Editing Neuroscientist

{{Short description|Individual who studies neuroscience}}
{{Distinguish|text=the academic journal, [[The Neuroscientist]]}}

[[File:Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934) portrait (restored).jpg|thumb|[[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]], the father of modern [[neuroscience]] and a [[Spaniards|Spanish]] neuroscientist, received the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] in Medicine in 1906 for his discovery of [[Neuron doctrine|the neuron doctrine]]. He shared the prize with [[Camillo Golgi]], an [[Italians|Italian]] neuroscientist who was recognized for his staining technique that allowed neurons to be visualized.]]

A '''neuroscientist''' (or '''neurobiologist''') is a [[scientist]] specializing in [[neuroscience]] that deals with the anatomy and function of [[neuron]]s, [[Biological neural network|neural circuits]], and [[glia]], and their [[Behavior|behavioral]], biological, and psychological roles in health and disease.<ref name="nichd">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/neuro/conditioninfo|title=About Neuroscience|publisher=National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, US National Institutes of Health|date=2024|access-date=11 December 2024}}</ref>

[[File:Camillo Golgi 2.jpg|thumb|[[Camillo Golgi]] (1843–1926), Italian physician, neuroscientist, and namesake of the [[Golgi apparatus]]]]

Neuroscientists generally work as researchers within a [[college]], [[university]], [[government agency]], or private [[Private industry|industry]] setting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petersons.com/graduate-schools/neuroscience-jobs.aspx|title=Neuroscience Jobs Available in a Variety of Industries|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310142136/http://www.petersons.com/graduate-schools/neuroscience-jobs.aspx|archive-date=2015-03-10|access-date=2015-03-12}}</ref> In research-oriented careers, neuroscientists design and conduct scientific experiments on the [[nervous system]] and its functions. They can engage in basic or applied research. [[Basic research]] seeks to expand current understanding of the nervous system, whereas [[applied research]] seeks to address a specific problem, such as developing a treatment for a [[neurological disorder]]. 

Neuroscientists have numerous career opportunities outside of academic research, including careers in industry, science writing, government program management, science advocacy, and education.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sfn.org/careers-and-training/neurojobs-career-center/careers-in-neuroscience |title=Careers |access-date=2015-04-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408033844/http://www.sfn.org/Careers-and-Training/NeuroJobs-Career-Center/Careers-in-Neuroscience |archive-date=2015-04-08 }}</ref> A neuroscientist commonly holds a [[doctorate]] in a medical science.

== Job overview ==

=== Job description ===
[[File:Sheep_Brain_Dissection_2_-_black_background.png|thumb|A dissected sheep brain]]
Neuroscientists focus primarily on the study and research of the [[nervous system]]. The nervous system is composed of the [[brain]], [[spinal cord]] and [[nerve]] cells. Studies of the nervous system may focus on the cellular level, as in studies of the [[ion channel]]s, or instead may focus on a systemic level as in behavioural or cognitive studies. A significant portion of nervous system studies is devoted to understanding the diseases that affect the nervous system, like [[multiple sclerosis]], [[Alzheimer's disease|Alzheimer's]], [[Parkinson's disease|Parkinson's]], and [[Lou Gehrig's disease|Lou Gehrig's]]. Research commonly occurs in private, government and public research institutions and universities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://study.com/articles/Neuroscientist_Job_Description_Duties_and_Requirements.html|title=Neuroscientist: Job Description, Duties and Requirements|website=Study.com|access-date=2016-03-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326183906/http://study.com/articles/Neuroscientist_Job_Description_Duties_and_Requirements.html|archive-date=2016-03-26}}</ref>

Some common tasks for neuroscientists are:<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/medical-scientists.htm#tab-2|title=Medical Scientists : Occupational Outlook Handbook: : U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|website=www.bls.gov|access-date=2016-03-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325183059/http://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/medical-scientists.htm#tab-2|archive-date=2016-03-25}}</ref>
* Developing experiments and leading groups of people in supporting roles
* Conducting theoretical and computational neuronal data analysis
* Research and development of new treatments for neurological disorders
* Working with doctors to perform experimental studies of new drugs on willing patients
* Following safety and sanitation procedures and guidelines
* Dissecting experimental specimens

=== Salary ===
The overall median salary for neuroscientists in the United States was $79,940 in May 2014{{where?|date=April 2016}}. Neuroscientists are usually full-time employees. Median salaries at common work places in the United States are shown below.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Common Work Places
!Median Annual Pay
|-
|Colleges and universities
|$58,140
|-
|Hospitals
|$73,590
|-
|Laboratories
|$82,700
|-
|Research and Development
|$90,200
|-
|Pharmaceutical
|$150,000
|}

