Editing Nasal concha

{{short description|Piece of bone in the breathing passage of humans and other animals}}
{{Infobox bone
| Name        = Nasal concha/turbinate
| Latin       = conchae nasales
| Greek       = 
| Image       = Gray153.png
| Caption     = Lateral wall of nasal cavity, showing [[ethmoid bone]] in position. (Superior and middle in pink, and inferior in blue.)
| Width       = 260
| Image2      = Illu_nose_nasal_cavities.jpg
| Caption2    = 
| Precursor   = 
| System      = 
| Artery      = 
| Vein        = 
| Nerve       = 
| Lymph       = 
}}
[[File:Blausen 0872 UpperRespiratorySystem.png|thumb|Illustration of upper respiratory system]]

In [[anatomy]], a '''nasal concha''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɒ|n|k|ə}}; {{plural form}}: '''conchae'''; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɒ|n|k|iː}}; [[Latin]] for 'shell'), also called a '''nasal turbinate''' or '''turbinal''',<ref name="Maynard Downes 2019 pp. 109–121">{{cite book | last1=Maynard | first1=Robert Lewis | last2=Downes | first2=Noel | title=Anatomy and Histology of the Laboratory Rat in Toxicology and Biomedical Research | chapter=Nasal Cavity | publisher=Elsevier | year=2019 | isbn=978-0-12-811837-5 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-811837-5.00010-1 | pages=109–121 | quote=In man, the three conchae define the meatuses: Inferior meatus: between inferior concha/turbinate and floor of nasal cavity; Middle meatus: between middle concha/turbinate and inferior concha; Superior meatus: between superior concha/turbinate and middle concha.}}</ref><ref name="Carlson 2019 pp. 303–319">{{cite book | last=Carlson | first=Bruce M. | title=The Human Body | chapter=The Respiratory System | publisher=Elsevier | year=2019 | isbn=978-0-12-804254-0 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-804254-0.00011-9 | pages=303–319| s2cid=79294211 }}</ref> is a long, narrow, curled shelf of [[bone tissue|bone]] that protrudes into the breathing passage of the [[nose]] in humans and various other animals. The conchae are shaped like an elongated [[seashell]], which gave them their name (Latin ''concha'' from Greek ''κόγχη''). A concha is any of the scrolled spongy [[bone]]s of the [[nasal cavity|nasal passages]] in [[vertebrate]]s.<ref name="Gray">[http://www.bartelby.com/107/223.html ''Anatomy of the Human Body''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121144014/http://bartelby.com/107/223.html |date=2013-01-21 }} Gray, Henry (1918) The Nasal Cavity.</ref>

In humans, the conchae divide the nasal airway into four groove-like air passages, and are responsible for forcing inhaled air to flow in a steady, regular pattern around the largest possible [[surface area]] of [[nasal mucosa]]. As a [[cilium|ciliated]] mucous membrane with shallow blood supply, the nasal mucosa cleans, humidifies and warms the inhaled air in preparation for the [[lung]]s.

A rapidly dilating arteriolar circulation to these bones may lead to a sharp increase in the pressure within, in response to acute cooling of the body core. The pain from this pressure is often referred to as "[[ice cream headache|brain freeze]]", and is frequently associated with the rapid consumption of [[ice cream]]. The shallowness of the venous blood supply of the mucosa contributes to the ease with which [[nosebleed]] can occur.

==Structure==
Conchae are composed of [[pseudostratified epithelium|pseudostratified]] [[Columnar epithelia|columnar]], [[ciliated]] [[respiratory epithelium]] with a thick, [[Blood vessel|vascular]], and erectile [[glandular]] tissue layer.<ref name="Reddy">[http://www.utmb.edu/otoref/grnds/Turbinate-2003-0312/Turbinate-2003-0312.htm Turbinate Dysfunction: Focus on the role of the inferior turbinates in nasal airway obstruction.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060622070021/http://www.utmb.edu/otoref/Grnds/Turbinate-2003-0312/Turbinate-2003-0312.htm |date=2006-06-22 }} S.S. Reddy, et al. ''Grand Rounds Presentation, UTMB, Dept. of Otolaryngology''</ref> The conchae are located laterally in the nasal cavities, curling [[Human Anatomical Terms#Anatomical directions|medial]]ly and downward into the nasal airway. Each pair is composed of one concha in either side of the nasal cavity, divided by the [[Nasal septum|septum]].<ref name="Reddy"/>

