Editing National Science Foundation

{{short description|United States government agency}}
{{distinguish|NSF International}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox government agency
| agency_name     = U.S. National Science Foundation
| logo            =
| logo_width      =
| logo_caption    =
| motto           = Where Discoveries Begin<ref>{{cite report |title=2019 Committee of Visitors Final Report |date=September 2019 |page=43 |url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/oia/activities/cov/sbe/2019/sbe-bcs-cov-report-2019.pdf |access-date=29 September 2021 |publisher=Division of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences of the NSF}}</ref>
| seal            = File:NSF logo.svg
| seal_width      =
| seal_caption    =
| formed          = {{Start date and age|1950|5|10}}
| preceding1      =
| headquarters    = 2415 Eisenhower Ave., [[Alexandria, Virginia]], U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/visit/|title=Visit NSF &#124; NSF – National Science Foundation|website=nsf.gov}}</ref>
| employees       = 1532 (as of 2025)
| budget          = $8.28 billion for 2020<ref>{{cite web|title= Final 2020 spending bill is kind to U.S. research|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/final-2020-spending-bill-kind-us-research|website=AAAS|date=December 16, 2019|access-date=December 16, 2019}}</ref>
| chief1_name     = ''Vacant''
| chief1_position = Director
| chief2_name     = ''Vacant''
| chief2_position = Deputy Director
| chief3_name     = Karen A. Marrongelle
| chief3_position = Chief Science Officer
| chief4_name     = [[Brian Stone]]
| chief4_position = Chief of Staff
| chief5_name     = Linnea Avallone
| chief5_position = Chief Officer of Research Facilities
| chief6_name     = ''Vacant''
| chief6_position = Chief Information Officer (CIO)
| date1           =
| date1_name      =
| department      =
| chief7_name     =
| chief7_position =
| chief8_name     =
| chief8_position =
| chief9_name     =
| chief9_position =
| parent_department =
| child1_agency   =
| website         = {{official URL}}
}}

[[File:NSF.svg|200px|thumb|Logo used from 1999 to 2009]]
The '''U.S. National Science Foundation''' ('''NSF''') is an [[Independent agencies of the United States government#Examples of independent agencies|independent agency]] of the [[Federal government of the United States|United States federal government]] that supports fundamental [[research]] and [[education]] in all the non-medical fields of [[science]] and [[engineering]]. Its medical counterpart is the [[National Institutes of Health]]. With an annual budget of about $9.9 billion (fiscal year 2023), the NSF funds approximately 25% of all federally supported [[basic research]] conducted by the [[List of American institutions of higher education|United States' colleges and universities]].<ref name="NSF Site"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Budget, Performance and Financial Reporting – About NSF {{!}} NSF – National Science Foundation |url=https://new.nsf.gov/about/budget |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=new.nsf.gov |language=en}}</ref> In some fields, such as [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[economics]], and the [[social sciences]], the NSF is the major source of federal backing.

NSF's director and deputy director are appointed by the [[president of the United States]] and [[Advice and consent|confirmed]] by the [[United States Senate]], whereas the 24 president-appointed members of the [[National Science Board]] (NSB)<ref name="nsf">{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/|title=National Science Board|website=National Science Board}}</ref> do not require U.S. Senate confirmation. The director and deputy director are responsible for administration, planning, budgeting and day-to-day operations of the foundation, while the NSB meets six times a year to establish its overall policies.

==History==
===Founding===
The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/uscode42/usc_sup_01_42_10_16.html|title=42 U.S. Code Chapter 16 – National Science Foundation|website=law.cornell.edu}}</ref> Its stated mission is "to promote the progress of science, to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare, and to secure the national defense."<ref name="US NSF - About - NSF at a Glance" /> The NSF's scope has expanded over the years to include many areas that were not in its initial portfolio, including the social and behavioral sciences, engineering, and science and mathematics education. The NSF is the only U.S. federal agency with a mandate to support ''all'' non-medical fields of research.<ref name="NSF Site" />

===Budget and performance history===
Since the technology boom of the 1980s, the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] has generally embraced the premise that government-funded [[basic research]] is essential for the nation's economic health and global competitiveness, and for national defense. This support has manifested in an expanding National Science Foundation budget from $1 billion in 1983 to $8.28 billion in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-10 |title=Final FY20 Appropriations: National Science Foundation |url=https://ww2.aip.org/fyi/2020/final-fy20-appropriations-national-science-foundation |access-date=2024-12-10 |website=AIP |language=en}}</ref>

NSF has published annual reports since 1950, which since the new millennium have been two reports, variously called "Performance Report" and "Accountability Report" or "Performance Highlights" and "Financial Highlights"; the latest available FY 2013 Agency Financial Report was posted December 16, 2013, and the six-page FY 2013 Performance and Financial Highlights was posted March 25, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/annual-reports.jsp|title=NSF Annual Reports|publisher=NSF|access-date=April 24, 2014}}</ref> More recently, the NSF has focused on obtaining high [[return on investment]] from their spending on scientific research.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FY 2014 Budget Request to Congress – NSF Budget Requests to Congress and Annual Appropriations {{!}} NSF – National Science Foundation |url=https://new.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2014 |access-date=2024-09-06 |website=new.nsf.gov |language=en}}</ref>

Various bills have sought to direct funds within the NSF. In 1981, the [[Office of Management and Budget|Office of Management and Budget (OMB)]] introduced a proposal to reduce the NSF social sciences directorate's budget by 75%.<ref name=":54">{{Cite journal |last=Moffitt |first=Robert A. |date=2016 |title=In Defense of the NSF Economics Program |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43855708 |journal=The Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=213–233 |doi=10.1257/jep.30.3.213 |jstor=43855708 |issn=0895-3309}}</ref> Economist Robert A. Moffit suggests a connection between this proposal and Democratic Senator [[William Proxmire|William Proxmire's]] [[Golden Fleece Award]] series criticizing "frivolous" government spending — Proxmire's first Golden Fleece had been awarded to the NSF in 1975 for granting $84,000 to a social science project investigating why people fall in love. Ultimately, the OMB's 75% reduction proposal failed, but the NSF Economics Program budget did fall 40%.<ref name=":54" /> In 2012, [[political science]] research was barred from NSF funding by the passage of the [[Jeff Flake|Flake]] Amendment,<ref name=":55">{{Cite journal |last1=Uscinski |first1=Joseph E. |last2=Klofstad |first2=Casey A. |date=2013 |title=Determinants of Representatives' Votes on the Flake Amendment to End National Science Foundation Funding of Political Science Research |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43284388 |journal=PS: Political Science and Politics |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=557–561 |doi=10.1017/S1049096513000504 |jstor=43284388 |issn=1049-0965|url-access=subscription }}</ref> breaking the precedent of granting the NSF autonomy to determine its own priorities.<ref name=":55" />

===Funding profile===
In fiscal year 2020, NSF received 42,400 proposals and awarded 12,100, for a funding rate of 28%. In FY 2021, the estimates are 43,200 and 11,500 respectively, giving a funding rate of 26.6%. According to FY 2020 numbers, the median annualized award size is $153,800 and the average duration of an award is 2.9 years.<ref>{{Cite web|last=National Science Foundation|title=NSF Funding Profile|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2022/tables/st_02.xlsx}}</ref>

