Editing National language

{{Short description|Language with de jure or de facto national status}}
{{distinguish|Nation language|Official language|Regional language}}'' ''
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Nationalism sidebar|Development}}
A '''national language''' is a [[language]] (or [[variety (linguistics)|language variant]], e.g. [[dialect]]) that has some connection—[[de facto]] or [[de jure]]—with a [[nation]]. The term is applied quite differently in various contexts. One or more languages spoken as [[first language]]s in the territory of a country may be referred to informally or designated in legislation as national languages of the country. National languages are mentioned in over 150 world constitutions.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/index.html |title=Jacques Leclerc |access-date=15 December 2015 |archive-date=28 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528183121/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=October 2024}}<!-- it would be helpful to narrow this down to just the number of constitutions that mention "national language," or to be precise as to the number of constitutions mentioning each or both, and it would be helpful to look for better sources -->

[[C.M.B. Brann]], with particular reference to India, suggests that there are "four quite distinctive meanings" for national language in a polity:<ref>Brann, C.M.B. 1994. "The National Language Question: Concepts and Terminology." ''Logos'' [University of Namibia, Windhoek] Vol 14: 125–134</ref>
*"Territorial language" (''chthonolect'', sometimes known as ''chtonolect''<ref>Wolff, H. Ekkehard "African Languages: An Introduction" Ch./Art: Language and Society p. 321 pub. Cambridge University Press 2000</ref>) of a particular people
*"[[Regional language]]" (''choralect'')

*"Language-in-common or community language" (''demolect'') used throughout a country
*"Central language" (''politolect'') used by government and perhaps having a symbolic value.
The last is usually given the title of [[official language]]. In some cases (e.g., [[#Philippines|the Philippines]]), several languages are designated as ''official'' and a national language is separately designated.

== Official versus national languages ==
{{See also|Linguistic prescription|Linguistic rights}}
"National language" and "[[official language]]" are best understood as two concepts or legal categories with ranges of meaning that may coincide, or may be intentionally separate. [[Stateless nation]]s are not in the position to legislate an [[official language]], but their languages may be sufficiently distinct and well-preserved to be national languages. Some languages may be recognized popularly as "national languages", while others may enjoy official recognition in use or promotion.

In many African countries, some or all [[Indigenous language|indigenous]] [[African languages]] are officially used, promoted, or expressly allowed to be promoted (usually taught in schools and written in important publications) as semi-official languages whether by long-term legislation or short-term, case-by-case executive (government) measures. To be official, spoken and written languages may enjoy government or federalised use, major tax-funded promotion or at least full tolerance as to their teaching and employers' recognition in [[public education]], standing on equal footing with the official language(s). Further, they may enjoy recognition as a language used in compulsory schooling and treasury money may be spent to teach or encourage adults in learning a language which is a minority language in a particular area to restore its understanding and spread its moral stories, rhymes, poems, phrases, songs, and other literary heritage which will promote [[social cohesion]] (where other languages remain) or will promote [[nationalism|nationalist differentiation]] where another, non-indigenous language is deprecated.<ref>''20 Year Strategy for the Irish Language'' http://www.plean2028.ie/en/node/14{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Williams | first = Colin H. | editor-last = Coupland | editor-first = Nikolas | title = English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change | place = Clevedon, Avon | publisher = Multilingual Matters | year = 1990 | contribution = The Anglicisation of Wales | contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C&q=monoglot+welsh+speakers&pg=PA38 | pages = 38–41 | isbn = 9781853590313 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C&q=monoglot%20welsh%20speakers&pg=PP1}}</ref>

== National languages ==
{{See also|List of linguistic rights in African constitutions|List of official languages by country and territory}}

=== Bangladesh ===
{{main|Languages of Bangladesh}}
[[Bengali language|Bengali]], the sole official language of [[Bangladesh]], is also the ''[[de jure]]'' and ''[[de facto]]'' national language of the country. Establishing Bengali as a national language was one of the key reasons for the independence of Bangladesh.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oldenburg|first=Philip|date=August 1985|title="A Place Insufficiently Imagined": Language, Belief, and the Pakistan Crisis of 1971|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|language=en|volume=44|issue=4|pages=711–733|doi=10.2307/2056443|jstor=2056443|s2cid=145152852 |issn=0021-9118|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Bosnia and Herzegovina ===
[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ''de jure'' has three national languages - [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]] and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] - which are ''de facto'' varieties of one language, [[Serbo-Croatian]]. It is officially defined under the three names, corresponding to the country's [[Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina|constituent nations]]. The [[Gaj's Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] alphabets both have official and equal status.<ref>{{cite web|title=Amendments XXVII-LIV to the Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|publisher=[[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina]]|url=http://www.ohr.int/ohr-dept/legal/laws-of-bih/pdf/001%20-%20Constitutions/FBH/HR%20DECISION%20AMENDING%20THE%20CONSTITUTION%20OF%20THE%20FBH%20149-02.pdf|access-date=13 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Amendments LXXI-XCII to the Constitution of Republika Srpska|publisher=[[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina]]|url=http://www.ohr.int/ohr-dept/legal/laws-of-bih/pdf/001%20-%20Constitutions/RS/HR%20DECISION%20AMENDING%20THE%20CONSTITUTION%20OF%20RS%20150-02.pdf|access-date=13 September 2018}}</ref>