The ''[[Superior nasal concha|superior conchae]]'' are smaller structures, connected to the middle conchae by nerve-endings, and serve to protect the [[olfactory bulb]].  The [[Superior nasal concha|superior conchae]] attach to the [[ethmoid bone]]. The openings to the posterior ethmoidal sinuses exist under the superior meatus.<ref name="Gray"/> The [[sphenoid sinus]] ostium exists medial to the superior turbinate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Millar |first1=D. Anderson |last2=Orlandi |first2=Richard R. |date=2006 |title=The sphenoid sinus natural ostium is consistently medial to the superior turbinate |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16686384/ |journal=American Journal of Rhinology |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=180–181 |doi=10.1177/194589240602000212 |issn=1050-6586 |pmid=16686384|s2cid=20061049 }}</ref>

The ''[[Middle nasal concha|middle conchae]]'' are smaller but have the most complex anatomy of the nasal turbinates. They originate from the lateral edge of the [[cribriform plate]] of the [[ethmoid bone]]. They insert anteriorly into the [[Frontal process of maxilla|frontal process]] of the [[maxilla]] and posteriorly into the [[Perpendicular plate of palatine bone|perpendicular plate]] of the [[palatine bone]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Hye Yeon |last2=Kim |first2=Chang-Hoon |last3=Kim |first3=Jin Young |last4=Kim |first4=Jin Kook |last5=Song |first5=Mee Hyun |last6=Yang |first6=Hee Jun |last7=Kim |first7=Kyung-Su |last8=Chung |first8=In Hyunk |last9=Lee |first9=Jeung-Gweon |last10=Yoon |first10=Joo-Heon |date=September 2006 |title=Surgical anatomy of the middle turbinate |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16258979/ |journal=Clinical Anatomy |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=493–496 |doi=10.1002/ca.20202 |issn=0897-3806 |pmid=16258979|s2cid=5720770 }}</ref> There are three mutually perpendicular segments of the middle turbinate: from proximal to distal, there is the horizontal segment ([[axial plane]]), the [[basal lamella]] ([[coronal plane]]), and the vertical segment ([[sagittal plane]]). They project downwards over the openings of the [[maxillary sinus|maxillary]] and [[ethmoid sinus|anterior and middle ethmoid]] sinuses, and act as buffers to protect the sinuses from coming in direct contact with pressurized nasal airflow. Most inhaled airflow travels between the inferior concha and the [[middle meatus]].<ref name="Gray"/> In humans, they are usually as long as the [[little finger]].

The ''[[Inferior nasal concha|inferior conchae]]'' are the largest turbinates, can be as long as the [[index finger]] in humans, and are responsible for the majority of airflow direction, humidification, heating, and filtering of air inhaled through the nose.<ref name="Gray"/>

The ''[[Inferior nasal concha|inferior conchae]]'' are graded 1–4 based on the inferior concha classification system (known as the ''inferior turbinate classification system'') in which the total amount of the airway space that the inferior concha takes up is estimated. Grade 1 is 0–25% of the airway, grade 2 is 26–50% of the airway, grade 3 is 51–75% of the airway and grade 4 is 76–100% of the airway.<ref name="TurbinateGrades">{{cite journal | last1 = Camacho | first1 = M. | last2 = Zaghi | first2 = S. | last3 = Certal | first3 = V. | last4 = Abdullatif | first4 = J. | last5 = Means | first5 = C. | last6 = Acevedo | first6 = J. | last7 = Liu | first7 = S. | last8 = Brietzke | first8 = S. E. | last9 = Kushida | first9 = C. A. | last10 = Capasso | first10 = R. | year = 2014 | title = Inferior Turbinate classification system, grades 1 to 4: Development and validation study | journal = The Laryngoscope | volume =  125| issue = 2 | pages =  296–302| doi = 10.1002/lary.24923 | pmid = 25215619 | s2cid = 34156218 }}</ref>

There is sometimes a pair of ''[[supreme nasal concha|supreme conchae]]'' superior to the superior conchae. When present, these usually take the form of a small crest.