In 2022 the NSF has started funding [[open source]] software as part of their Pathways to Enable Open-Source Ecosystems (POSE) program.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-03 |title=NSF Will Invest Up to $28M for STEM Open-Source Ecosystems |url=https://www.nextgov.com/digital-government/2023/02/nsf-will-invest-28m-stem-open-source-ecosystems/382580/ |first1=Kirsten |last1=Errick |access-date=2024-05-28 |website=Nextgov/FCW |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-25 |title=NSF invests over $26 million in open-source projects  |url=https://new.nsf.gov/tip/updates/nsf-invests-over-26m-open-source-projects |access-date=2024-05-28 |website=NSF |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDugWxxq5xY |title=Pathways to Enable Open Source Ecosystems (POSE) |date=2024-04-15 |last=U.S. National Science Foundation |access-date=2024-05-28 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

===Timeline===

====Pre–World War II====
Although the federal government had established nearly 40 scientific organizations between 1910 and 1940, the US relied upon a primarily [[laissez-faire]] approach to scientific research and development. Academic research in science and engineering occasionally received federal funding. Within University laboratories, almost all support came from private contributions and charitable foundations. In industrial laboratories, the concentration of workers and funding (some through military and government programs as a result of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]]) would eventually raise concern during the wartime period. In particular, concerns were raised that industry laboratories were largely allowed full patent rights of technologies developed with federal funds. These concerns, in part, led to efforts like Senator [[Harley M. Kilgore]]'s "Science Mobilization Act".<ref name="j2">{{cite journal|last=Kevles|first=Daniel|year=1977|title=The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942–1945|journal=Isis|volume=68|issue=241|pages=4–26|doi=10.1086/351711|pmid=320157|s2cid=32956693}}</ref>

====1940–1949====
Amidst growing awareness that US military capability depended on strength in science and engineering, Congress considered several proposals to support research in these fields. Separately, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] sponsored creation of organizations to coordinate federal funding of science for war, including the [[National Defense Research Committee]] and the [[Office of Scientific Research and Development]] (OSRD) both from 1941 to 1947. Despite broad agreement over the principle of federal support for science, working out a consensus on how to organize and manage it required five years.<ref name="nsf3" /> The five-year political debate over the creation of a national scientific agency has been a topic for academic study, understood from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Jessica|date=1995|title=Liberals, the Progressive Left, and the Political Economy of Postwar American Science: The National Science Foundation Debate Revisited.|journal=Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences|volume= 26| issue =  1|pages=139–166|doi=10.2307/27757758|jstor=27757758|pmid=11609016}}</ref> Themes include disagreements over administrative structure, patents and inclusion of social sciences,<ref name=":02"/> a [[Populism|populist]]-versus-scientist dispute,<ref name=":7">B.L.R. Smith 1990: 40, cited in Daniel Kleinman ''Politics on the Endless Frontier''</ref> as well as the roles of political parties, Congress, and [[Harry S. Truman|President Truman]].<ref name=":02"/>

Commonly, this debate is characterized by the conflict between [[New Deal]] Senator [[Harley M. Kilgore]] and OSRD head [[Vannevar Bush]].<ref name="k3">{{cite book|title=Politics on the Endless Frontier|last=Kleinman|first=Daniel|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1995}}</ref>  Narratives about the National Science Foundation prior to the 1970s typically concentrated on Vannevar Bush and his 1945 publication Science—The Endless Frontier.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/vbush1945.htm|title=Science The Endless Frontier – A Report to the President by Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, July 1945|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=Jul 1945|website=nsf.gov|publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref> In this report, Vannevar Bush, then head of the [[Office of Scientific Research and Development]] which began the [[Manhattan Project]], addressed plans for the postwar years to further foster government commitment to science and technology.<ref name=":1" /> Issued to President Harry S. Truman in July 1945, the report made a strong case for federally-funded scientific research, arguing that the nation would reap rich dividends in the form of better health care, a more vigorous economy, and a stronger national defense. It proposed creating a new federal agency, the National Research Foundation.<ref name=":1" />

The NSF first appeared as a comprehensive New Deal Policy proposed by Sen. Harley Kilgore of West Virginia.<ref name="j2"/> In 1942, Senator Kilgore introduced the "Science Mobilization Act" (S. 1297), which did not pass.<ref name="k3"/><ref name="j2"/> Perceiving organizational chaos, elitism, over-concentration of funds in elite universities, and lack of incentives for socially applicable research, Kilgore envisioned a comprehensive and centralized research body supporting [[Basic Science|basic]] and [[Applied Research|applied research]] which would be controlled by members of the public and civil servants rather than scientific experts.<ref name="k3"/> The public would own the rights to all patents funded by public monies and research monies would be equitably spread across universities. Kilgore's supporters included non-elite universities, small businesses, and the Budget Bureau.<ref name="k3"/> His proposals received mixed support.

Vannevar Bush opposed Kilgore, preferring science policy driven by experts and scientists rather than public and civil servants.<ref name="k3"/> Bush was concerned that public interests would politicize science, and believed that scientists would be the best judges of the direction and needs of their field. While Bush and Kilgore both agreed on the need for a national science policy,<ref name="k3"/> Bush maintained that scientists should continue to own the research results and [[patent]]s, wanted project selection limited to scientists, and focused support on basic research, not the social sciences, leaving the market to support applied projects.<ref name="k3"/>

Sociologist Daniel Kleinman divides the debate into three broad legislative attempts. The first attempt consisted of the 1945 Magnuson bill (S. 1285), the 1945 Science and Technology Mobilization Bill, a 1945 compromise bill (S. 1720), a 1946 compromise bill (S. 1850), and the Mills Bill (H.B. 6448). The Magnuson bill was sponsored by Senator [[Warren Magnuson]] and drafted by the OSRD, headed by Vannevar Bush. The Science and Technology Mobilization bill was promoted by Harley Kilgore. The bills called for the creation of a centralized science agency, but differed in governance and research supported.<ref name="k3"/><ref name=":02"/> The second attempt, in 1947, included Senator [[Howard Alexander Smith|H. Alexander Smith]]'s bill S. 526, and Senator [[Elbert D. Thomas|Elbert Thomas]]'s bill S. 525. The Smith bill reflected ideas of Vannevar Bush, while the Thomas bill was identical to the previous year's compromise bill (S. 1850).<ref name="k3"/>

After amendments, the Smith bill made it to President Truman's desk, but it was vetoed. Truman wrote that regrettably, the proposed agency would have been "divorced from control by the people to an extent that implies a distinct lack of faith in the democratic process".<ref name=":8">Truman, cited in Daniel Kleinman's ''Politics on the Endless Frontier''.</ref> The third attempt began with the introduction of S. 2385 in 1948. This was a compromise bill cosponsored by Smith and Kilgore, and Bush aide John Teeter had contributed in the drafting process. In 1949, S. 247 was introduced by the same group of senators behind S. 2385, marking the fourth and final effort to establish a national science agency. Essentially identical to S. 2385, S. 247 passed the Senate and the House with a few amendments.<ref name="k3"/> It was signed by President Truman on May 10, 1950.  Kleinman points out that the final NSF bill closely resembles Vannevar Bush's proposals.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Statement by the President Upon Signing Bill Creating the National Science Foundation. |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-president-upon-signing-bill-creating-the-national-science-foundation|access-date=2021-10-20|website=The American Presidency Project }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" href="ozone hole"
|+Kilgore and Bush Proposals differed on five issues which were central to the larger debate (Chart reproduced)<ref name="k3"/>
!
! Populist Proposal
(Harley Kilgore)
! Scientist/Business Proposal
(Vannevar Bush)
!National Science Foundation Act
1950
|-
|Coordination/Planning
|Strong Mandate
| Vague Mandate
| Vague Mandate
|-
|Control/Administration
| Non-scientist members of the public:
Business, labor, farmers, consumers
| Scientists and other experts
|Scientists and other experts
|-
|Research Supported
| Basic and applied
| Basic
| Basic
|-
|Patent Policy
| Nonexclusive licensing
| No nonexclusive licensing
|No nonexclusive licensing
|-
| Social Science Support
| Yes
| No
|No
|}