=== Bulgaria ===
[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] is the sole official language in [[Bulgaria]].<ref>[https://www.parliament.bg/en/const Constitution of the Republic Bulgaria, article 3]</ref>

=== Canada ===
{{Main|Bilingualism in Canada|Languages of Canada}}
[[Canada]]'s official languages since the [[Official Languages Act of 1969]] are [[English language|English]] ([[Canadian English]]) and [[French language|French]] ([[Canadian French]]). Depending on one's views of what constitutes a "nation", these two languages may be considered two equal national languages of the nation of Canada, or the national languages of two nations within one state, [[English Canada]] and [[French Canada]].

[[Quebec nationalists]] consider [[Quebec French]], the province's official language, the language of the Quebec nation. French is a recognized minority in [[Ontario]], [[Manitoba]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]. [[Acadian French]], the national language of [[Acadians]], is an official language of [[New Brunswick]] (and recognized minority in [[Quebec]], [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Prince Edward Island]]). [[Newfoundland English]] dialects differ substantially from other Canadian English ones.

English and French are official in [[Canadian Territories|Canada's three territories]]; two legislate a variety of Indigenous languages in addition. [[Nunavut]] and the [[Northwest Territories]] (N.W.T.) have as official languages [[Inuktitut]] and [[Inuinnaqtun]], with N.W.T. also have a further seven more (totalling eleven official languages): [[Cree language|Cree]], [[Chipewyan language|Dënesųłiné]], [[Gwich’in language|Gwich’in]], Inuvialuktun, [[Slavey language|North and South Slavey]] and [[Dogrib language|Tłı̨chǫ]]. As these official languages are legislated at a territorial (sub-federal) level, they can be construed as national languages.

Besides these there many [[Aboriginal peoples of Canada|Indigenous languages of Canada]], which are the national languages of one or more [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]], [[Inuit]] or [[Metis people (Canada)|Métis]] peoples; a number of First Nations and Inuit homelands at the Indigenous government level legislate their language as an official language of the Nation, such as the [[Nisg̱a’a language]] by [[Nisg̱a’a]] and [[Inuvialuktun]] by [[Inuvialuit]]. Notably the [[Cree language]] is spoken (with variations) from Alberta to Labrador,{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} [[Ojibwe language|Anishinaabemowin]] is spoken across central Canada, and Inuktitut is spoken across the Arctic, northern Quebec and Labrador.

=== China ===
{{see also|Languages of China|Standard Chinese|History of Mandarin}}
There are many languages spoken across [[China]], with most people speaking one of several [[varieties of Chinese]]. During successive imperial dynasties, the spoken language of the capital city served as the official spoken language and was used across the country by government officials who traveled to communicate with one another. Dialects used for this purpose in different eras included those of [[Xi'an]], [[Luoyang]], [[Nanjing]], [[Beijing]], and [[Historical capitals of China|other historical capital cities]].

After the [[Xinhai Revolution]] in 1911, the [[Kuomintang]] (Chinese nationalists) founded the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]. In order to promote a sense of national unity and enhance the efficiency of communications within the nation, the government decided to designate a national language. The [[Beijing dialect]] of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] and [[Cantonese|Guangzhou dialect]] of [[Yue Chinese|Cantonese]] were each proposed as the basis for a national language for China.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} In the beginning, there were attempts to introduce elements from other Chinese varieties into the national language in addition to those from the Beijing dialect; this was reflected in the first official dictionary of the national language, given the name {{Lang|zh-Hant|國語}} ([[Pinyin]]: {{Lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|Guóyǔ}}, literally "national language"). But this artificial language had no native speakers and was difficult to learn, so it was abandoned in 1924. Ultimately, the Beijing dialect was chosen as the national language and it continued to be referred to as {{Lang|zh-Hant|國語}} in Chinese in the Republic of China. Since then, the Beijing dialect has become the main standard for pronunciation, due to its prestigious status during the preceding [[Qing dynasty]].