==Function==
The conchae comprise most of the [[mucosal]] tissue of the [[human nose|nose]] and are required for functional [[respiratory system|respiration]]. They are enriched with airflow pressure and temperature-sensing nerve receptors (linked to the [[trigeminal nerve]] route, the [[fifth cranial nerve]]), allowing for tremendous erectile capabilities of [[nasal congestion]] and decongestion, in response to the [[weather]] conditions and changing needs of the body.<ref name="Reddy"/> In addition, the erectile tissue undergoes an often unnoticed cycle of partial congestion and decongestion called the [[nasal cycle]]. The flow of blood to the nasal mucosa in particular the [[corpus cavernosus conchae|venous plexus of the conchae]] is regulated by the [[pterygopalatine ganglion]] and heats or cools the air in the nose.

The nasopulmonary and nasothoracic [[reflex]]es regulate the mechanism of breathing through deepening of inhalation. Triggered by the flow of the air, the pressure of the air in the nose, and the quality of the air, impulses from the nasal mucosa are transmitted by the trigeminal nerve to the [[control of respiration|breathing centres]] in the [[brainstem]], and the generated response is transmitted to the [[bronchus|bronchi]], the [[intercostal muscle]]s, and the [[Thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]].

The conchae are also responsible for [[filter (air)|filtration]], heating, and humidification of air inhaled through the nose. Of these three, filtration is achieved mostly by other more effective means such as mucus and cilia. As air passes over the conchae, it is heated to 32–34&nbsp;°C (89–93&nbsp;°F), humidified (up to 98% [[dew point|water saturation]]) and filtered.<ref name="Reddy"/>

===Immunological role===
The [[respiratory epithelium]] that covers the erectile tissue (or [[lamina propria]]) of the conchae plays a major role in the body's first line of [[immunological]] defense. The [[respiratory epithelium]] is partially composed of [[mucus]]-producing [[goblet cell]]s. This secreted mucus covers the nasal cavities, and serves as a filter, by trapping air-borne particles larger than 2 to 3 [[micrometers]]. The respiratory epithelium also serves as a means of access for the [[lymphatic system]], which protects the body from being infected by viruses or bacteria.<ref name="Gray"/>

===Smell===
The conchae provide, first and foremost, the humidity needed to preserve the delicate [[olfactory epithelium]], which in turn is needed to keep the olfactory receptors healthy and alert. If the epithelial layer gets dry or irritated, it may cease to function. This is usually a temporary condition but, over time, may lead to chronic [[anosmia]].<ref name="Reddy"/> The turbinates also increase the [[surface area]] of the inside of the nose, and, by directing and deflecting airflow across the maximum mucosal surface of the inner nose, they are able to propel the inspired air. This, coupled with the humidity and filtration provided by the conchae, helps to carry more scent molecules towards the higher, and very narrow regions of the nasal airways, where olfaction nerve receptors are located.<ref name="Gray"/>

The superior conchae completely cover and protect the nerve axons piercing through the [[cribriform plate]] (a porous bone plate that separates the nose from the brain) into the nose. Some areas of the middle conchae are also [[innervate]]d by the olfactory bulb. All three pairs of conchae are innervated by [[pain]] and [[temperature]] receptors, via the [[trigeminal nerve]] (or, the fifth [[cranial nerve]]).<ref name="Reddy"/> Research has shown that there is a strong connection between these nerve endings and activation of the olfactory receptors, but science has yet to fully explain this interaction.

==Clinical significance==

===Dysfunction===
Large, swollen conchae, often referred to clinically as turbinates, may lead to blockage of nasal breathing. [[Allergies]], exposure to environmental [[irritation|irritant]]s, or a persistent [[inflammation]] within the sinuses can lead to turbinate swelling. Deformity of the [[nasal septum]] can also result in enlarged turbinates.<ref name="SIC">[http://www.sinusinfocenter.com/treatment_inferiorTurbinate.html Reduction/Removal of the Inferior Turbinate] From the Sinus Info Center.</ref>

Treatment of the underlying allergy or irritant may reduce turbinate swelling. In cases that do not resolve, or for treatment of [[deviated septum]], turbinate surgery may be required.