====1950–1959====
In 1950 [[Harry S. Truman]] signed Public Law 507, or 42 U.S.C. 16<ref>[http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/USCODE-2010-title42/USCODE-2010-title42-chap16/content-detail.html 42 U.S.C. 16 – National Science Foundation]. Gpo.gov. Retrieved on February 21, 2014.</ref> creating the National Science Foundation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=13480|title=Harry S. Truman: "Statement by the President Upon Signing Bill Creating the National Science Foundation.," May 10, 1950|author1=Peters, Gerhard|author2=Woolley, John T|work=The American Presidency Project|publisher=University of California |location= Santa Barbara|access-date=November 10, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{USStatute|81|507|64|149|1950|05|10}}</ref> which provided for a [[National Science Board]] of twenty-four part-time members. In 1951 Truman nominated [[Alan T. Waterman]], chief scientist at the [[Office of Naval Research]], to become the first Director.

With the Korean War underway, the agency's initial budget was just $151,000 for 9 months. After moving its administrative offices twice, NSF began its first full year of operations with an appropriation from Congress of $3.5&nbsp;million, far less the almost $33.5&nbsp;million requested with which 28 research grants were awarded.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

After the 1957 Soviet Union orbited [[Sputnik 1]], the first ever human-made satellite, national self-appraisal questioned American education, scientific, technical and industrial strength and Congress increased the NSF appropriation for 1958 to $40&nbsp;million.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

In 1958 the NSF selected [[Kitt Peak]], near [[Tucson, Arizona]], as the site of the first national observatory, that would give any astronomer unprecedented access to state-of-the-art telescopes; previously major research telescopes were privately funded, available only to astronomers who taught at the universities that ran them. The idea expanded to encompass the [[National Optical Astronomy Observatory]], the [[National Radio Astronomy Observatory]], the [[National Solar Observatory]], the [[Gemini Observatory]] and the [[Arecibo Observatory]], all of which are funded in whole or in part by NSF. The NSF's astronomy program forged a close working relationship with [[NASA]], also founded in 1958, in that the NSF provides virtually all the U.S. federal support for ground-based astronomy, while NASA's responsibility is the U.S. effort in space-based astronomy.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

In 1959 the U.S. and other nations concluded the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]] reserving [[Antarctica]] for peaceful and scientific research, and a presidential directive gave the NSF responsibility for virtually all U.S. Antarctic operations and research in form of the [[United States Antarctic Program]].{{cn|date=March 2025}}

====1960–1969====
In 1963, President John F. Kennedy appointed [[Leland John Haworth]] as the second director of the NSF.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=A Brief History {{!}} NSF – National Science Foundation|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf50/nsf8816.jsp#chapter3|access-date=2021-03-27|website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref> During the 1960s, the impact of the [[Sputnik crisis|Sputnik Crisis]] spurred international competition in science and technology and accelerated NSF growth.<ref name=":0" /> The NSF initiated a number of programs that support institution-wide research during this decade including the Graduate Science Facilities program (started in 1960), Institutional Grants for Science (started in 1961), and Science Development Grants, better known as Centers of Excellence program (started in 1964).<ref name=":0" /> Notable projects conducted during this decade include creation of the [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]] (1960), creation of the Division of Environmental Sciences (1965), deep sea exploration endeavors [[Project Mohole]] (1961) and the [[Deep Sea Drilling Project]] (1968–1983), the Ecosystems Analysis Program (1969), and ownership of the [[Arecibo Observatory]] (1969).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=A Timeline of NSF History – 1960s {{!}} NSF – National Science Foundation|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/timeline60s.jsp|access-date=2021-03-27|website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref> In 1969, Franklin Long was tentatively selected to take over directorship of the NSF.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" /> His nomination caused some controversy due to his opposition to the current administration's [[Anti-ballistic missile|antiballistic missile]] program and was ultimately rejected by President Richard Nixon.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" /> William D. McElroy instead took over as the third director of the NSF in 1969.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" /> By 1968, the NSF budget had reached nearly $500&nbsp;million.<ref name=":0" />

====1970–1979====
In 1972 the NSF took over management of twelve interdisciplinary materials research laboratories from the Defense Department's [[Advanced Research Projects Agency]] (DARPA). These university-based laboratories had taken a more integrated approach than did most academic departments at the time, encouraging physicists, chemists, engineers, and metallurgists to cross departmental boundaries and use systems approaches to attack complex problems of materials synthesis or processing. The NSF expanded these laboratories into a nationwide network of [[Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers]]. In 1972 the NSF launched the biennial "Science & Engineering Indicators" report<ref name="SEind">{{cite web|url=http://nsf.gov/statistics/seind14/index.cfm/chapter-7/c7h.htm|title=Chapter 7. Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding|year=2014|work=Science and Engineering Indicators|access-date=April 24, 2014}}</ref> to the US president and Congress, as required by the NSF Act of 1950. In 1977 the first interconnection of unrelated [[public data network]]s was developed, run by [[DARPA]].

====1980–1989====
During this decade, increasing NSF involvement lead to a three-tiered system of internetworks managed by a mix of universities, nonprofit organizations, and government agencies. By the mid-1980s, primary financial support for the growing project was assumed by the NSF.<ref name="livinginternet" /> In 1983, NSF budget topped $1&nbsp;billion for the first time. Major increases in the nation's research budget were proposed as "the country recognizes the importance of research in science and technology, and education". The [[United States Antarctic Program|U.S. Antarctic Program]] was taken out of the NSF appropriation now requiring a separate appropriation. The NSF received more than 27,000 proposals and funded more than 12,000 of them in 1983. In 1985, the NSF delivered ozone sensors, along with balloons and helium, to researchers at the South Pole so they can measure stratospheric ozone loss. This was in response to findings earlier that year, indicating a steep drop in ozone over a period of several years. The Internet project continued, now known as [[NSFNET]].{{cn|date=March 2025}}

====1990–1999====
In 1990 the NSF's appropriation passed $2&nbsp;billion for the first time. NSF funded the development of several curricula based on the [[NCTM standards]], devised by the [[National Council of Teachers of Mathematics]]. These standards were widely adopted by school districts during the subsequent decade. However, in what newspapers such as the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' called the "math wars", organizations such as [[Mathematically Correct]] complained that some elementary texts based on the standards, including [[Mathland]], had almost entirely abandoned any instruction of traditional arithmetic in favor of cutting, coloring, pasting, and writing. During that debate, NSF was both lauded and criticized for favoring the standards.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

