Editing New Model Army

{{Short description|English Civil War army (1645–60)}}
{{About|the 17th-century Parliamentarian military|the band|New Model Army (band)}}
{{For|the New Army in 20th-century Britain|Kitchener's Army}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name  = New Model Army
| image      = [[Image:New Model Army - Soldier's catechism.jpg|center|border|190px]]
| caption    = ''The Souldiers Catechiſme'':{{sfn|Ram|1644|p=15}} Religious justification for the New Model Army
| dates      = 1645–1660
| country    = {{Flag|Commonwealth of England}}
| allegiance = {{plainlist|
*[[English Council of State|Council of State]] (1649–1653; 1659–1660)
*[[Lord Protector]] (1653–1659)}}
| branch     =
| type       = [[Army]]
| size       =
| command_structure =
| garrison   =
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| motto      =
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| march      =
| mascot     =
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| battles    = {{plainlist|
*[[First English Civil War]]
*[[Second English Civil War]]
*[[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland|Conquest of Ireland]]
*[[Third English Civil War]]
*[[First Anglo-Dutch War]]
*[[Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660)|Second Anglo-Spanish War]]}}
| anniversaries =
| decorations =
| battle_honours =
<!-- Commanders -->
| commander1 = [[Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax of Cameron|Thomas Fairfax]], [[George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle|George Monck]]
| commander1_label = Commander-in-Chief
| commander2 = 
| commander2_label =
| commander3 =
| commander3_label =
| notable_commanders = [[Oliver Cromwell]], [[Thomas Pride]], [[John Lambert (General)|John Lambert]], [[Henry Ireton]], [[William Lockhart of Lee|William Lockhart]] 
<!-- Insignia -->
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}}

The '''New Model Army''' or '''New Modelled Army''' was a [[standing army]] formed in 1645 by the [[Roundhead|Parliamentarians]] during the [[First English Civil War]], then disbanded after the [[Stuart Restoration]] in 1660. It differed from other armies employed in the 1639 to 1653 [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] in that members were liable for service anywhere in the country, rather than being limited to a single area or [[garrison]]. To establish a professional officer corps, the army's leaders were prohibited from having seats in either the [[House of Lords]] or [[House of Commons of England|House of Commons]]. This was to encourage their separation from the political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians.

The New Model Army was raised partly from among veteran soldiers who already had deeply held [[Puritans|Puritan]] religious beliefs, and partly from [[conscription|conscripts]] who brought with them many commonly held beliefs about religion or society. Many of its common soldiers therefore held [[English Dissenters|dissenting]] or radical views unique among English armies. Although the Army's senior officers did not share many of their soldiers' political opinions, their independence from [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] led to the Army's willingness to contribute to both Parliament's authority and to overthrow the Crown, and to establish a [[Commonwealth of England]] from 1649 to 1660, which included a period of direct military rule.

==Foundation==
[[File:General Thomas Fairfax (1612-1671) by Robert Walker and studio.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|Sir [[Thomas Fairfax]], appointed commander of the New Model Army in April 1645]]

The forces raised in 1642 by both [[Cavaliers|Royalists]] and [[Roundhead|Parliamentarians]] were based on part-time militia known as [[Trained bands]]. Founded in 1572, these were organised by [[county]], controlled by [[Lord-lieutenant]]s appointed by the king, and constituted the only permanent military force in the country. The muster roll of February 1638 shows wide variations in size, equipment and training; the largest and best trained were based in [[London]] with 8,000, later increased to 20,000.{{Sfn|Hutton|2003|pp=5–6}} When the [[First English Civil War]] began in August 1642, many of the largest militia were based in Parliamentarian areas like London, while Royalist counties like [[Shropshire]] or [[Glamorgan]] had fewer than 500 men.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trained Bands |url=http://wiki.bcw-project.org/trained-band/start |website=BCW Project |access-date=13 March 2020}}</ref>