===Surgery===

{{Main|Turbinectomy}}
[[Turbinate reduction surgery|Turbinate reduction]] is a surgery to reduce the size of the turbinates (typically [[inferior turbinates]]). There are different techniques, including bipolar [[radiofrequency ablation]] (also known as [[somnoplasty]]), [[electrocautery]], and use of cold steel instruments (e.g. microdebrider).

In the case of turbinate reduction, only small amounts of turbinate tissue are removed because the turbinates are essential for respiration. Turbinectomy is usually reserved for patients who have persistent symptoms despite previous turbinate reduction surgery. Risks of reduction of the inferior or middle turbinates include [[empty nose syndrome]].<ref name="SIC" /> As Steven M. Houser suggested, "this is especially true in cases of anterior inferior turbinate (IT) resection because of its important role in the internal nasal valve."<ref name="ReferenceA">Houser SM. Surgical Treatment for Empty Nose Syndrome. Archives of Otolaryngology Head & Neck Surgery\ Vol 133 (No.9) Sep' 2007: 858–863.</ref>

[[Concha bullosa]] is an abnormal pneumatization of the middle turbinate, which may interfere with normal ventilation of the [[sinus ostium|sinus ostia]] and can result in recurrent [[sinusitis]]. In some cases, the concha bullosa may be resected to help resolve persistent symptoms.

==Animals==
[[File:Pferdeschädel.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The horse [[Respiratory system of the horse|breathes]] through [[Nostril|nare]]s (nostrils) which expand during exercise. The nasal passages have two turbinates on either side which increase the surface area to which air is exposed.<br />{{center|1 : Concha nasalis dorsalis &nbsp;}}{{center|2 : Concha nasalis media &nbsp; &nbsp;}}{{center|3 : Concha nasalis ventralis}}]]

Generally, in animals, nasal conchae are convoluted structures of thin bone or cartilage located in the [[nasal cavity]]. These are lined with [[mucous membrane]]s that can perform two functions. They can improve the sense of smell by increasing the area available to absorb airborne chemicals, and they can warm and moisten inhaled air, and extract heat and moisture from exhaled air to prevent [[desiccation]] of the lungs. [[Olfaction|Olfactory]] turbinates are found in all living [[tetrapod]]s,{{citation needed|date=January 2015}} and [[respiratory]] turbinates are found in most mammals and birds.

Animals with respiratory turbinates can breathe faster without drying out their lungs, and consequently can have a faster metabolism.<ref name=ZC94/> For example, when the [[emu]] exhales, its nasal turbinates condense moisture from the air and absorbs it for reuse.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Maloney, S. K. |author2=Dawson, T. J. |year=1998 |title=Ventilatory accommodation of oxygen demand and respiratory water loss in a large bird, the Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), and a re-examination of ventilatory allometry for birds |journal=Physiological Zoology |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=712–719 |pmid=9798259|doi=10.1086/515997 |s2cid=39880287 }}</ref> [[Dog]]s and other [[canid]]s possess well-developed nasal turbinates.<ref name=Wang88>Wang (2008) p. 88.</ref> These turbinates allow for heat exchange between small arteries and veins on their [[wiktionary:maxilloturbinal|maxilloturbinate]] (turbinates positioned on [[maxilla]] bone) surfaces in a counter-current heat-exchange system.<ref name=Wang88 /> Dogs are capable of prolonged chases, in contrast to the ambush predation of cats, and these complex turbinates play an important role in enabling this (cats only possess a much smaller and less-developed set of nasal turbinates).<ref name=Wang88 /> This same complex turbinate structure help conserve water in arid environments.<ref name=Wang87>Wang (2008) p. 87.</ref> The water conservation and thermoregulatory capabilities of these well-developed turbinates in dogs may have been crucial adaptations that allowed dogs (including both domestic dogs and their wild prehistoric [[gray wolf]] ancestors) to survive in the harsh [[Arctic]] environment and other cold areas of northern Eurasia and North America, which are both very dry and very cold.<ref name=Wang87 />