In 1991 the NSFNET [[acceptable use policy]] was altered to allow commercial traffic. By 1995, with private, commercial market thriving, NSF decommissioned the NSFNET, allowing for public use of the Internet. In 1993 students and staff at the NSF-supported [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] (NCSA) at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, developed [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]], the first freely available browser to allow [[World Wide Web]] pages that include both graphics and text. Within 18 months, NCSA Mosaic becomes the Web browser of choice for more than a million users, and sets off an exponential growth in the number of Web users. In 1994 NSF, together with [[DARPA]] and [[NASA]], launched the Digital Library Initiative.<ref>[https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/cyber/digitallibraries.jsp Digital Libraries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207233414/https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/cyber/digitallibraries.jsp |date=February 7, 2019 }} at nsf.gov</ref> One of the first six grants went to [[Stanford University]], where two graduate students, [[Larry Page]] and [[Sergey Brin]], began to develop a search engine that used the links between Web pages as a ranking method, which they later commercialized under the name [[Google]].{{cn|date=March 2025}}

In 1996 NSF-funded research established beyond doubt that the chemistry of the atmosphere above Antarctica was grossly abnormal and that levels of key chlorine compounds are greatly elevated. During two months of intense work, NSF researchers learned most of what is known about the [[ozone hole]].{{cn|date=March 2025}}

In 1998 two independent teams of NSF-supported astronomers discovered that the expansion of the universe was actually speeding up, as if some previously unknown force, now known as [[dark energy]], is driving the galaxies apart at an ever-increasing rate.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

Since passage of the Small Business Technology Transfer Act of 1992 (Public Law 102–564, Title II), NSF has been required to reserve 0.3% of its extramural research budget for Small Business Technology Transfer awards, and 2.8% of its R&D budget for small business innovation research.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

====2000–2009====
NSF joined with other federal agencies in the [[National Nanotechnology Initiative]], dedicated to the understanding and control of matter at the atomic and molecular scale. NSF's roughly $300&nbsp;million annual investment in nanotechnology research was still one of the largest in the 23-agency initiative. In 2001, NSF's appropriation passed $4&nbsp;billion. The NSF's "Survey of Public Attitudes Toward and Understanding of Science and Technology" revealed that the public had a positive attitude toward science, but a poor understanding of it.<ref name="nsf4" /> During 2004–5 NSF sent "rapid response" research teams to investigate the aftermath of the [[Indian Ocean tsunami disaster]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/tsunami/index.jsp|title=After the Tsunami – Special Report – Archived – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=March 14, 2025 }}</ref> and [[Hurricane Katrina]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104474|title=NSF's Response to the Hurricanes – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref> An NSF-funded engineering team helped uncover why the levees failed in [[New Orleans]]. In 2005, NSF's budget stood at $5.6&nbsp;billion, in 2006 it stood at $5.91&nbsp;billion for the 2007 fiscal year (October 1, 2006, through September 30, 2007), and in 2007 NSF requested $6.43&nbsp;billion for FY 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/|title=Budget Requests and Approriations List Page – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref>

====2010–2019====
President Obama requested $7.373&nbsp;billion for fiscal year 2013.<ref>NSF, [https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=123111 "National Science Foundation Budget Positions U.S. to Maintain Competitive Edge" Feb. 13, 2012]</ref> Due to the [[United States federal government shutdown of 2013|October 1, 2013 shutdown]] of the Federal Government, and NSF's lapse in funding, their website was down "until further notice", but was brought back online after the US government passed their budget. In 2014, NSF awarded rapid response grants to study a chemical spill that contaminated the drinking water of about 300,000 West Virginia residents.<ref>[https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=130304&org=NSF&from=news National Science Foundation (NSF) News – NSF awards rapid response grants to study West Virginia chemical spill – US National Science Foundation (NSF)]. nsf.gov. Retrieved on February 21, 2014.</ref> In early 2018, it was announced that Trump would cut NSF Research Funding by 30% but quickly rescinded this due to backlash.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/updated-us-spending-deal-contains-largest-research-spending-increase-decade|title=Trump, Congress approve largest U.S. research spending increase in a decade|date=March 23, 2018|website=Science AAAS|access-date=March 24, 2018}}</ref> As of May 2018, Heather Wilson, the secretary of the Air Force, signed that letter of intent with the director of NSF initiating partnership for the research related to space operations and [[Geosciences]], advanced [[Materials science|material sciences]], information and [[data science]]s, and workforce and processes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1516265/air-force-and-nsf-announce-partnership-in-science-and-engineering-research/|title=Air Force and NSF announce partnership in science and engineering rese|work=U.S. Air Force|access-date=2018-05-14|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Grants and the merit review process==
[[File:Controlling the taxonomic variable - Taxonomic concept resolution for a southeastern United States herbarium portal - NSF Grant Proposal.pdf|thumb|A grant proposal which the National Science Foundation chose to fund]]
The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, limited-term grants in response to specific proposals from the research community and establishing cooperative agreements with research organizations.<ref name=":41">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/funding/aboutfunding.jsp|title=US NSF – About Funding|website=www.nsf.gov|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref> It does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being [[NASA]] and the [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH). The NSF uses four main mechanisms to communicate funding opportunities and generate proposals: dear colleague letters, program descriptions, program announcements, and program solicitations.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/policydocs/pappg17_1/pappg_1.jsp#IC|title=PAPPG – Chapter I|website=www.nsf.gov|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref>

The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year, and funds about 10,000 of them.<ref>{{cite web|title=Proposal & Award Policies & Procedures Guide|url=https://www.nsf.gov/bfa/dias/policy/papp/pappg16_1/fedreg/draftpappg_may2016.pdf|publisher=NSF|access-date= May 1, 2015|date=Jan 2016}}</ref>  Those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in a 'merit review' process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997.<ref>{{cite web|title=Merit Review|url=https://www.nsf.gov/bfa/dias/policy/merit_review/|publisher=NSF|access-date=April 24, 2014|date=January 14, 2013}}</ref> Reviews are carried out by ad hoc reviewers and panels of independent scientists, engineers, and educators who are experts in the relevant fields of study, and who are selected by the NSF with particular attention to avoiding conflicts of interest. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs the proposing researchers. All proposal evaluations are confidential: the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers.<ref name="NSF Site" />

The first merit review criterion is 'intellectual merit', the second is that of the 'broader societal impact' of the proposed research; the latter reflects a broader global trend for funding agencies to demand evidence of research 'impact' and has been met with opposition from the scientific and policy communities since its inception in 1997.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McLellan|first=Timothy|date=2020-08-25|title=Impact, theory of change, and the horizons of scientific practice|journal=Social Studies of Science|volume=51|issue=1|language=en|pages=100–120|doi=10.1177/0306312720950830|pmid=32842910|s2cid=221326151|issn=0306-3127|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lok | first1 = Corie | year = 2010 | title = Science funding: Science for the masses | journal = Nature | volume = 465 | issue = 7297| pages = 416–418 | doi = 10.1038/465416a | pmid = 20505707 | s2cid = 4321245 | doi-access =  }}</ref> In June 2010, the [[National Science Board]] (NSB), the governing body for NSF and science advisers to both the legislative and executive branches, convened a 'Task Force on Merit Review' to determine "how well the current Merit Review criteria used by the NSF to evaluate all proposals were serving the agency."<ref>NSB (2011). "National Science Foundation's Merit Review Criteria: Review and Revisions." National Science Board. Available at: https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/publications/2011/meritreviewcriteria.pdf</ref> The task force reinforced its support for both criteria as appropriate for the goals and aims of the agency and published a revised version of the merit review criteria in its 2012 report, to clarify and improve the function of the criteria. However, both criteria already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the [[America COMPETES Act]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Holbrook | first1 = J.B. | year = 2005 | title = Assessing the Science-Society Relation: The Case of the US National Science Foundation's Second Merit Review Criterion | url = http://humanitiespolicy.unt.edu/topics/our_work/science-1.pdf | journal = Technology in Society | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 437–451 | doi = 10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.08.001 | access-date = March 5, 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110818040420/http://humanitiespolicy.unt.edu/topics/our_work/science-1.pdf | archive-date = August 18, 2011 | url-status = dead }}</ref> The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially [[transformative research]], a phrase which has been included in the most recent incarnation of the 'merit review' criteria.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter III – NSF Proposal Processing and Review|url=https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/policydocs/pappguide/nsf13001/gpg_3.jsp#IIIA|work=Grant proposal Guide|publisher=NSF|access-date=April 24, 2014|date=January 1, 2013|quote=2. To what extent do the proposed activities suggest and explore creative, original, or potentially transformative concepts?}}</ref>