=== Work environment ===
Neuroscientists research and study both the [[biological]] and [[psychological]] aspects of the nervous system.<ref name=":0" /> Once neuroscientists finish their post doctoral programs, 39% go on to perform more doctoral work, while 36% take on faculty jobs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/where-are-neuroscience-jobs|title=Where Are the Neuroscience Jobs?|website=www.sciencemag.org|access-date=2016-03-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317054857/http://www.sciencemag.org/careers/2011/11/where-are-neuroscience-jobs|archive-date=2016-03-17|date=2011-11-18}}</ref> Neuroscientists use a wide range of mathematical methods, computer programs, biochemical approaches and imaging techniques such as [[magnetic resonance imaging]],  [[computed tomography angiography]], and [[Diffusion MRI|diffusion tensor imaging]].{{define}}<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-should-i-expect-from-a-neuroscience-job.htm|title=What Should I Expect from a Neuroscience Job? (with pictures)|website=wiseGEEK|access-date=2016-03-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416140408/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-should-i-expect-from-a-neuroscience-job.htm|archive-date=2016-04-16}}</ref>  Imaging techniques allow scientists to observe physical changes in the brain and spinal cord, as signals occur. Neuroscientists can also be part of several different neuroscience [[:Category:Neuroscience organizations|organizations]] where they can publish and read different research topics.

=== Job outlook ===
Neuroscience is expecting job growth of about 8% from 2014 to 2024, a considerably greater than average job growth rate when compared to other professions. Factors leading to this growth include an aging population, new discoveries leading to new areas of research, and increasing utilization of medications. Government funding for research will also continue to influence the demand for this specialty.<ref name=":0" />

=== Education ===
Neuroscientists typically enroll in a four-year undergraduate program and then move on to a PhD program for graduate studies. Once finished with their graduate studies, neuroscientists may continue doing postdoctoral work to gain more lab experience and explore new laboratory methods.  In their undergraduate years, neuroscientists typically take physical and life science courses to gain a foundation in the field of research. Typical undergraduate majors include [[biology]], [[behavioral neuroscience]], and [[cognitive neuroscience]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bigfuture.collegeboard.org/majors/biological-biomedical-sciences-neuroscience|title=Neuroscience College Degree Programs - The College Board|website=bigfuture.collegeboard.org|access-date=2016-03-30|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420063955/https://bigfuture.collegeboard.org/majors/biological-biomedical-sciences-neuroscience|archive-date=2016-04-20}}</ref>

Many colleges and universities now have PhD training programs in the neurosciences, often with divisions between [[Cognitive neuroscience|cognitive]], [[Cellular neuroscience|cellular]] and [[Molecular neuroscience|molecular]], [[Computational neuroscience|computational]] and [[Systems neuroscience|systems]] neuroscience.

=== Interdisciplinary fields ===
[[Neuroscience]] has a unique perspective in that it can be applied in a broad range of disciplines, and thus the fields neuroscientists work in vary. Neuroscientists may study topics from the large hemispheres of the brain to neurotransmitters and synapses occurring in neurons at a micro-level. Some fields that combine psychology and neurobiology include [[cognitive neuroscience]], and behavioural neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscientists study human [[consciousness]], specifically the brain, and how it can be seen through a lens of biochemical and biophysical processes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://careersinpsychology.org/becoming-a-cognitive-neuroscientist/|title=How To Become A Cognitive Neuroscientist {{!}} CareersinPsychology.org|website=careersinpsychology.org|access-date=2016-03-29|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20160329032751/http://careersinpsychology.org/becoming-a-cognitive-neuroscientist/|archive-date=2016-03-29}}</ref>  Behavioral neuroscience encompasses the whole nervous system, environment and the brain how these areas show us aspects of motivation, learning, and motor skills along with many others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.psychology.ucsd.edu/research-areas/cognitive-behavior-neuroscience.html|title=Cognitive & Behavioral Neuroscience|website=www.psychology.ucsd.edu|access-date=2016-03-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401111758/http://psychology.ucsd.edu/research-areas/cognitive-behavior-neuroscience.html|archive-date=2016-04-01}}</ref> Computational neuroscience uses mathematical models to understand how the brain processes information.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Computational neuroscience - Latest research and news {{!}} Nature|url=https://www.nature.com/subjects/computational-neuroscience|access-date=2020-11-16|website=www.nature.com}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Egyptian understanding and early Greeks ===
[[File:Hieroglyphic-brain.jpg|thumb|[[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Hieroglyphic]] stating the word, "brain", dated to 1700 BC. This work is considered a copy of an original writing as old as 3000 BC.]]