Still, elements from other dialects do exist in the standard language, which is now defined as reflecting the pronunciation of Beijing, the grammatical patterns of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] dialects spoken in the northern parts of China, and the vocabulary of modern vernacular Chinese literature. The People's Republic of China renamed the national language {{Lang|zh-Hans|普通话}} (Pinyin: Pǔtōnghuà, literally "common speech"), without otherwise changing the definition of the standard national language.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.chinatoday.com/general/a.htm#LANGU
|title=General Information of the People's Republic of China (PRC): Languages
|publisher=chinatoday.com
|access-date=2008-04-17}}</ref>

=== Croatia ===
The [[Croatian language|Croatian]] language is the official language of Croatia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Croatian declared official language 174 years ago |url=https://www.croatiaweek.com/croatian-declared-official-language-174-years-ago/ |website=Croatiaweek |date=23 November 2021 |access-date=23 November 2021}}</ref> "The Croatian language and the Latin script shall be in official use in the Republic of Croatia" in Article 12 of the Croatian Constitution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Croatia 1991 (rev. 2010) |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Croatia_2010?lang=en}}</ref>

=== Czech Republic ===
The [[Czech language|Czech]] language is the national language of the Czech Republic.<ref>{{cite book|title=Beginner's Czech|last1=Cerna|first1=Iva|last2=Machalek|first2=Jolana|date=2007|publisher=[[Hippocrene Books]]|isbn=978-0-7818-1156-9|page=26}}</ref>

=== Ethiopia ===
{{main|Languages of Ethiopia}}
Amharic was the national language in [[Ethiopian Empire]]. The country is composed of at least 80 different ethnic nationalities. Its people altogether speak over 80 different languages. [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Oromo language|Oromo]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Somali language|Somali]], and [[Afar language|Afar]] are the official working languages of Ethiopia. But courts, and legislations work in Amharic and the constitution of the country is written in Amharic in an official capacity. And in day-to-day basis, Amharic is used to issue driving licenses and report tax income, making it not a national language but official language of the government.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shaban |first1=Abdurahman |title=One to five: Ethiopia gets four new federal working languages |url=https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |agency=Africa News |access-date=30 November 2020 |archive-date=15 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215231030/https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Finland ===
{{Main|Languages of Finland}}
[[Finland]] has two national languages: the [[Finnish language]] and the [[Swedish language]]. The [[Constitution of Finland]] guarantees the right to use Finnish and Swedish in courts and other state institutions.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/fi00000_.html
|title=Finland – Constitution
}}, Section 17. [http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ International Constitutional Law] website.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.finlex.fi/fi/lainsaadanto/1999/731|title=FINLEX ® – Ajantasainen lainsäädäntö: 11.6.1999/731}}</ref> Despite the large difference in the numbers of users, Swedish is not officially classified as a minority language but equal to Finnish. Both national languages are compulsory subjects in school (except for children with a third language as mother tongue) and a language test is a prerequisite for governmental offices where a university degree is required. The constitution also grants the Sami and the Roma peoples the right to maintain and develop their languages: The Sami have partial right to use [[Sami languages]] in official situations according to other laws.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110927143100/http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1995/en19951727.pdf Decree on the Sami Parliament] FINLEX. Access date: 3 July.</ref>

=== India ===
{{Main|Languages of India}}
India has no national language.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-01-25 |title=Hindi, not a national language: Court |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Hindi-not-a-national-language-Court/article16839525.ece |access-date=2024-02-27 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> [[Hindi]] and English are the official languages in India, according to Article 343(1) of the [[Constitution of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=CHAPTER I.—LANGUAGE OF THE UNION |url=https://www.mea.gov.in/Images/pdf1/Part17.pdf}}</ref> [[Gujarat High Court]] has stated that there is no official record or order declaring Hindi as the national language of the country.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-01-01 |title=Hindi is a foreign language for Gujaratis, says Gujarat high court |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Hindi-is-a-foreign-language-for-Gujaratis-says-Gujarat-high-court/articleshow/11321862.cms |access-date=2024-02-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

The [[Government of India|Union Government]] uses Hindi and English as official languages, such as for [[Parliament of India|parliamentary]] proceedings and texts of federal laws. Communications between the Union Government and [[State governments of India|state governments]] are in Hindi with Region A and Region B states and in English with Region C states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/official-language-rules-1976|title=Official Language Rules, 1976|access-date=2021-11-06}}</ref> State governments use their own native languages in official communications.<ref>{{Cite web|title=CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS {{!}} Department of Official Language {{!}} Ministry of Home Affairs {{!}} GoI|url=http://rajbhasha.nic.in/en/constitutional-provisions|access-date=2019-02-08|website=rajbhasha.nic.in}}</ref> They may adopt one or more of the 21 languages listed in the [[Constitution of India|Indian constitution]]'s [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|eighth schedule]]—[[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Bodo language|Bodo]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi]], [[Kannada]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Malayalam]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Urdu]]. The [[Supreme Court of India]] uses English as its sole official language; [[High courts of India|high courts]] in some states use other languages spoken in the state in addition to English.<ref name="noofficial">{{cite news|date=25 January 2010|title=There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court|work=[[The Times of India]]|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms}} and [[English language|English and Hindi]] are used for official purposes by the [[Government of India|union government]] and in the [[Parliament of India|parliament]]</ref><ref name="IndiaConstitutionBody">{{cite web|date=26 November 1949|title=The Constitution of India|url=http://india.gov.in/sites/upload_files/npi/files/coi_part_full.pdf|publisher=National Portal}}</ref>