Most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for mid-scale research centers, instruments, and facilities that serve researchers from many institutions. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the research community as a whole. Examples of national facilities include the NSF's national observatories, with their giant optical and radio telescopes; its [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] research sites; its high-end computer facilities and ultra-high-speed network connections; the ships and submersibles used for ocean research; and its gravitational wave observatories.

In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering and mathematics education from pre-K through graduate school. Undergraduates can receive funding through [[Research Experiences for Undergraduates]] summer programs.<ref name="igert"/> Graduate students are supported through Integrative Graduate Education Research Traineeships (IGERT)<ref name="igert1"/> and Alliance for Graduate Education and the Professoriate (AGEP) programs<ref name="agep"/> and through the Graduate Research Fellowships, [[NSF-GRF]]. K–12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated [[Research Experiences for Teachers]] programs.<ref name=RET>{{cite web|title=Research Experiences for Teachers (RET) in Engineering and Computer Science|url=https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2011/nsf11509/nsf11509.htm|publisher=National Science Foundation|access-date=August 14, 2012}}</ref>  In addition, an early career-development program (CAREER) supports teacher-scholars that most effectively integrate research and education within the mission of their organization, as a foundation for a lifetime of integrated contributions.<ref name="nsf2"/>

==Scope and organization==
[[File:National Science Foundation Staff and Building 05202025.jpg|thumb|U.S. National Science Foundation staff on the occasion of the agency's 75th anniversary]]

The NSF is broadly organized into four offices, seven directorates, and the [[National Science Board]].<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/staff/orglist.jsp|title=NSF Organization List {{!}} NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref> It employs about 2,100 people in permanent, temporary and contractual positions at its headquarters in [[Alexandria, Virginia]]. Prior to 2017, its headquarters were located in [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington, Virginia]].<ref name=":19">{{cite web| url = https://www.bizjournals.com/washington/news/2017/08/24/national-science-foundation-relocating-to-its-new.html| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170828214010/https://www.bizjournals.com/washington/news/2017/08/24/national-science-foundation-relocating-to-its-new.html| archive-date = 2017-08-28| title = National Science Foundation prepares to move to its new Alexandria home developed by USAA and Lowe Enterprises – Washington Business Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Sernovitz|first1=Daniel J.|title=National Science Foundation is relocating to its new Alexandria HQ. We take you inside.|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/washington/news/2017/08/24/national-science-foundation-relocating-to-its-new.html|website=Washington Business Journal|access-date=13 May 2018|date=August 24, 2017}}</ref>

In addition to around 1,400 permanent employees and the staffs of the NSB office and the [[Office of Inspector General (United States)|Office of the Inspector General]], NSF's  workforce includes some 200 scientists on temporary duty and 450 contract workers.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/who.jsp|title=About NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref> Scientists from research institutions can join the NSF as temporary program directors, called "rotators", overseeing the merit review process and searching for new funding opportunities. These assignments typically last one–two years, but may extend to four.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/careers/rotator/|title=Temporary/Rotator Programs {{!}} NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref> The NSF also offers contracting opportunities. As of May 2018, the NSF has 53 existing contracts.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/contracting/nsf_fy18_existing_contracts.pdf|title=Existing Contracts – FY 2018|access-date=May 4, 2018|archive-date=May 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508185157/https://www.nsf.gov/about/contracting/nsf_fy18_existing_contracts.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Offices ===
* Office of the Director
* Office of the Inspector General
* Office of Budget, Finance, and Award Management
* Office of Information & Resource Management
* Office of the Chief Information Officer

The NSF also supports research through several offices within the Office of the Director, including the Office of Integrative Activities,<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/oia/index.jsp|title=Office of Integrative Activities (OIA) – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|access-date=April 4, 2018|archive-date=July 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719115421/https://www.nsf.gov/od/oia/index.jsp|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Office of International Science and Engineering.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?org=OISE|title=Office of International Science and Engineering (OISE) – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref>

===Research directorates===
The NSF organizes its research and education support through eight directorates, each encompassing several disciplines:
* '''Biological Sciences''' (molecular, cellular, and organismal [[biology]], [[environmental science]])<ref>[https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=BIO NSF Biological Sciences]"</ref>
* '''Computer and Information Science and Engineering''' (theoretical [[computer science]], fundamental hardware and software, systems and networking, and [[artificial intelligence]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=CISE|title=Directorate for Computer & Information Science & Engineering (CISE) – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=February 26, 2024 }}</ref>
* '''Engineering''' (bioengineering, environmental systems, civil and mechanical systems, chemical and transport systems, electrical and communications systems, and design and manufacturing)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=ENG|title=Directorate for Engineering (ENG) – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=March 28, 2025 }}</ref>
* '''Geosciences''' (geological, atmospheric and ocean sciences)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=GEO|title=Directorate for Geosciences (GEO) – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=April 16, 2025 }}</ref>
* '''Mathematical and Physical Sciences''' ([[mathematics]], [[astronomy]], [[physics]], [[chemistry]] and [[materials science]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=MPS|title=Directorate for Mathematical & Physical Sciences (MPS) – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=April 16, 2025 }}</ref>
* '''Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences''' ([[neuroscience]], [[management]], [[psychology]], [[sociology]], [[anthropology]], [[linguistics]], [[science of science policy]] and [[economic science|economics]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=SBE|title=Directorate for Social, Behavioral & Economic Sciences (SBE) – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=January 17, 2025 }}</ref>
* '''STEM Education and Human Resources''' ([[science education|science]], [[technology education|technology]], [[engineering education|engineering]] and [[mathematics education]] at every level)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=EHR|title=Directorate for Education & Human Resources (EHR) |website=NSF  }}</ref>
An eighth directorate, the Directorate for Technology, Innovation and Partnerships (TIP), was created in 2022 to accelerate the transition of basic research into real world impact.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latest |url=https://beta.nsf.gov/tip/latest |access-date=2022-05-02 |website=Beta site for NSF |language=en}}</ref> It has a primary goal of the support of use-inspired research and the translation of research results to the market and society.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