[[Reptile]]s and more primitive [[synapsid]]s have olfactory turbinates that are involved in sensing smell rather than preventing desiccation.<ref name=HWJ94>{{cite journal|last=Hillenius|first=W.J.|year=1994|title=Turbinates in therapsids: Evidence for Late Permian origins of mammalian endothermy|journal=Evolution|volume=48|issue=2|pages=207–229|doi=10.2307/2410089|pmid=28568303|jstor=2410089}}</ref>  While the maxilloturbinates of mammals are located in the path of airflow to collect moisture, sensory turbinates in both mammals and reptiles are positioned farther back and above the nasal passage, away from the flow of air.<ref name=Ruben2000>{{cite journal|last=Ruben|first=J.A.|author2=Jones, T.D.|year=2000|title=Selective factors associated with the origin of fur and feathers|journal=American Zoologist|volume=40|issue=4|pages=585–596|doi=10.1093/icb/40.4.585|doi-access=free}}</ref> ''[[Glanosuchus]]'' has ridges positioned low in the nasal cavity, indicating that it had maxilloturbinates that were in the direct path of airflow. The maxilloturbinates may not have been preserved because they were either very thin or [[cartilaginous]]. The possibility has also been raised that these ridges are associated with an olfactory [[epithelium]] rather than turbinates.<ref name=KTS06>{{cite journal|last=Kemp|first=T.S.|year=2006|title=The origin of mammalian endothermy: a paradigm for the evolution of complex biological structure|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=147|issue=4|pages=473–488|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00226.x|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nonetheless, the possible presence of maxilloturbinates suggests that ''Glanosuchus'' may have been able to rapidly breathe without drying out the nasal passage, and therefore could have been an endotherm.<ref name=ZC94>{{cite journal|last=Zimmer|first=C.|year=1994|title=The Importance of Noses|journal=Discover|volume=15|issue=8|url=http://discovermagazine.com/1994/aug/theimportanceofn416}}</ref><ref name=HWJ94/><ref name=KTS06/>