The [[Supreme Court of India]] uses English in its proceedings and objects to attempts to make Hindi official in legal proceedings. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lawtrend.in/supreme-court-objects-to-use-of-hindi-in-proceedings-reiterates-english-as-official-language/ |title=Supreme Court Objects to Use of Hindi in Proceedings, Reiterates English as Official Language |date=16 September 2024 |access-date=17 September 2024 |website=lawtrend.in}}</ref>

=== Indonesia ===
{{Main|Languages of Indonesia}}
The official and national language of Indonesia is [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], a language derived from [[Malay language]]. Indonesia has more than 700 living languages, making it the second most linguistically diverse country after neighboring Papua New Guinea.<ref name=SIL>{{cite web|url= https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/countries-most-languages|title= What countries have the most languages?|date= 22 May 2019|publisher=SIL International|language=en|access-date=20 August 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820110531/https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/countries-most-languages|archive-date= 20 August 2020}}</ref> These 700+ languages, however, are without official status, and some are in danger of [[List of endangered languages in Indonesia|extinction]]. The largest local language is [[Javanese language|Javanese]].

=== Ireland ===
{{Main|Languages of Ireland}}
[[Irish language|Irish]] is recognised by the [[Constitution of Ireland]] as the national language and first official language of Ireland, with English designated a second official language.<ref>Article 8, [http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/eng/Publications/Publications_Archive/Publications_2012/Bunreacht_na_hÉireann-Aug2012.pdf Bunreacht na hÉireann].</ref> Despite this, [[Hiberno-English|Irish English]] is the primary language spoken in Ireland; [[Government of Ireland|government]] and [[Oireachtas|parliamentary]] business is principally carried on in English.

=== Israel ===
{{Main|Languages of Israel}}
[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] was identified as the national language of the State of Israel with the adoption of the [[Nation-State Bill]] in 2018, with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] recognized as a language with "special status" used in state institutions. One-fifth of the Israeli population (mostly [[Israeli Arabs]]) speak Arabic natively; they have the legal right to receive education and other services in Arabic. Arabic is rarely spoken in the [[Knesset]], though permissible.

=== Italy ===
{{Main|Languages of Italy}}
The [[Italian language]] is the [[de jure]] and [[de facto]] official language of [[Italy]].<ref>[http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm Law 482, 15 December 1999] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512051856/http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm |date=12 May 2015 }}. camera.it</ref><ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/ita/***EDITION*** Italian language]. ethnologue.com</ref> [[Italian language|Italian]] is also referred to as national language for historical and cultural reasons, because since the 15th century, [[Italian language|Italian]] became the language used in the [[Court (royal)|courts]] of nearly every state in [[Italy]] and in general among educated [[Italians]] (scholars, writers, poets, philosophers, scientists, composers and artists) who contributed to what is nowadays the [[culture of Italy]].<ref>[http://www.accademiadellacrusca.it/it/lingua-italiana/consulenza-linguistica/domande-risposte/lingua-nazionale-ragioni-fiorentino Lingua nazionale: le ragioni del fiorentino]. accademiadellacrusca.it</ref> Furthermore, Italian was often an official language of the various Italian states before [[Risorgimento|unification]], slowly replacing Latin, even when ruled by foreign powers (such as the Spaniards in the [[Kingdom of Naples]], or the Austrians in the [[Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia]]).<ref>Bruno Migliorini, (1960). Storia della lingua italiana. 1st ed. Italy: Sansoni.</ref>

=== Kenya ===
{{Main|Languages of Kenya}}
While English and [[Swahili language|Swahili]] are official languages, Swahili also has a special status as national language. None of the country's biggest languages ([[Gikuyu language|Gikuyu]], [[Luo dialect|Luo]], [[Kamba language|Kamba]], [[Kalenjin language|Kalenjin]], etc.) have any explicit legal status on the national level, but the 2010 constitution enjoins the state to "promote and protect the diversity of language of the people of Kenya."<ref>[http://katiba.mobi/ Constitution of Kenya] Accessed 2010-10-28.</ref>

=== Lebanon ===
In [[Lebanon]], the [[Arabic language]] is the "official national" language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/le00000_.html|title=ICL - Lebanon - Constitution|date=21 September 1990}}</ref> [[Modern Standard Arabic]] is used for official purposes, while the everyday spoken language is [[Lebanese Arabic]]. [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]] are also widespread in Lebanon.