Some of the first writings about the brain come from the [[Egyptians]]. In about 3000 BC the first known written description of the brain also indicated that the location of brain injuries may be related to specific symptoms. This document contrasted common theory at the time. Most of the Egyptians' other writings are very spiritual, describing thought and feelings as responsibilities of the [[heart]]. This idea was widely accepted and can be found into 17th century [[Europe]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Gross|first=Charles|date=1987|title=Early History of Neuroscience|url=https://www.princeton.edu/~cggross/Hist_Neurosci_Ency_neurosci.pdf|journal=Encyclopedia of Neuroscience|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222254/http://www.princeton.edu/~cggross/Hist_Neurosci_Ency_neurosci.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-03}}</ref>

[[Plato]] believed that the brain was the locus of mental processes. However, [[Aristotle]] believed instead the heart to be the source of mental processes and that the brain acted as a cooling system for the cardiovascular system.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Applied Neuroscience for the Allied Health Professions|last=McBean|first=Douglas|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2012|pages=2–3}}</ref>

[[Galen]] described the seven [[cranial nerves]]' functions along with giving a foundational understanding of the [[spinal cord]]. He believed that sensory sensation was caused in the middle of the brain, while the motor sensations were produced in the anterior portion of the brain. Galen imparted some ideas on [[mental health]] disorders and what caused these disorders to arise. He believed that the cause was backed-up [[black bile]], and that [[epilepsy]] was caused by [[phlegm]]. Galen's observations on neuroscience were not challenged for many years.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Neuroscience, Early History of|last=Gross|first=Charles|publisher=Encyclopedia of Neuroscience|year=1987|pages=843–847}}</ref>

=== Medieval European beliefs and Andreas Vesalius ===
[[Middle Ages|Medieval]] beliefs generally held true the proposals of Galen, including the attribution of mental processes to specific ventricles in the brain. Functions of regions of the brain were defined based on their texture and composition: [[memory]] function was attributed to the posterior ventricle, a harder region of the brain and thus a good place for memory storage.<ref name=":2" />

[[Andreas Vesalius]] redirected the study of [[neuroscience]] away from the anatomical focus; he considered the attribution of functions based on location to be crude. Pushing away from the superficial proposals made by Galen and medieval beliefs, Vesalius did not believe that studying anatomy would lead to any significant advances in the understanding of thinking and the brain.<ref name=":2" />

== Current and developing research topics ==<!-- Commented out: [[File:Muse-the 2nd law lp.jpg|thumb|[[Muse (band)|Muse's]] album cover for "The Second Law" features an image produced by the Human Connectome Project, illustrating the complex connections of the human brain.]] -->

Research in neuroscience is expanding and becoming increasingly interdisciplinary. <!-- Commented out: [[File:Muse-the 2nd law lp.jpg|thumb|Cover of rock-band [[Muse (band)|Muse's]] album "The Second Law", the image showing a neural mapping image produced by the Human Connectome Project]] --> Many current research projects involve the integration of computer programs in mapping the human nervous system. The National Institutes of Health ([[National Institutes of Health|NIH]]) sponsored [[Human Connectome Project]], launched in 2009, hopes to establish a highly detailed map of the human nervous system and its millions of connections. Detailed neural mapping could lead the way for advances in the diagnosis and treatment of [[neurological disorder]]s.

Neuroscientists are also at work studying [[epigenetics]], the study of how certain factors that we face in our everyday lives not only affect us and our genes but also how they will affect our children and change their genes to adapt to the environments we faced.

=== Behavioral and developmental studies ===
Neuroscientists have been working to show how the brain is far more elastic and able to change than we once thought. They have been using work that psychologists previously reported to show how the observations work, and give a model for it.
[[File:L-Phenylalanine_wpmp.png|thumb|L-phenylalanine]]
One recent behavioral study is that of [[Phenylketonuria|phenylketonuria (PKU)]], a disorder that heavily damages the brain due to toxic levels of the [[amino acid]] [[phenylalanine]]. Before neuroscientists had studied this disorder, psychologists did not have a mechanistic understanding as to how this disorder caused high levels of the [[amino acid]] and thus treatment was not well understood, and oftentimes, was inadequate. The neuroscientists that studied this disorder used the previous observations of psychologists to propose a mechanistic model that gave a better understanding of the disorder at the molecular level. This in turn led to better understanding of the disorder as a whole and greatly changed treatment that led to better lives for patients with the disorder.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Diamond|first=Adele|last2=Amso|first2=Dima|date=2008-04-01|title=Contributions of Neuroscience to Our Understanding of Cognitive Development|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|volume=17|issue=2|pages=136–141|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00563.x|issn=0963-7214|pmc=2366939|pmid=18458793}}</ref>