The bones of nasal turbinates are very fragile and seldom survive as fossils. In particular none have been found in fossil birds.<ref name=Witmer2001>{{cite journal |author=Witmer, L.M. |title=Nostril Position in Dinosaurs and Other Vertebrates and Its Significance for Nasal Function |journal=Science |date=August 2001|issue=5531 |pages=850–853 |doi=10.1126/science.1062681 |volume=293 |pmid=11486085 |citeseerx=10.1.1.629.1744 |s2cid=7328047 }}</ref> But there is indirect evidence for their presence in some fossils. Rudimentary ridges like those that support respiratory turbinates have been found in advanced Triassic [[cynodont]]s, such as ''[[Thrinaxodon]]'' and ''[[Eucynodontia|Diademodon]]''. This suggests that they may have had fairly high metabolic rates.<ref name=Brink>{{Cite journal| last=Brink | first=A.S. | title=A study on the skeleton of ''Diademodon'' | journal=Palaeontologia Africana | volume=3 | pages=3–39 |year=1955 }}</ref><ref name=Kemp>{{Cite book| last=Kemp | first=T.S. | title=Mammal-like reptiles and the origin of mammals | publisher=Academic Press | year=1982 | location=London | pages=363| isbn=978-0-12-404120-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| last=Hillenius | first=W.H. | title=The evolution of nasal turbinates and mammalian endothermy | journal=Paleobiology | volume=18 | issue=1 | pages=17–29 |year=1992 | jstor = 2400978 | doi=10.1017/S0094837300012197 | bibcode=1992Pbio...18...17H | s2cid=89393753 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| last=Ruben | first=J. | title=The evolution of endothermy in mammals and birds: from physiology to fossils | journal=Annual Review of Physiology | volume=57 | pages=69–95 |year=1995 | doi=10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.000441 | pmid=7778882 }}</ref> The paleontologist [[John Ruben]] and others have argued that no evidence of nasal turbinates has been found in dinosaurs. All the dinosaurs they examined had nasal passages that they claimed were too narrow and too short to accommodate nasal turbinates, so dinosaurs could not have sustained the breathing rate required for a mammal-like or bird-like metabolic rate while at rest, because their lungs would have dried out.<ref name=Ruben2000/><ref name=Ruben1997>{{cite journal |author=Ruben, J.A., Jones, T.D., Geist, N.R. and Hillenius, W. J. |title=Lung structure and ventilation in theropod dinosaurs and early birds |journal=Science |date=November 1997 |volume=278 |issue=5341 |pages=1267–1270 |doi=10.1126/science.278.5341.1267 |bibcode = 1997Sci...278.1267R }}</ref><ref name=Ruben1996>{{cite journal |author=Ruben, J.A., Hillenius, W.J., Geist, N.R., Leitch, A., Jones, T.D., Currie, P.J., Horner, J.R., and Espe, G. |title=The metabolic status of some Late Cretaceous dinosaurs |journal=Science |date=August 1996 |volume=273 |issue=5279 |pages=1204–1207
|doi=10.1126/science.273.5279.1204 |bibcode = 1996Sci...273.1204R |s2cid=84693210 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/14694/files/PAL_E1414.pdf }}</ref> However, objections have been raised against this argument. Nasal turbinates are absent or very small in some birds, such as [[ratite]]s, [[Procellariiformes]] and [[Falconiformes]]. They are also absent or very small in some mammals, such as anteaters, bats, elephants, whales and most primates, although these animals are fully endothermic and in some cases very active.<ref name="Bang1966">{{cite journal |author=Bang, B.G.  | year=1966 | title=The olfactory apparatus of Procellariiformes |journal=Acta Anatomica | volume=65 | pages=391–415 |doi=10.1159/000142884 |pmid=5965973 |issue=1 }}</ref><ref name="Bang1977">{{cite journal |author=Bang, B.G.  | year=1971 | title=  Functional anatomy of the olfactory system in 23 orders of birds |series=79 |journal=Acta Anatomica | volume= 79| pages=1–76 | pmid=5133493 | doi=10.1159/isbn.978-3-318-01866-0| isbn=978-3-8055-1193-3 }}</ref><ref name="Scott1954">{{cite journal |author=Scott, J.H. | year=1954 | title=Heat regulating function of the nasal mucous membrane |journal=Journal of Larynology and Otology | volume=68 |issue=5 |pages=308–317 | pmid = 13163588 | doi = 10.1017/S0022215100049707 | s2cid=32082759 }}</ref><ref name="Coulombeetal1965">{{cite journal|author=Coulombe, H.N., Sam H. Ridgway, S.H., and Evans, W.E. | year=1965 | title=Respiratory water exchange in two species of porpoise | journal=Science | volume=149 | issue=3679 | pages=86–88 | doi=10.1126/science.149.3679.86|pmid=17737801|bibcode = 1965Sci...149...86C | s2cid=38947951 }}</ref> Furthermore, ossified turbinate bones have been identified in the [[Ankylosauridae|ankylosaurid]] dinosaur ''[[Saichania]]''.<ref name="Maryańska1977">{{cite journal |last=Maryańska |first=T. |author-link =Teresa Maryańska| year=1977 |title=Ankylosauridae (Dinosauria) from Mongolia |journal=Palaeontologia Polonica |volume=37 |pages=85–151 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Anatomy-terms}}

==Additional images==
<gallery>
 Image:Concha nasalis.gif|Nasal conchae: Blocked/free
 Image:NormalNose-CT-Front-cross-section-common-wiki.jpg|Normal Nose CT Front cross section
 Image:Gray859.png|Coronal section of nasal cavities
 Image:Right-nasal-airway-passage.jpg|Right nasal airway passage
 Image:Nasenmuscheln1.JPG|Nasal conchae
 File:Nasal cavity - anterior view.jpg|Nasal concha
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{reflist|32em}}

==References==
* [[Xiaoming Wang (paleontologist)|Wang, Xiaoming]] (2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=LnWdpK7ctI0C&q=%22Dogs%3A+Their+Fossil+Relatives+and+Evolutionary+History%22 ''Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History''] Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|9780231509435}}.

{{Nose anatomy}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nasal Concha}}
[[Category:Skeletal system]]
[[Category:Olfaction]]
[[Category:Irregular bones]]