=== Luxembourg ===
{{Main|Languages of Luxembourg}}
Luxembourg uses three official languages: [[Luxembourgish]], French, and German. Previously Luxembourgish had no official status, but following a constitutional revision a law was passed on 24 February 1984 making Luxembourgish the national language. Furthermore, this law recognised the three languages of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish, French and German) as administrative languages.

=== Malaysia ===
{{Main|Languages of Malaysia}}
The [[Malay language]] is the national language of [[Malaysia]] in accordance with [[Constitution of Malaysia#Article 152 – National Language and Other Languages|Article 152(1)]] of the [[Federal Constitution of Malaysia]].

=== Maldives===
[[Maldivian language|Dhivehi]] is the national language of [[Maldives]] per the Maldivian constitution.

=== Malta ===
The [[Maltese language]] is the national language of Malta. It is also the official language of the island, together with [[English language|English]]. Maltese only is recognised as "national" in Chapter 1 of the Laws of Malta.

=== Namibia ===
{{Main|Languages of Namibia}}
Although English is the only nationwide official language in [[Namibia]], there are also 20 ''national languages'',{{citation needed|date=August 2016}} which are each spoken by more or less sizeable portions of the population and are considered Namibia's cultural heritage. All national languages have the rights of a minority language and may even serve as a ''lingua franca'' in certain regions. Among Namibia's national languages are [[German language|German]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Oshiwambo]], [[Herero language|Otjiherero]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], as well as the languages of the [[Himba language|Himba]], [[Nama language|Nama]], [[San (people)|San]], [[Kavango people|Kavango]] and [[Damara (people)|Damara]].{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}

=== Nepal ===
{{Main|Languages of Nepal}}
[[Nepali language|Nepali]] is the official language in the federal government of Nepal. Over 123 languages are spoken in Nepal, all of which are granted constitutional status as {{lang|ne|rāṣṭrabhāṣā}} ({{lang|ne|राष्ट्रभाषा}}), officially translated as 'languages of the nation' (the word {{lang|ne|rāṣṭrabhāṣā}} also simply means 'national language').<ref>{{cite web |title=The Constitution of Nepal |url=https://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Constitution-of-Nepal.pdf |website=Nepal Law Commission |access-date=28 October 2021}}</ref> Some of the languages include: [[Newar language|Nepal Bhasa]], [[Tamang language|Tamang]], [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]], [[Rai languages|Rai]], [[Magar language|Magar]], [[Gurung]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[English language|English]], [[Limbu language|Limbu]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], etc.

=== The Netherlands ===
Dutch is the official language of The Netherlands. In the province of [[Friesland]], [[West Frisian language|Frisian]] is also spoken and is recognized as the second official language there.

=== New Zealand ===
While the population of [[New Zealand]] is predominantly [[New Zealand English|English-speaking]], the language of the indigenous Polynesian people is the [[Māori language]]. Both these languages have official status in the country, along with [[New Zealand Sign Language]], which is one of the few [[sign language]]s in the world to have such status.

=== Nigeria ===
{{Main|Languages of Nigeria}}
Besides official English ([[Nigerian Standard English]]), Nigeria recognizes three 'majority', or national, languages. These are [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], and [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], each with some 20 million speakers or more.<ref>Article 55, [http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria : 1999].</ref>

=== Pakistan ===
{{Main|Languages of Pakistan}}
Article 251(1) of the [[Constitution of Pakistan#The Constitution of 1973 -- The Existing Constitution|1973 Constitution of Pakistan]], titled ''National language'', specifies: "The National language of [[Pakistan]] is [[Urdu]], and arrangements shall be made for its being used for official and other purposes within fifteen years from the commencing day." Although Urdu has been declared an official language, so far all government documents, legislation, legal orders, and other official records are written in [[Pakistani English]]. Most higher education instruction is in English.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/
|title=The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
|chapter-url=http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/part12.ch4.html
|chapter=PART XII (contd); Miscellaneous; Chapter 4. General
|date=14 August 1973
|access-date=2008-04-22}}</ref> The [[National Language Authority]] is an organization established to make arrangements to promote Urdu since 1979.

=== Philippines ===
{{Main|Languages of the Philippines}}
[[Filipino language|Filipino]] is the national language of the [[Philippines]]. The current 1987 constitution designated the [[Filipino language]], which is based on Tagalog with the inclusion of terms from all recognized [[languages of the Philippines]], as the national language. It also designated both Filipino and English as the official languages for purposes of communication and instruction, and designated the regional languages as auxiliary official languages in the regions to serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein.