The weakness of this system was the reluctance of locally raised troops to serve outside their "home" areas, a problem for both sides during the war. On 19 November 1644, the Parliamentarian [[Eastern Association]] announced that they could no longer meet the cost of maintaining their forces, which then comprised about half the field force available to Parliament. In response, the [[Committee of Both Kingdoms]] conducted a wide-ranging review of further military needs and recommended the establishment of a centralised, professional force. On 30 January 1645, committeemen of the Eastern Association discussed their concerns at the [[Bury Conference (1645)|Bury Conference]] at [[Bury St Edmunds]].<ref name="Alfred Kingston (1897)">{{cite book |last1=Kingston |first1=Alfred |title=East Anglia and the Great Civil War |date=1897 |publisher=Elliot Stock |location=London}}</ref>{{rp|191}} On 17 February 1645, the New Model Army Ordinance became law, with Sir [[Thomas Fairfax]] being appointed Captain General, or commander in chief, and [[Philip Skippon]] being appointed Major General of the Foot.{{sfn|Wanklyn|2014|p=111}}{{sfn|Young|Holmes|2000|p=227}}

The review coincided with increasing dissatisfaction as to the conduct of certain senior commanders; in July 1644, a Parliamentarian force under Fairfax and [[Oliver Cromwell]] secured control of [[Northern England]] by victory at [[Battle of Marston Moor|Marston Moor]]. However, this was offset first by defeat at [[Battle of Lostwithiel|Lostwithiel]] in September, then lack of decisiveness at the [[Second Battle of Newbury]] in October. The two commanders involved, [[Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex|Essex]] and [[Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester|Manchester]], were accused by many in [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] of lacking commitment, a group that included moderates like Sir [[William Waller]] as well as radicals like Cromwell.{{Sfn|Cotton|1975|p=212}}

In December 1644, [[Henry Vane the Younger|Sir Henry Vane]] introduced the [[Self-denying Ordinance]], requiring those holding military commissions to resign from Parliament. As members of the [[House of Lords]], Manchester and Essex were automatically removed, since unlike [[Members of Parliament|MPs]] they could not resign their titles, although they could be re-appointed, 'if Parliament approved.'{{sfn|Wedgwood|1983|pp=398–399}} Although delayed by the Lords, the Ordinance came into force on 3 April 1645. Since Cromwell was [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for [[Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency)|Cambridge]], command of the cavalry was initially given to Colonel [[Bartholomew Vermuyden]], a former officer in the Eastern Association who was of Dutch origin and wanted to return home.{{Sfn|Roberts|2017}} Fairfax asked that Cromwell be appointed Lieutenant General of the Horse in place of Vermuyden, making him one of two original exceptions to the Self-denying Ordinance, the other being [[Sir William Brereton, 1st Baronet|Sir William Brereton]], commander in [[Cheshire]]. They were allowed to serve under a series of three-month temporary commissions that were continually extended.{{sfn|Royle|2004|p=319}}

Other Parliamentarian forces were consolidated into two regional armies, the ''Northern Association'' under [[Sydnam Poyntz]]<ref>{{CiteDNB|wstitle=Poyntz, Sydenham}}</ref> and ''Western Association'' under [[Edward Massey]].<ref>{{CiteDNB|wstitle=Massey, Edward}}</ref>

===Establishment and character===
[[File:Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Oliver Cromwell]], appointed commander of the cavalry]]

Parliament authorised an Army of 22,000 soldiers, most of whom came from three existing Parliamentarian armies; that commanded by the Earl of Essex, Waller's Southern Association and the Eastern Association under the Earl of Manchester.{{Sfn|Wanklyn|2014|pp=109–110}} It comprised 6,600 cavalry, divided into eleven units of 600 men, 14,400 foot, comprising twelve regiments of 1,200 men, and 1,000 [[dragoon]]s. Originally each regiment of cavalry had a company of dragoons attached, but at the urging of Fairfax on 1 March they were formed into a separate unit commanded by Colonel [[John Okey]].{{Sfn|Ede-Borrett|2009|pp=206–207}} Although the cavalry regiments were already up to strength, the infantry was severely understrength and in May 1645 was still 4,000 men below the approved level.{{sfn|Rogers|1968|p=207}}