===Overseas sites===
Prior to October 2018, NSF maintained three overseas offices to promote collaboration between the science and engineering communities of the United States and other continents' scientific communities:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/overseas.jsp|title=NSF Overseas Offices |website=NSF |access-date=April 4, 2018|archive-date=April 5, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405030809/https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/overseas.jsp|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Brussels]] for Europe, formerly based in [[Paris]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/europe/|title=NSF Europe Regional Office |website=NSF |access-date=April 4, 2018|archive-date=April 5, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405024528/https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/europe/|url-status=dead}}</ref> (established 1984; relocated to Brussels in 2015)
* {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Tokyo]] for East Asia, except China<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/tokyo/|title=NSF Tokyo Regional Office |website=NSF |access-date=April 4, 2018|archive-date=March 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314165230/https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/tokyo/|url-status=dead}}</ref> (established 1960)
* {{flagicon|China}} [[Beijing]] for [[China]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/beijing/|title=NSF Beijing Office |website=NSF |access-date=October 22, 2015|archive-date=October 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002074313/https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/beijing/|url-status=dead}}</ref> (established 2006)

All three overseas offices were shut down in October 2018, to reflect the agency's move to a more nimble international posture. Rather than maintain dedicated offices, NSF will dispatch small teams to specific international institutions. Teams may work for up to a week on-site to evaluate research and explore collaborations with the institution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/national-science-foundation-close-its-overseas-offices|title=National Science Foundation to close its overseas offices|last1=Normile|first1=Dennis|last2=Stone|first2=Richard|date=2018-02-26|website=Science {{!}} AAAS|language=en|access-date=2019-04-01}}</ref>

===Crosscutting programs===
In addition to the research it funds in specific disciplines, the NSF has launched a number of projects that coordinate the efforts of experts in many disciplines, which often involve collaborations with other U.S. federal agencies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_list.jsp?type=xcut|title=Crosscutting and NSF-wide Active Funding Opportunities – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref> Examples include initiatives in:
* [[Nanotechnology]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/nano/|title=National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) – NSF Activities, Solicitations and Their Outcomes – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=April 14, 2025 }}</ref>
* The science of learning<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=5567&from=fund|title=Science of Learning – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=September 12, 2016 }}</ref>
* [[Digital library|Digital libraries]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/cyber/digitallibraries.jsp|title=Cyberinfrastructure: Digital Libraries-Access to Human Knowledge – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|access-date=April 4, 2018|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207233414/https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/cyber/digitallibraries.jsp|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The ecology of [[infectious diseases]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=5269&from=fund|title=Ecology and Evolution of Infectious Diseases – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=August 18, 2023 }}</ref>

===National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics===
NSF's [[National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] (NCSES) gathers data from surveys and partnerships with other agencies to offer official data on the American science and engineering workforce, graduates of advanced U.S. science and engineering programs, and R&D expenditures by U.S. industry.<ref>[https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/ NCSES home page] at nsf.gov</ref>  NCSES is one of the [[Federal Statistical System of the United States|principal U.S. statistical agencies]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}} It is a part of the NSF's Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences Directorate (SBE).<ref name=":40">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/about-ncses.cfm#core|title=nsf.gov – About – NCSES – US National Science Foundation (NSF)|website=www.nsf.gov|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref>

==List of NSF directors==
The following persons had led the National Science Foundation as director since 1950:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://new.nsf.gov/od/directors |title=NSF Directors and Deputy Directors (1950-present) |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/history#nsfs-directors-cbe |title=NSF Director |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref>