Another recent study was that of [[mirror neuron]]s, neurons that fire when mimicking or observing another animal or person that is making some sort of expression, movement, or gesture. This study was again one where neuroscientists used the observations of psychologists to create a model for how the observation worked. The initial observation was that newborn infants mimicked facial expressions that were expressed to them. Scientists were not certain that newborn infants were developed enough to have complex neurons that allowed them to mimic different people and there was something else that allowed them to mimic expressions. Neuroscientists then provided a model for what was occurring and concluded that infants did in fact have these neurons that fired when watching and mimicking facial expressions.<ref name=":1" />

=== Effects of early experience on the brain ===
Neuroscientists have also studied the effects of "nurture" on the developing brain. Saul Schanberg and other neuroscientists did a study on how important nurturing touch is to the developing brains in rats. They found that the rats who were deprived of nurture from the mother for just one hour had reduced functions in processes like [[DNA synthesis]] and hormone secretion.<ref name=":1" />

[[Michael Meaney]] and his colleagues found that the offspring of mother rats who provided significant nurture and attention tended to show less fear, responded more positively to stress, and functioned at higher levels and for longer times when fully mature. They also found that the rats who were given much attention as adolescents also gave their offspring the same amount of attention and thus showed that rats raised their offspring similar to how they were raised. These studies were also seen on a microscopic level where different genes were expressed for the rats that were given high amounts of nurture and those same genes were not expressed in the rats who received less attention.<ref name=":1" />

The effects of nurture and touch were not only studied in rats, but also in [[Infant|newborn humans]]. Many neuroscientists have performed studies where the importance of touch is shown in newborn humans. The same results that were shown in rats, also held true for humans. Babies that received less touch and nurture developed slower than babies that received a lot of attention and nurture. Stress levels were also lower in babies that were nurtured regularly and cognitive development was also higher due to increased touch.<ref name=":1" /> Human offspring, much like rat offspring, thrive off of nurture, as shown by the various studies of neuroscientists.

== Famous neuroscientists ==

=== Neuroscientists awarded Nobel Prizes in physiology or medicine ===
{{See also|Neuroscience#Nobel_prizes_related_to_Neuroscience|label1=List of nobel prizes related to neuroscience}}
*[[File:May-Britt Moser 2014.jpg|thumb|[[May-Britt Moser]], co-winner of 2014 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]]][[Thomas C. Südhof]] (2013) for the discovery of the precise [[neurotransmitter]]s [[SNARE (protein)|release control system]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2013/press-release/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2013|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref>
[[File:CulturalEvents2 06$Feb$2009 xArea 1 Image.jpg|thumb|right|[[Eric Kandel]], co-winner of the 2000 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]]]