By creating fewer but larger regiments, the re-organisation greatly reduced the requirement for officers and senior [[Non-commissioned officer|NCOs]]. Fairfax had more than double the number of officers available for his 200 vacancies and those deemed surplus to requirements were either discharged or persuaded to re-enlist at a lower rank.{{Sfn|Wanklyn|2014|p=111}} Essex and Manchester raised objections to around 30% of those on the list, for reasons that are still debated, but ultimately only five changes were approved.{{Sfn|HMSO|1802|pp=64–65}} In addition, several Scots officers refused to take up their appointments, including [[John Middleton, 1st Earl of Middleton|John Middleton]], originally colonel of the Second Regiment of Horse.{{Sfn|Temple|1986|p=64}}

The standard daily pay was 8 pence for infantry and 2 [[Shilling (English coin)|shillings]] for cavalry, who also had to supply their own horses, while the administration of the Army was more centralised, with improved provision of adequate food, clothing and other supplies. At the same time, recruits were also supposed to be motivated by religious fervour, as demonstrated in the "Soldier's catechism", written by [[Robert Ram]].{{sfn|Ram|1644|p=15}} On 9 June 1645, Sir [[Samuel Luke]], one of the officers discharged, wrote the Army was "the bravest for bodies of men, horse and arms so far as the common soldiers as ever I saw in my life". However, he later complained many soldiers were drunk and their officers were often indistinguishable from enlisted men.{{sfn|Rogers|1968|pp=208–209}}

The extent to which the Army can be seen as a hotbed of religious and political radicalism is disputed, particularly since many of those now viewed as radicals, like [[Thomas Horton (soldier)|Thomas Horton]] or [[Thomas Pride]], were not considered such at the time. It is generally agreed that Fairfax, himself a moderate Presbyterian, sought to achieve a balance, while Essex and Manchester tried to remove those they viewed as unsuitable.{{Sfn|Wanklyn|2014|pp=113–115}} What is debated is whether they did so for military reasons, favouring the retention of established officer cadres, or to eliminate personal enemies and those considered too radical. Ultimately they failed and Fairfax successfully achieved his objective.{{Sfn|Temple|1986|pp=52–54}}

===Name===
The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' dated the earliest use of the phrase "New Model Army" to the works of the Scottish historian [[Thomas Carlyle]] in 1845, and the exact term does not appear in 17th- or 18th-century documents. Records from February 1646 refer to the "New Modelled Army"—the idiom of the time being to refer to an army that was "new-modelled" rather than appending the word "army" to "new model".{{sfn|Simpson|2013}}