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:left"
|-
!{{Abbr|No.|Number}}
!Portrait
!Secretary
!Term start
!Term end
!Field
!Notes
|-
|1
|[[File:Alan Tower Waterman.jpg|70px]]
|[[Alan Tower Waterman|Alan T. Waterman]]
|April 1951
|June 1963
|Physics
|
|-
|2
|[[File:Leland John Haworth.jpg|70px]]
|[[Leland John Haworth|Leland J. Haworth]]
|July 1963
|June 1969
|Physics
|
|-
|3
|
|[[William D. McElroy]]
|July 1969
|January 1972
|Biochemistry
|
|-
|4
|[[File:Guyford Stever.jpg|70px]]
|[[Guyford Stever|H. Guyford Stever]]
|February 1972
|August 1976
|Physics
|
|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa"
|acting
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff"|[[File:RCARobes.jpg|70px]]
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff"|[[Richard C. Atkinson]]
|August 1976
|May 1977
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff"|Psychology
|
|-
|5
|May 1977
|June 1980
|
|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa"
|acting
|
|[[Donald N. Langenberg]]
|July 1980
|December 1980
|Physics
|
|-
|6
|[[File:John Brooks Slaugther.jpg|70px]]
|[[John Brooks Slaughter|John B. Slaughter]]
|December 1980
|October 1982
|Engineering
|
|-
|7
|[[File:Edward Alan Knapp.jpg|70px]]
|[[Edward Alan Knapp|Edward A. Knapp]]
|November 1982
|August 1984
|Physics
|
|-
|8
|[[File:Erich Bloch.jpg|70px]]
|[[Erich Bloch]]
|September 4, 1984
|August 31, 1990
|Engineering
|<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article-abstract/37/10/59/403452/Pentagon-names-chief-Star-Wars-scientist?redirectedFrom=PDF |title=Bloch wins Senate approval as NSF head |date=October 1984 |volume=37 |issue=10 |page=59 |journal=[[Physics Today]] |doi=10.1063/1.2915920
|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Bloch leaves">{{cite web |url=http://bobpark.physics.umd.edu/WN90/wn083190.html |title=FRED BERNTHAL BECOMES ACTING DIRECTOR OF NSF. |date=August 31, 1990 |work=What's New |first=Robert L. |last=Park |author-link=Robert L. Park |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250411033745/http://bobpark.physics.umd.edu/WN90/wn083190.html |archive-date=2025-04-11 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa"
|acting
|[[File:Fred Bernthal.jpg|70px]]
|[[Frederick M. Bernthal]]
|September 1, 1990
|March 3, 1991
|Nuclear Chemistry<br> / Physics
|<ref name="Bloch leaves"/>
|-
|9
|
|[[Walter E. Massey]]
|March 4, 1991
|April 2, 1993
|Physics
|<ref name="Massey sworn in">{{cite web |url=https://digitalcollections.rice.edu/Documents/Detail/schedule-proposal-for-vice-president-quayle/375087 |title=Schedule Proposal for Vice President Quayle |date=February 25, 1991 |work=George H. W. Bush Science Policy collection |publisher=Rice University}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/28/us/head-of-science-foundation-will-take-a-university-post.html |title=Head of Science Foundation Will Take a University Post |first=Warren E. |last=Leary |date=January 28, 1993 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |page=A14 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa"
|acting
|[[File:Fred Bernthal.jpg|70px]]
|[[Frederick M. Bernthal]]
|April 5, 1993
|October 14, 1993
|Nuclear Chemistry<br> / Physics
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bobpark.physics.umd.edu/WN93/wn040293.html |title=THE WASHINGTON SHUTTLE |date=April 2, 1993 |work=What's New |first=Robert L. |last=Park |author-link=Robert L. Park |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018053037/http://bobpark.physics.umd.edu/WN93/wn040293.html |archive-date=2021-10-18 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|10
|[[File:Neal-lane.jpg|70px]]
|[[Neal Francis Lane|Neal F. Lane]]
|October 15, 1993
|August 1998
|Physics
|<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-abstract/59/9/584/15725/Distinguished-Service-Awardees-Neal-F-Lane-and?redirectedFrom=PDF |title=Distinguished Service Awardees – Neal F. Lane and Donald Kennedy |journal=[[The American Biology Teacher]] |volume=59 |issue=9 |date=November 1997}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/OSTP/NSTC/PCAST/pcast-members.html |title=The President's Committee of Advisors on Science & Technology |work=The Clinton White House |via=National Archives and Records Administration}}</ref>
|-
|11
|[[File:Rita Colwell.jpg|70px]]
|[[Rita R. Colwell]]
|August 13, 1998
|February 21, 2004
|Microbiology
|<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/meetings/1998/august/opensess.htm |title=349th MEETING NATIONAL SCIENCE BOARD |date=August 1998 |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100331 |title=Rita Colwell to Leave National Science Foundation |date=February 11, 2004 |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa"
|acting
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff"|[[File:STC Celebration (18) (4404826334) (cropped).jpg|70px]]
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff"|[[Arden L. Bement Jr.|Arden L. Bement, Jr.]]
|February 22, 2004
|nowrap|November 23, 2004
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff"|Engineering
|
|-
|12
|nowrap|November 24, 2004
|May 31, 2010
|<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100560&org=NSF |title=President Bush Appoints Arden Bement as NSF Director |date=November 29, 2004 |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washington.edu/federalrelations/2010/02/04/aredent-bement-leaving-nsf/ |title=Arden Bement Leaving NSF |date=February 4, 2010 |work=University of Washington}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa"
|acting
|[[File:Cora Bagley Marrett.jpg|70px]]
|[[Cora Bagley Marrett|Cora B. Marrett]]
|June 1, 2010
|October 17, 2010
|Sociology
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.wisc.edu/uw-emeritus-professor-named-acting-director-of-nsf/ |title=UW emeritus professor named acting director of NSF |date=May 28, 2010 |first=Terry |last=Devitt |work=University of Wisconsin–Madison}}</ref>
|-
|13
|[[File:P20231024AS-0934 (cropped).jpg|70px]]
|[[Subra Suresh]]
|October 18, 2010
|March 31, 2013
|Engineering
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=117780 |title=Subra Suresh Sworn in as NSF Director |date=October 18, 2010 |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=126833 |title=NSF Director Subra Suresh Named Carnegie Mellon University President |date=February 5, 2013 |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa"
|acting
|[[File:Cora Bagley Marrett.jpg|70px]]
|[[Cora Bagley Marrett|Cora B. Marrett]]
|April 1, 2013
|March 29, 2014
|Sociology
|<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/cora-marrett-be-acting-nsf-director |title=Cora Marrett to Be Acting NSF Director |date=March 11, 2013 |first=Jeffrey |last=Mervis |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]}}</ref>
|-
|14
|[[File:France A. Córdova official photo.jpg|70px]]
|[[France A. Córdova]]
|March 30, 2014
|March 31, 2020
|Astrophysics
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=130931 |title=France A. Córdova sworn in as NSF director |date=March 30, 2014 |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://new.nsf.gov/farewell |title=NSF Director's Farewell |date= |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa"
|acting
|[[File:Kelvin Droegemeier official photo.jpg|70px]]
|[[Kelvin Droegemeier|Kelvin K. Droegemeier]]
|April 1, 2020
|July 1, 2020
|Atmospheric Science
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/dr-kelvin-droegemeier-named-acting-national |title=Dr. Kelvin Droegemeier Named Acting National Science Foundation Director |date=April 1, 2020 |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref>
|-
|15
|[[File:Sethuraman Panchanathan, portrait, National Science Foundation.jpg|70px]]
|[[Sethuraman Panchanathan]]
|July 2, 2020
|April 24, 2025
|Computer Science
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://new.nsf.gov/news/new-director-takes-helm-national-science |title=New director takes helm at National Science Foundation |date=June 23, 2020 |work=National Science Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=April 24, 2025 |title=Statement by Director Sethuraman Panchanathan on his departure |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/statement-director-sethuraman-panchanathan-his-departure |access-date=24 April 2025 |website=nsf.gov |publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa"
|interim <!-- unsure of exact title, could be "no title" -->
|
|Brian Stone
|April 25, 2025
|present
|Business Administration, Management and Operations <!-- unable to locate a postgraduate science background, please add when found -->
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usap.gov/news/4213/ |title=Brian W. Stone to Serve as NSF Director's First Chief of Staff |date=April 12, 2016 |publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2025/04/24/trump-national-science-foundation-leader-resigns-00308198 |title=Trump-appointed National Science Foundation leader resigns |date=April 24, 2025 |first=Corbin |last=Hiar |work=[[Politico]] |quote=Brian Stone, the director’s chief of staff, will lead the agency on an interim basis.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-01312-8 |title=Hundreds more NSF grants terminated after agency director resigns |date=April 25, 2025 |first=Dan |last=Garisto |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |doi=10.1038/d41586-025-01312-8|pmid=40281296 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
|-
|}

==Criticism==
In May 2011, [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]  Senator [[Tom Coburn]] released a 73-page report, "[[National Science Foundation: Under the Microscope]]",<ref name="senate"/><ref name="senate6"/> receiving immediate attention from such media outlets as ''[[The New York Times]]'', [[Fox News]], and [[MSNBC]].<ref name="Sen. Coburn Sets Sight on Waste, Duplication at Science Agency"/><ref name="Senate Report Finds Billions In Waste On Science Foundation Studies"/><ref name="Cosmic Log - Funny science sparks serious spat"/> The report found fault with various research projects and was critical of the social sciences. It started a controversy about political bias and a Congressional Inquiry into federally sponsored research. In 2014, Republicans proposed a bill to limit the NSF Board's authority in grant-writing.

In 2013, the NSF had funded the work of Mark Carey at [[University of Oregon]] with a $412,930 grant, which included a study concerning gender in glaciological research. After its January 2016 release, the NSF drew criticism for alleged misuse of funding.<ref>Carolyn Gramling [http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/03/qa-author-feminist-geology-study-reflects-sudden-place Q&A: Author of 'feminist glaciology' study reflects on sudden appearance in culture wars] March 11, 2016, retrieved July 12, 2017</ref><ref>Paul Basken [http://www.chronicle.com/article/US-House-Backs-New-Bid-to/235275?cid=at&elq=dc92d68109c54901a4e9bd3e0cd5386b&elqCampaignId=2420&elqaid=7858&elqat=1&elqTrackId=4e3082d7c03344d2ba9665c180ac441b U.S. House Backs New Bid to Require 'National Interest' Certification for NSF Grants] February 11, 2016, retrieved July 12, 2017</ref>

Some historians of science have argued that the National Science Foundation Act of 1950 was an unsatisfactory compromise between too many clashing visions of the purpose and scope of the federal government.<ref name="technology" /> The NSF was certainly not ''the'' primary government agency for the funding of basic science, as its supporters had originally envisioned in the aftermath of [[World War II]]. By 1950, support for major areas of research had already become dominated by specialized agencies such as the [[National Institutes of Health]] (medical research) and the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|U.S. Atomic Energy Commission]] (nuclear and particle physics). That pattern would continue after 1957 when U.S. anxiety over the launch of [[Sputnik]] led to the creation of the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (space science) and the [[DARPA|Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] (defense-related research).