More than 170 [[Languages of the Philippines|languages]] are spoken in the [[Philippines]] and almost all of them belong to the [[Philippine languages|Philippine subgroup]] of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] language family. In September 2012, [[La Union]] became the first province in Philippine history to pass an ordinance proclaiming a local language. It declared [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]] as an [[official language]]. This move aims to protect and revitalize the use of Ilocano in various government and civil affairs within the province.<ref name="launionofficiallanguage">{{cite news | url=http://www.philstar.com/nation/article.aspx?publicationsubcategoryid=67&articleid=850366 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012035232/http://www.philstar.com/nation/article.aspx?publicationsubcategoryid=67&articleid=850366 | url-status=dead | archive-date=12 October 2013 | title=Iloko La Union's official language | newspaper=[[The Philippine Star]]| date=19 September 2012 | access-date=24 September 2012 | author=Elias, Jun }}</ref>

The [[Philippine Sign Language|Filipino Sign Language]] is designated as the "national sign language of the Filipino deaf" as well as the official sign language for transactions of the Philippine government.

=== Poland ===
Article 27 of the Constitution states: "Polish shall be the official language in the Republic of Poland".<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm
|title=Constitution of the Republic of Poland
|date=2 April 1997
|access-date=2016-07-16}}</ref>

===Portugal===
[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is the sole official language of [[Portugal]].

=== Romania ===
The [[official language|official]] and national language of [[Romania]] is the [[Romanian language]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site.page?den=act2_1&par1=1 |title=ARTICOLUL 13 – Constitutia României |website=Cdep.ro |access-date=2016-01-28 |archive-date=7 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907004110/http://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site.page?den=act2_1&par1=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Russia ===
{{Main|Languages of Russia}}
The [[Russian language]] is the only national language of [[Russia]] and had federal official status, but 27 other languages are considered official in different [[Federal subjects of Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Joan F. Chevalier |title=Russian as the National Language: An Overview of Language Planning in the Russian Federation |journal=Russian Language Journal / Русский Язык |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43669126 |publisher=Russian Language Journal |pages=25–36 |date=2006|volume=56 |jstor=43669126 }}</ref>

=== Saudi Arabia===
The first article of the [[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia]] states that [[Arabic]] is the official language of [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=1992-03-06 |title=Basic Law of Governance |url=https://laws.boe.gov.sa/BoeLaws/Laws/LawDetails/16b97fcb-4833-4f66-8531-a9a700f161b6/1 |website=laws.boe.gov.sa |location= |publisher= |access-date=2025-03-21}}</ref>
=== Serbia ===
[[Serbian language|Serbian]] is the official and national language of [[Serbia]].

=== Singapore ===
{{Main|Languages of Singapore}}
[[Singapore]] has four official languages: [[English language|English]] ([[Singapore English]] variety), [[Standard Chinese|Chinese]] ([[Singaporean Mandarin]] variety), [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. Although English is the primary language of business, government, and education, Malay is designated as the national language. This is due the recognition of ethnic [[Malays in Singapore|Malays]] (approximately 14% of the [[Demographics of Singapore|population]]) as the [[indigenous peoples]] of Singapore.

Traditionally, the ''[[lingua franca]]'' among the different ethnic groups in Singapore was [[Malay trade and creole languages|Bazaar Malay]], a Malay-based [[Malay-based creole languages|creole]]. Since independence, the government has been promoting English as the main language of Singapore. The bilingual education policy requires students to study two languages: English and a "mother tongue" corresponding to the student's ethnicity. Malay is only offered to non-Malay students as an optional third language in secondary schools. As a result, English has displaced Bazaar Malay as the common language among Singaporeans. Therefore, despite the status of Malay as the national language, the majority doesn't speak it.

=== Slovakia ===
The [[Slovak language]] is the national language of Slovakia.

=== Slovenia ===
{{Main|Languages of Slovenia}}
The [[Slovene language]] is the national language of [[Slovenia]]. There are 6 [[Languages of Slovenia|minority languages]].{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

=== South Africa ===
{{Main|Languages of South Africa}}
[[South Africa]] has 12 [[official language]]s, namely [[Afrikaans]], [[South African English|English]], [[Southern Ndebele language|isiNdebele]], [[Northern Sotho language|Sepedi]], [[Sotho language|Sesotho]], [[Swazi language|siSwati]], [[Tswana language|Setswana]], [[Tsonga language|Xitsonga]], [[Venda language|Thsivenda]], [[Xhosa language|isiXhosa]] and [[Zulu language|isiZulu]], and on July of 2023, [[South African Sign Language]] was made the twelfth official language of South Africa by constitutional ammendment. <ref>{{cite web|title=President Cyril Ramaphosa: Signing ceremony of South African Sign Language Bill|url= https://www.gov.za/news/speeches/president-cyril-ramaphosa-signing-ceremony-south-african-sign-language-bill-19-jul|website=www.gov.za|access-date=28 February 2025}}</ref>