===Original order of battle===
The order of battle was as follows:{{Sfn|Lipscombe|2020|p=349}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Type
! Colonel
! Origin
! Notes
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| Sir Thomas Fairfax's Regiment
| Army of the [[Eastern Association]]
| Formerly part of [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s double regiment of '[[Ironside (cavalry)|Ironsides]]'. Sir Thomas Fairfax's Lifeguard (formerly the Earl of Essex's Lifeguard troop) formed extra senior troop.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| [[Edward Whalley]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Eastern Association
| Formerly part of Oliver Cromwell's double regiment of 'Ironsides'. [[Richard Baxter]] served as chaplain July 1645 – July 1646.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| [[Charles Fleetwood]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Eastern Association
| Said to have many Independents in its ranks
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| [[Nathaniel Rich (soldier)|Nathaniel Rich]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Eastern Association
| Formerly the [[Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester|Earl of Manchester]]'s Regiment. Originally intended for [[Algernon Sydney]], who declined the appointment due to health concerns. Rich had earlier been rejected by the Commons for a colonelcy.<ref name="JotHoC">{{citation|title=Die Veneris, Februarii 28, 1644|work= Journal of the House of Commons|volume= 4 1644–1646 |location=London|date= 1802|pages= 64–65|via=British History Online|url= http://www.british-history.ac.uk/commons-jrnl/vol4/pp64-65 |access-date=28 May 2016}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| [[Bartholomew Vermuyden]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Eastern Association
| Taken over by Oliver Cromwell after Naseby. Vermuyden, one of the last non-English regimental commanders, resigned in July 1645.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| Richard Graves' Regiment
| Army of the Earl of Essex
| Formerly the Earl of Essex's Regiment. After June 1647, it was commanded by [[Adrian Scrope]]. It was disbanded after 1649 Leveller Mutiny at Burford.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| Sir Robert Pye's Regiment
| Army of the Earl of Essex
| Originally intended for Nathaniel Rich, whose nomination was the only colonelcy rejected by the Commons, though he later received a commission when [[Algernon Sydney]] declined his nomination. Pye replaced by Matthew Tomlinson in 1647.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| Thomas Sheffield's Regiment
| Army of the Earl of Essex
| Sheffield replaced by [[Thomas Harrison (soldier)|Thomas Harrison]] in 1647
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| John Butler's Regiment
| Army of the Southern Association
| Originally intended for [[John Middleton, 1st Earl of Middleton|John Middleton]], who declined so he could serve in Scotland against the [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|Earl of Montrose]]. Butler replaced by [[Thomas Horton (soldier)|Thomas Horton]] in 1647
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| [[Henry Ireton]]'s Regiment{{refn|group=tablenote|name=House of Lords}}
| Army of the Southern Association
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| [[Edward Rossiter]]'s Regiment
| Newly raised
| Originally intended to serve in [[Lincolnshire]]. Rossiter was replaced by [[Philip Twisleton]] in 1647
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Dragoons
| [[John Okey]]'s Regiment{{refn|group=tablenote|name=House of Lords}}
| Mixed
| Later converted to a regiment of Horse
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| Sir Thomas Fairfax's Regiment
| Army of the Earl of Essex
| Originally the Earl of Essex's Regiment but contained some companies from the Eastern Association
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| [[Robert Hammond (English army officer)|Robert Hammond]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Eastern Association
| Originally intended for [[Lawrence Crawford (soldier)|Lawrence Crawford]], who refused to serve in the New Model Army
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| [[Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich|Edward Montagu]]'s Regiment{{refn|group=tablenote|name=House of Lords}}
| Army of the Eastern Association
| Montague withdrew from the Army when he was elected MP for Huntingdonshire in October 1645. Replaced by [[John Lambert (general)|John Lambert]].
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| [[John Pickering (soldier)|John Pickering's]] Regiment{{refn|group=tablenote|name=House of Commons}}
| Army of the Eastern Association
| Pickering died of an illness at Antre and was replaced by [[John Hewson (regicide)|John Hewson]] in December 1646.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| [[Thomas Rainsborough]]'s Regiment{{refn|group=tablenote|name=House of Commons}}
| Army of the Eastern Association
| Originally intended for Colonel Ayloff, who refused to serve in New Model Army.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| Sir [[Philip Skippon]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Earl of Essex
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| Richard Fortescue's Regiment
| Army of the Earl of Essex
| Fortescue replaced by [[John Barkstead]] in 1647. This regiment suffered the deaths of three successive lieutenant colonels in battle. It was unusual for such high-ranking officers to die.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| Edward Harley's Regiment
| Army of the Earl of Essex
| Originally intended for Colonel Harry Barclay, a Scottish colonel. Harley did not serve in 1645, as he was still recovering from wounds. Lieutenant Colonel [[Thomas Pride]] commanded in his absence, and succeeded to command in 1647.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| [[Richard Ingoldsby]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Earl of Essex
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| Walter Lloyd's Regiment
| Army of the Earl of Essex
| Originally intended for Colonel Edward Aldrich, who refused to command this particular regiment because it was composed of soldiers from many different precursor regiments. Lloyd died in battle in June 1645 and was replaced by William Herbert, who was in turn replaced by [[Robert Overton]] in 1647.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| [[Hardress Waller]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Southern Association
| Originally intended for Scottish colonel [[James Holborne of Menstrie#Major General Sir James Holborne in the Civil War|James Holborne]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Foot
| Ralph Weldon's Regiment
| Army of the Southern Association
| Originally the "Kentish Regiment". Weldon was replaced by [[Robert Lilburne]] in spring 1646 when Weldon was appointed governor of [[Plymouth]]. Weldon's Lieutenant Colonel, Nicholas Kempson, was passed over for promotion and undermined Lilburne's command.
|}