* [[Camillo Golgi]] and [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] (1906) for the development of the [[Golgi's method|silver staining method]], revealing what would later be determined as individual neurons. Cajal's interpretations of the images produced by Golgi's staining technique led to the adoption of the [[neuron doctrine]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/speedread.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906 - Speed Read|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423144043/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/speedread.html|archive-date=2016-04-23}}</ref>
* [[Charles Scott Sherrington|Charles Sherrington]] and [[Edgar Adrian]] (1932) for their discoveries of the general function of neurons, including excitatory and inhibitory signals, and the all-or-nothing response of nerve fibers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1932/speedread.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1932 - Speed Read|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401141433/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1932/speedread.html|archive-date=2016-04-01}}</ref>
* [[Henry Hallett Dale|Sir Henry Dale]] and [[Otto Loewi]] (1936) for the discovery of [[neurotransmitter]]s and identification of [[acetylcholine]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1936/speedread.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1936 - Speed Read|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401133804/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1936/speedread.html|archive-date=2016-04-01}}</ref>
* [[Joseph Erlanger]] and [[Herbert Spencer Gasser|Herbert Gasser]] (1944) for discoveries illustrating the varied timing exhibited by single nerve fibers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1944/speedread.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1944 - Speed Read|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401135152/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1944/speedread.html|archive-date=2016-04-01}}</ref>
*[[Walter Rudolf Hess]] and [[António Egas Moniz|António Caetano Egas Moniz]] (1949) for discovery of the functional organization of the [[midbrain]] and for the controversial<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2004/aug/02/highereducation.comment|title=John Sutherland: Should they de-Nobel Moniz?|last=Sutherland|first=John|date=2004-08-02|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref> therapeutic value of [[leucotomy]] respectively.
* [[Alan Lloyd Hodgkin|Alan Hodgkin]], [[Andrew Huxley]], and [[John Eccles (neurophysiologist)|Sir John Eccles]] (1963) for discovering the ionic basis of the [[action potential]] and macroscopic currents through their use of the [[squid giant axon]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1963/speedread.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1963 - Speed Read|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401130519/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1963/speedread.html|archive-date=2016-04-01}}</ref>
* [[Bernard Katz|Sir Bernard Katz]], [[Ulf von Euler]] and [[Julius Axelrod]] (1970) for the discovery of the mechanisms responsible for [[neurotransmitter]] storage, release, and inactivation. Their work included the discovery of the [[synaptic vesicle]] and [[quantal neurotransmitter release]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/speedread.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970 - Speed Read|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401131625/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/speedread.html|archive-date=2016-04-01}}</ref>
*[[Roger Guillemin]] and [[Andrew Schally|Andrew V. Schally]] (1977) for discovering the production on the brain of the [[peptide hormone]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1977/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref> 
*[[Roger Wolcott Sperry|Roger W. Sperry]], [[David H. Hubel]] and [[Torsten Wiesel|Torsten N. Wiesel]] (1981) for discoveries concerning the [[Lateralization of brain function|cerebral hemispheres specialization]] and the [[visual system]] respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1981/press-release/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1981|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref>
* [[Stanley Cohen (biochemist)|Stanley Cohen]] and [[Rita Levi-Montalcini]] (1986) for their discovery of [[nerve growth factor]] (NGF) as well as [[epidermal growth factor]] (EGF).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1986/speedread.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986 - Speed Read|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401134906/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1986/speedread.html|archive-date=2016-04-01}}</ref>
* [[Erwin Neher]] and [[Bert Sakmann]] (1991) for the development of the [[Patch clamp|patch-clamp]] recording technique, allowing, for the first time, the observation of current flow through individual ion channels. Neher and Sakmann additionally characterized the specificity of [[ion channel]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1991/speedread.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1991 - Speed Read|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401141249/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1991/speedread.html|archive-date=2016-04-01}}</ref>
* [[Arvid Carlsson]], [[Paul Greengard]] and [[Eric Kandel]] (2000) for the discovery of neural [[signal transduction]] pathways upon neurotransmitter binding, as well as the establishment of [[dopamine]] as a primary acting neurotransmitter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/speedread.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000 - Speed Read|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401133019/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/speedread.html|archive-date=2016-04-01}}</ref>
*[[Richard Axel]] and [[Linda B. Buck]] (2004) for their discoveries concerning the [[olfactory system]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2004/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref>
*[[John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)|John O'Keefe]], [[Edvard I. Moser]] and [[May-Britt Moser]] (2014) for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2014/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007190458/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2014/|archive-date=2014-10-07}}</ref>
*[[Jeffrey C. Hall]], [[Michael Rosbash]] and [[Michael W. Young|Michael W, Young]] (2017) "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the [[circadian rhythm]]"<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2017|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2017/summary/|access-date=2020-09-06|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Neuroscientists in popular culture ===
* [[Victor Frankenstein]], title character of [[Mary Shelley|Mary Shelley's]] 1818 novel ''[[Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus]]''
* [[Amy Farrah Fowler]], Ph.D, main character in [[CBS|CBS's]] ''[[The Big Bang Theory]]''. She is played by [[Mayim Bialik]], who also holds a Ph.D. in neuroscience.
* Dr. Cameron Goodkin, main character in [[Stitchers]]. Before his work at the NSA, he was a researcher at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]].

==See also==

* [[List of neuroscientists]]
* [[List of women neuroscientists]]
* [[International Brain Research Organization]]
* [[Society for Neuroscience]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*Interview with [[Nora Volkow]], Director, [[National Institute on Drug Abuse]]. "[http://molinterv.aspetjournals.org/cgi/content/full/4/5/243 Nora Volkow: Motivated Neuroscientist]"  in ''Molecular Interventions'' (2004) Volume  4, pages 243–247.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051220051248/http://science.education.nih.gov/women/careers/Penn/penn.html Women in neuroscience research] from the [[National Institutes of Health|NIH]] Office of Science Education.
*[http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/csem.html To Become a Neuroscientist] maintained by Eric Chudler at the [[University of Washington]].

{{Neuroscience}}
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[[Category:Neuroscientists| ]]
[[Category:Science occupations]]