolites Detailed listing and information on all ''Aspergillus'' mycotoxins]
*[http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/ARTICLE/AGRIPPA/556_EN.HTM Microbiology of Animal Feeds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612051936/http://www.fao.org/docrep/ARTICLE/AGRIPPA/556_EN.HTM |date=2013-06-12 }}

{{Toxins}}
{{Consumer Food Safety}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mycotoxins| ]]