{{reflist|group=tablenote|refs=
{{refn|group=tablenote|name=House of Lords|a significant effort by the House of Lords to block appointment.}}
{{refn|group=tablenote|name=House of Commons|a significant effort by the House of Commons to block appointment.}}
}}

==Dress, equipment and tactics==

===Horse===

The New Model Army's elite troops were its Regiments of [[cavalry|Horse]]. They were armed and equipped in the style known at the time as [[harquebusier]]s, rather than as heavily armoured [[cuirassier]]s. They wore a back-and-front breastplate over a [[Buff coat|buff leather coat]], which itself gave some protection against sword cuts, and normally a [[lobster-tailed pot helmet]] with a movable three-barred visor.{{sfn|LaFontaine|1998|p=33}}

Regiments were organised into six troops, of one hundred troopers plus officers, non-commissioned officers and specialists ([[Drummer (military)|drummers]], [[farriers]] etc.). Each troop had its own standard, {{convert|2|ft|cm}} square. On the battlefield, a regiment was normally formed as two "divisions" of three troops, one commanded by the regiment's colonel (or the major, if the colonel was not present), the other by the lieutenant colonel.{{sfn|Young|Holmes|2000|pp=44–46}}

Their discipline was markedly superior to that of their Royalist counterparts. Cromwell specifically forbade his men to gallop after a fleeing enemy, but demanded they hold the battlefield. This meant that the New Model cavalry could charge, break an enemy force, regroup and charge again at another objective. On the other hand, when required to pursue, they did so relentlessly, not breaking ranks to loot abandoned enemy baggage as Royalist horse often did.{{sfn|Rogers|1968|p=239}}

===Dragoons===
The New Model Army contained one regiment of [[dragoon]]s of twelve companies, each of one hundred men, under Colonel [[John Okey]]. Dragoons were mounted infantry, and wore much the same uniform as musketeers although they probably wore stout cloth gaiters to protect the legs while they rode. They were armed with [[flintlock]] "[[snaphaunce]]s".{{sfn|Roberts|2005|p=92}}

On the battlefield, their major function was to clear enemy musketeers from in front of their main position. At the [[Battle of Naseby]], they were used to outflank enemy cavalry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/content/docs/listing/battlefields/naseby/|title=English Heritage Battlefield Report: Naseby 1645|publisher=Historic England|access-date=17 May 2023}}</ref>

In 1650, Okey's dragoons were converted into a regiment of horse. It appears that after that date, unregimented companies of dragoons raised from the Militia and other sources were attached to the regiments of horse and foot as required. This was the case at the [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Battle of Dunbar]] on 3 September 1650.{{sfn|Young|Holmes|2000|p=300}}

===Foot===
[[Image:Manual of the Musketeer, 17th Century.jpg|thumb|right|Drill manual for musketeers]]
The Regiments of Foot consisted of ten companies, in which [[musketeer]]s and [[pikeman|pikemen]] were mixed, at least on the march. Seven companies consisted of one hundred soldiers, plus officers, specialists and so on, and were commanded by captains. The other three companies were nominally commanded by the regiment's colonel, lieutenant colonel and major, and were stronger (200, 160 and 140 ordinary soldiers respectively).{{sfn|Roberts|2005|p=128}}