The South African constitution further explicitly supports the promotion of the indigenous [[Khoi]], [[Nama language|Nama]], and [[Khoisan languages|San]] languages; [[South African Sign Language|Sign language]]; community languages such as [[German language|German]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Urdu]]; and languages used for religious purposes such as [[Arabic]], [[Hebrew]], and [[Sanskrit]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 - Chapter 1: Founding Provisions|url=http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions|website=www.gov.za|access-date=3 October 2019}}</ref>

=== Spain ===
{{See also|Languages of Spain}}

[[Spain]] has one national constitutional language, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or Castilian, but there are four other languages that are co-official in some territories: [[Galician language]] in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Basque language#Official status|Basque]] in [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Euskadi]] and part of [[Navarre]], [[Catalan language]] in [[Catalonia]], [[Balearic Islands]] and [[Valencia]] (as [[Valencian language#Official status|Valencian]]), and [[Aranese dialect|Aranese]] in [[Val d'Aran]].

=== Sri Lanka ===
{{See also|Languages of Sri Lanka}}
The [[Sinhala language|Sinhala Language]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] are the national languages of Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-04-25|title=What Languages Are Spoken In Sri Lanka?|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-sri-lanka.html|access-date=2022-02-13|website=WorldAtlas|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Switzerland ===
[[File:Logo der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft.svg|thumb|The logo of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Federal administration of Switzerland|Federal administration]], in the [[Languages of Switzerland|four national languages of Switzerland]]]]
{{Main|Languages of Switzerland}}

[[Switzerland]] has four national languages: [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Romansh language|Romansh]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation, article 4 |url = http://www.admin.ch/ch/e/rs/101/a4.html |access-date=2009-04-30}}</ref> all of which have official status at the national level within the [[Federal administration of Switzerland]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Diversité des langues et compétences linguistiques en Suisse |url=http://www.nfp56.ch/f_projekt.cfm?kati=3|access-date=2009-04-30}}</ref>

A majority (60%) of the population speaks German, while most of the remainder (21%) speak French, and minorities speak Italian (10%) and Romansh (7%, not monolingually). German speakers are predominant in most of the country, while French speakers occupy the western parts near the border with France, and the Italian speakers are situated to the south near the border with Italy, mostly within the [[Canton of Ticino]]. The Romansh speakers are concentrated in the [[Canton of Grisons]] in the south-east.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://official-swiss-national-languages.all-about-switzerland.info/|title=Switzerland's Four National Languages|last=Jud|first=Markus G.|website=All-About-Switzerland.info|access-date=2018-03-03}}</ref>

=== Taiwan ===
A national language in Taiwan is legally defined as "a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language".<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:國家語言發展法 |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143 |website=law.moj.gov.tw |access-date=22 May 2019 |language=zh}}</ref> This includes [[Formosan languages]], [[Taiwanese Hakka|Hakka]], [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]], [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] and [[Matsu dialect]].

During [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]] (1895 to 1945), the {{nihongo|"national language movement"|國語運動|kokugo undō}} promoted the [[Japanese language]]. After their defeat in the [[Chinese Civil War]] in 1949, the [[Kuomintang]] regime of the [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]] retreated to the island of [[Taiwan]], where they introduced [[Standard Chinese]] and [[English language]], which were spoken by few of the island population at the time, to be the "national language". Today however, the ''National languages development act'' recognises languages of all people groups of Taiwan to be national languages.

=== Tunisia ===
{{Main|Languages of Tunisia}}
The official language of the [[Tunisia]]n state is [[Modern Standard Arabic]].<ref name="art1">{{cite web|title=Tunisia Constitution, Article 1 |url=http://www.anc.tn/site/main/AR/docs/constit_proj_26012014.pdf |date=2014-01-26 |access-date=10 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209234154/http://www.anc.tn/site/main/AR/docs/constit_proj_26012014.pdf |archive-date= 9 February 2014 }} Translation by the University of Bern: "Tunisia is a free State, independent and sovereign; its religion is the Islam, its language is Arabic, and its form is the Republic."</ref> However, it is not the mother tongue of the population. Therefore, it is not often used to communicate between Tunisian people, instead [[Tunisian Arabic]] plays these roles and is the national language of Tunisia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/aeb|title=Arabic, Tunisian Spoken|work=Ethnologue}}</ref> Furthermore, even without an official status, [[French language|French]] is also known by 63.6% of the population. It is used extensively in its written and spoken form in administration, education, and business environments.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/La_francophonie_dans_le_monde_2006-2007.pdf |title= Christian Valantin (sous la dir. de), ''La Francophonie dans le monde. 2006-2007'', éd. Nathan, Paris, 2007, p. 16 |language= fr |access-date= 13 August 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170910083733/https://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/La_francophonie_dans_le_monde_2006-2007.pdf |archive-date= 10 September 2017 |url-status= dead }}&nbsp;{{small|(5.58&nbsp;MB)}}</ref> Berber minorities in the south-west and on [[Djerba Island]] also use the Tunisian Chelha language.