==See also==
* [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]
* [[Capital Jury Project]]
* [[C-MORE]], the Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education, an NSF Science and Technology Center
* [[International Council on Nanotechnology]]
* [[National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program]]
* [[National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities]]
* [[National Digital Library Program]] (NDLP)
* [[council|Research council]]
* [[Scientific literacy]]
* [[Science and Technology Policy Institute]]
* [[SedDB]], online database for sediment geochemistry
* [[U.S. Civilian Research & Development Foundation]]
* [[United States National Academy of Sciences]]
* [[USA.gov]]
* [[Zodletone Mountain]]

==References==
{{reflist|refs=

<ref name="NSF Site">{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/ |title=About the National Science Foundation|access-date=November 22, 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Cosmic Log - Funny science sparks serious spat">{{cite web|last=Boyle |first=Alan |url=http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/05/26/6724606-funny-science-sparks-serious-spat |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110530002942/http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/05/26/6724606-funny-science-sparks-serious-spat |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 30, 2011 |title=Cosmic Log – Funny science sparks serious spat |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |access-date=September 9, 2011}}</ref>

<!--ref name="Semiannual Report to Congress">{{cite web |url= https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2009/oig0901/oig0901.pdf |title= Semiannual Report to Congress |date= September 2008 |author= Office of the Inspector General |publisher= National Science Foundation }}</ref-->

<ref name="Sen. Coburn Sets Sight on Waste, Duplication at Science Agency">{{cite news|author=JENNY MANDEL of Greenwire |url=https://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2011/05/26/26greenwire-sen-coburn-sets-sight-on-waste-duplication-at-55538.html |title=Sen. Coburn Sets Sight on Waste, Duplication at Science Agency |newspaper=NYTimes.com |date=May 26, 2011 |access-date=September 9, 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Senate Report Finds Billions In Waste On Science Foundation Studies">{{cite web|author=Office of Sen. Tom Coburn |url=https://www.foxnews.com/politics/senate-report-finds-billions-in-waste-on-science-foundation-studies/ |title=Senate Report Finds Billions In Waste On Science Foundation Studies |publisher=Fox News |date=April 7, 2010 |access-date=September 9, 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="US NSF - About - NSF at a Glance">{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/glance.jsp |title=US NSF – About – NSF at a Glance |publisher=Nsf.gov |access-date=September 10, 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="agep">{{Cite web |url=http://www.agep.us/ |title=NSF: AGEP Alliance for Graduate Education and the Professoriate<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=September 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621201624/http://www.agep.us/ |archive-date=June 21, 2007 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

<ref name="igert">{{cite web|url=http://www.igert.org/projects?project%5Bis_recruiting%5D=1&project%5Btag%5D=&project%5Bkeywords%5D=&project%5Bcity%5D=&project%5Bstate%5D=&project%5Binstitution%5D=&project%5Bis_active%5D=0&project_status=1|title=Find an IGERT: Results|website=www.igert.org}}</ref>

<ref name="igert1">{{cite web|url=http://www.igert.org/public/about|title=About|website=www.igert.org}}</ref>

<ref name="livinginternet">{{cite web|url=http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_nsfnet.htm|title=NSFNET, National Science Foundation Network|website=www.livinginternet.com}}</ref>

<ref name="nsf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=5262&org=NSF|title=Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) Program – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|date=March 31, 2005 }}</ref>

<ref name="nsf3">George T. Mazuzan, "The National Science Foundation: A Brief History" ([https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/stis1994/nsf8816/nsf8816.txt NSF Publication nsf8816]).</ref>

<ref name="nsf4">{{cite web|url=http://nsf.gov/statistics/survey.cfm|title=nsf.gov – Surveys – NCSES – US National Science Foundation (NSF)|website=nsf.gov}}</ref>

<!--unused ref<ref name="nsf5">{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind08/c7/c7h.htm|title=Science and Engineering Indicators 2008 – Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding – Information Sources, Interest, and Perceived Knowledge|website=nsf.gov}}</ref>-->

<ref name="senate">[http://coburn.senate.gov/public//index.cfm?a=Files.Serve&File_id=2dccf06d-65fe-4087-b58d-b43ff68987fa "National Science Foundation: Under the Microscope"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605000643/http://coburn.senate.gov/public//index.cfm?a=Files.Serve&File_id=2dccf06d-65fe-4087-b58d-b43ff68987fa |date=June 5, 2011 }}, May 26, 2011</ref>

<ref name="senate6">[http://coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/pressreleases?ContentRecord_id=8a114193-dcf7-4ae8-ae8b-146797e5c162&ContentType_id=d741b7a7-7863-4223-9904-8cb9378aa03a&Group_id=7a55cb96-4639-4dac-8c0c-99a4a227bd3a "Dr. Coburn Releases New Oversight Report Exposing Waste, Mismanagement at the National Science Foundation"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110602231621/http://coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/pressreleases?ContentRecord_id=8a114193-dcf7-4ae8-ae8b-146797e5c162&ContentType_id=d741b7a7-7863-4223-9904-8cb9378aa03a&Group_id=7a55cb96-4639-4dac-8c0c-99a4a227bd3a |date=June 2, 2011 }}, May 26, 2011</ref>

<ref name="technology">David M. Hart, ''The Forged Consensus: Science, Technology, and Economic Policy in the United States, 1921–1953'' (Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]], 1998).</ref>
}}
<!--NOT USED
<ref name="enterprisepost">{{cite web|url=http://enterprisepost.com/science/science/subra-suresh-confirmed-as-nsf-director.html |title=Subra Suresh Confirmed As NSF Director – Science |publisher=Enterprisepost.com |access-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref>
-->

==Further reading==
* [http://purl.umn.edu/107103 Oral history interview with Bruce H. Barnes, 26-Sep-1990] – [[Charles Babbage Institute]], University of Minnesota. Barnes describes his duties as a program director at NSF. He provides brief overviews and examples of NSF's support of research in theoretical computer science, computer architecture, numerical methods, software engineering, and the development of networking. He describes NSF's support for the development of computing facilities through the 'Coordinated Experimental Research Program'.
* [http://nsf.gov/statistics/seind14/index.cfm/overview Science and Engineering Indicators] published biannually since 1972 by the [[National Science Board]], provides quantitative information on the U.S. and international science and engineering enterprise.
* Mark Solovey. 2020. ''Social Science for What?: Battles over Public Funding for the "Other Sciences" at the National Science Foundation''. MIT Press.

==External links==
{{commons category|National Science Foundation}}
* [https://www.nsf.gov/ Official Website]
* [https://mediahub.nsf.gov/portals/dnmqqhzz/NSFBrandingPortal Brand Identity Portal]
* [https://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/index.jsp NSF Multimedia Gallery]
* [https://www.federalregister.gov/agencies/national-science-foundation National Science Foundation] in the [[Federal Register]]
* [http://www.igert.org/ IGERT]
* [http://cake.fiu.edu/NSF-Walk/ TerraFly Autopilot Walk from Metro to NSF offices]
* Historic technical reports from the National Science Foundation (and other federal agencies) are available in the [http://www.technicalreports.org/ Technical Report Archive and Image Library (TRAIL)]
* [https://www.science.org/content/article/us-lawmakers-unveil-bold-100-billion-plan-remake-nsf "U.S. lawmakers unveil bold $100 billion plan to remake NSF", Science (May, 26, 2020)]
{{US research agencies}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:National Science Foundation| ]]
[[Category:Independent agencies of the United States government]]
[[Category:Science and technology in the United States]]
[[Category:Government agencies established in 1950]]
[[Category:Scientific organizations established in 1950]]
[[Category:1950 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:Funding bodies]]
[[Category:Scientific research foundations]]