The regiments of foot were provided with [[Red coat (British army)|red coats]]. Red was chosen because uniforms were purchased competitively from the lowest bidder, and [[Venetian red]] was the least expensive dye. Those used by the various regiments were distinguished by differently coloured linings, which showed at the collar and ends of the sleeves, and generally matched the colours of the regimental and company standards. In time, they became the official "[[Facing colour]]".{{sfn|Roberts|2005|p=50}} On some occasions, regiments were referred to, for example, as the "blue" regiment or the "white" regiment from these colours, though in formal correspondence they were referred to by the name of their colonel. Each company had its own standard, {{convert|6|ft|cm}} square. The colonel's company's standard was plain, the lieutenant colonel's had a cross of Saint George in the upper corner nearest the staff, the major's had a "flame" issuing from the cross, and the captains' standards had increasing numbers of heraldic decorations, such as roundels or crosses to indicate their seniority.{{sfn|Money|1884|p=80}}

The New Model Army always had two musketeers for each pikeman,{{sfn|Firth|1972|p=70}} though depictions of battles show them present in equal numbers.{{efn|Two musketeers for each pikeman was not the agreed mix used throughout Europe, and when in 1658 Cromwell, by then the [[Lord Protector (Cromwell)|Lord Protector]], sent a contingent of the New Model Army to Flanders to support his French allies under the terms of the [[Treaty of Paris (1657)]] he supplied regiments with equal numbers of musketeers and pikemen {{harv|Firth|1898|pp=76–77}}.}}

Pikemen, when fully equipped, wore a [[morion (helmet)|pot helmet]], back- and breastplates over a buff coat, and often also armoured [[tasset]]s to protect the upper legs. They carried a sixteen-foot pike, and a sword. The heavily burdened pikeman usually dictated the speed of the Army's movement. They were frequently ordered to discard the tassets, and individual soldiers were disciplined for sawing a foot or two from the butts of their pikes,{{sfn|Roberts|2005|p=69}} although senior officers were recommended to make the men accustomed to marching with heavy loads by regular route marches. In irregular fighting in Ireland, the New Model temporarily gave up the pike.{{sfn|Firth|1972|p=78}} In battle, the pikemen were supposed to project a solid front of spearheads, to protect the musketeers from cavalry while they reloaded. They also led the infantry advance against enemy foot units, when things came to [[push of pike]].{{sfn|Young|Holmes|2000|p=47}}

The musketeers wore no armour, at least by the end of the Civil War,{{sfn|Firth|1972|p=91}} although it is not certain that none had iron helmets at the beginning. They wore a bandolier from which were suspended twelve wooden containers, each with a ball and measured charge of powder for their [[matchlock]] muskets. These containers are sometimes referred to as the "Twelve Apostles".{{sfn|Falls|1969|p=294}} According to one source, they carried 1&nbsp;lb of fine powder, for priming, to 2&nbsp;lbs of lead and 2&nbsp;lbs of ordinary powder, the actual charging powder, for 3&nbsp;lbs of lead.{{sfn|Firth|1972|p=81}} They were normally deployed six ranks deep, and were supposed to keep up a constant fire by means of the ''countermarch''—either by introduction whereby the rear rank filed to the front to fire a volley, or by ''retroduction'' where the front rank fired a volley then filed to the rear. By the time that they reached the front rank again, they should have reloaded and been prepared to fire. At close quarters, there was often no time for musketeers to reload, and they used their musket butts as clubs. They carried [[tuck (sword)|swords]], but these were often of inferior quality, and ruined by use for cutting firewood.{{sfn|Roberts|2005|p=70}}