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|Languages of the United Kingdom}}
The [[English language]] ([[British English]]) is the ''de facto'' official language of the [[United Kingdom]] and is the sole language of an estimated 95% of the [[British people|British]] population.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}} The three [[Home Nations]] outside England have national languages of their own with varying degrees of recognition, which coexist with the dominant English language. Britain also has several [[Crown Dependencies]] and [[British Overseas Territories|Overseas Territories]] which are to some extent self-governing, but are not recognized as independent states. Many of these have their own [[regional language]]s.

====Northern Ireland====
In [[Northern Ireland]], both the [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|Irish language]] and the [[Ulster Scots dialects]] are recognized by the [[Good Friday Agreement]] as "part of the cultural wealth of the island of Ireland" and are promoted by the [[Foras na Gaeilge]] (Irish Institute) and [[Tha Boord o Ulstèr-Scotch]] (the Ulster-Scots Agency) respectively.

[[English language|English]] was the sole [[official language]] until 2022 when the [[Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022]] was passed which gave [[Irish language|Irish]] official status in Northern Ireland.

====Scotland====
In Scotland, [[Scottish Gaelic]] is a minority language spoken by 57,375 people (1.1% of the Scottish population aged over three years old).<ref name="2011 Census of Scotland">[http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/data-warehouse.html 2011 Census of Scotland], Table QS211SC.  Viewed 30 May 2014.</ref> The ''[[Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005]]'' gives the language a limited official status, and the [[Bòrd na Gàidhlig]] is tasked with "securing the status of the Gaelic language as an [[official language]] of [[Scotland]] commanding equal respect to the English language".<ref>{{Citation|title=Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/acts2005/asp_20050007_en_1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100907081446/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/acts2005/asp_20050007_en_1|publisher=Office of Public Sector Information|access-date=9 March 2007|archive-date=7 September 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Scots language|Scots]], generally treated as a [[West Germanic language]] related to but separate from English, has no official status but is recognized as a minority language, and is the language of much [[Scottish literature]], including the poetry of [[Robert Burns]].

====Wales====
The [[Welsh language]] has official status within [[Wales]], and as of the [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 census]], is spoken by 562,000 people, or 19% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|title=2011 Census: Key Statistics for Wales, March 2011|url=http://ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-unitary-authorities-in-wales/stb-2011-census-key-statistics-for-wales.html#tab---Proficiency-in-Welsh|access-date=12 December 2012|publisher=ONS}}</ref> The Welsh Language Board ([[Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg]]) is legally tasked with ensuring that, "in the conduct of public business and the administration of justice, the English and Welsh languages should be treated on a basis of equality".<ref>{{Citation|title=Welsh Language Act 1993|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1993/Ukpga_19930038_en_2.htm|publisher=Office of Public Sector Information|access-date=3 September 2007}}</ref>

====Crown Dependencies: Isle of Man====
English is ''de facto'' the only official language. However a few words of Manx Gaelic (the historical national language) are sometimes encountered in government institutions, largely for symbolic and ceremonial purposes, and it is the main medium of instruction in one primary school.

==== English regions ====

===== Cornwall =====
English is the ''de facto'' main language spoken in the county of [[Cornwall]]. Historically, the main language of Cornwall was [[Cornish language|Cornish]]. By 1800, Cornish was endangered with some debate about a mythical [[last speaker of the Cornish language]]. Revival of the Cornish language and some recognition has occurred in the 20th century.

=== United States ===
{{Main|Languages of the United States}}

In the [[United States]], English ([[American English]]) is the national language only in an informal sense, by numbers and by historical and contemporary association. The [[United States Constitution]] does not explicitly declare any [[official language]], although the constitution is written in English, as is all federal legislation.

=== Vietnam ===
In [[Vietnam]], the [[Vietnamese language]] had been the ''de facto'' national language for many years, but it was not until Decree No. 5 of the 2013 constitution that the [[Vietnamese language]] was officially described as the National Language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vnexpress.net/tin-tuc/thoi-su/quoc-hoi-thong-qua-hien-phap-sua-doi-2916328-p2.html|title=Toàn văn Hiến pháp sửa đổi|work=Tin nhanh VnExpress}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Ethnolect]]
* [[Indigenous language]]
* [[Language policy]]
* [[Regional language]]
* [[Standard language]]
* [[Official language]]
* [[Working language]]
* [[Bengali language movement]] in former East Pakistan, now Bangladesh
* [[Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu|Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu, India]]
* [[Global language system]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Nationalism}}
{{Ethnicity}}
{{Portal bar|Languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:National language}}
[[Category:Promotion of national languages|*]]
[[Category:Language varieties and styles]]
[[Category:Politics by issue]]
[[Category:Culture by region]]
[[Category:Linguistic rights]]
[[Category:Concepts in language policy]]
[[Category:Countries and territories by official language]]