===Artillery===
[[Image:Demi-culverin-circa-1587.jpg|right|thumb|A typical cannon used during the English Civil War]]
The establishment of the New Model Army's [[artillery]] varied over time, and the artillery was administered separately from the Horse and Foot. At the Army's formation, Thomas Hammond (brother of Colonel Robert Hammond who commanded a Regiment of Foot) was appointed Lieutenant General of the Ordnance.{{sfn|Young|Holmes|2000|p=231}}

The establishment of the New Model also included at least two companies of "firelocks" or [[fusilier]]s, who wore "[[tawny (color)|tawny]] coats" instead of red,{{sfn|Firth|1972|p=88}} commanded initially by Major [[John Desborough]].{{sfn|Young|Holmes|2000|p=231}}

The artillery was used to most effect in [[sieges]], where its role was to blast breaches in fortifications for the infantry to assault. Cromwell and the other commanders of the Army were not trained in siege warfare and generally tried to take fortified towns by storm rather than go through the complex and time-consuming process of building earthworks and trenches around it so that batteries of cannon could be brought close to the walls to pound it into surrender. The Army generally performed well when storming fortifications, for example at the [[siege of Drogheda]], but paid a heavy price at [[siege of Clonmel|Clonmel]] when Cromwell ordered them to attack a well-defended breach.{{sfn|Wheeler|1999|pp=151-158}}

===Logistics===
The New Model did not use tents, instead being quartered in whatever buildings (houses, barns etc.) were available, until they began to serve in the less populated areas of the countries of Ireland and Scotland. In 1650, their tents were each for six men, a file, who carried the tents in parts.{{sfn|Firth|1972|p=248}} In campaigns in Scotland, the troops carried with them seven days' rations, consisting exclusively of biscuit and cheese.{{sfn|Firth|1972|pp=222–223}}

==Civil War campaigns==

The Army took the field in late April or May, 1645. After an attempt to raise the [[siege of Taunton]] was abandoned, the Army began a [[siege of Oxford]], sending a detachment of one regiment of cavalry and four of infantry to reinforce the defenders of Taunton. After the Royalists captured [[Leicester]], Fairfax was ordered to leave Oxford and march north to confront the King's army. On 14 June, the New Model destroyed King Charles' smaller but veteran army at the [[Battle of Naseby]]. Leaving the Scots and locally raised forces to contain the King, Fairfax marched into the [[West Country]], where they destroyed the remaining Royalist field army at [[Battle of Langport|Langport]] on 10 July. Thereafter, they reduced the Royalist fortresses in the west and south of England. The last fortress in the west surrendered in early 1646, shortly before Charles surrendered himself to a Scottish army and hostilities ended.{{Sfn|Royle|2004|p=393}}

===Revolutionary politics and the "Agreement of the People"===
Having won the [[First English Civil War|First Civil War]], the soldiers became discontented with the [[Long Parliament]], for several reasons. Firstly, they had not been paid regularly – pay was weeks in arrears – and on the end of hostilities, the [[Small-c conservative|conservative]] MPs in Parliament wanted to either disband the Army or send them to fight in Ireland without addressing the issue of back pay. Secondly, the Long Parliament refused to grant the soldiers [[amnesty]] from prosecution for any criminal acts they had been ordered to commit in the Civil War. The soldiers demanded indemnity as several soldiers were hanged after the war for crimes such as stealing horses for use by the cavalry regiments. Thirdly, seeing that most Parliamentarians wanted to restore the King without major democratic reforms or religious freedom.{{efn| Under the influence of the [[Committee of Both Kingdoms]] which joined English and Scottish Covenantor causes Parliament was inclined to installation of Presbyterianism across England while the NMA tended towards the [[Independent (religion)|Independent]] cause of freedom of religion. }}

Two representatives, called Agitators, were elected from each regiment. The Agitators, with two officers from each regiment and the Generals, formed a new body called the [[Army Council (1647)|Army Council]]. At a meeting ("rendezvous") held near [[Newmarket, Suffolk]] on 4 June 1647 this council issued "A [[Solemn Engagement|Solemne Engagement]] of the Army, under the Command of his Excellency Sir Thomas Fairfax" to Parliament on 8 June making their concerns known.{{sfn|Fairfax|General Council of the New Model Army|1647}}

[[Image:Agreement of the People (1647-1649).jpg|thumb|right|Agreement of the People (1647–1649)]]
Having come into contact with ideas from the radical movement called the [[Levellers]], the troops of the Army proposed a revolutionary new constitution named the [[Agreement of the People]], which called for almost universal male suffrage, electoral boundary reform, power to rest with a Parliament elected by the people every two years, religious freedom, and an end to imprisonment for debt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/history/england/english-revolution/may-day.htm|title=An agreement of the free people of England April 30 1649|website=www.marxists.org}}</ref>

Increasingly concerned at the failure to pay their wages and by political manoeuvrings by King Charles I and by some in Parliament, the army marched slowly towards London over the next few months. In late October and early November at the [[Putney Debates]], the Army debated two different proposals. The first was the ''Agreement of the People''; the other was the ''[[Heads of Proposals]]'', put forward by Henry Ireton for the Army Council.{{sfn|Smith|1994|p=132}}

===Second English Civil War===

The army remained under control and intact, so it was able to take the field when the [[Second English Civil War]] broke out in July 1648. The New Model Army routed English royalist insurrections in [[Surrey]] and [[Kent]], and in [[Wales]], before crushing a Scottish invasion force at the [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Battle of Preston]] in August.{{sfnp|Chisholm|1911}}

Many of the Army's radicals now called for the execution of the King, whom they called "[[Charles Stuart, that man of blood]]". The majority of the Grandees realised that they could neither negotiate a settlement with Charles I, nor trust him to refrain from raising another army to attack them, so they came reluctantly to the same conclusion as the radicals: they would have to execute him. After the Long Parliament rejected the Army's ''Remonstrance''{{efn|Full title: "Remonstrance of his Excellency Thomas Lord Fairfax, Lord Generall of the Parliaments Forces. And of the Generall Councell of Officers Held at St. Albans the 16. of November, 1648"}} by 125 to 58, the Grandees decided to reconstitute Parliament so that it would agree with the Army's position. On 6 December 1648, Colonel [[Thomas Pride]] instituted [[Pride's Purge]] and forcibly removed from the House of Commons all those who were not supporters of the [[Independent (religion)|religious independents]] and the Grandees in the Army. The much-reduced [[Rump Parliament]] passed the necessary legislation to try Charles I. He was found guilty of high treason by the [[List of regicides of Charles I|59 Commissioners]] and [[Decapitation|beheaded]] on 30 January 1649.{{sfn|Hibbert|1968|p=280}}

During 1649, there were three mutinies over pay and political demands. The first involved 300 infantrymen of Colonel [[John Hewson (regicide)|John Hewson]]'s regiment, who declared that they would not serve in Ireland until the Levellers' programme had been realised. They were cashiered without arrears of pay, which was the threat that had been used to quell the mutiny at the Corkbush Field rendezvous.{{sfn|Wallace|2013|p=105}}

In the [[Bishopsgate mutiny]], soldiers of the regiment of Colonel [[Edward Whalley]] stationed in [[Bishopsgate]], in London, made demands similar to those of Hewson's regiment. They were ordered out of London.{{sfn|Wallace|2013|p=105}}

Less than two weeks later, there was a larger mutiny involving several regiments over pay and political demands. After the resolution of the pay issue, the [[Banbury mutiny|Banbury mutineers]], consisting of 400 soldiers with Leveller sympathies under the command of Captain [[William Thompson (leveller)|William Thompson]], continued to negotiate for their political demands. They set out for [[Salisbury]] in the hope of rallying support from the regiments billeted there. Cromwell launched a night attack on 13 May, in which several mutineers perished, but Captain Thompson escaped, only to be killed in another skirmish near the [[Diggers]] community at [[Wellingborough]]. The rest were imprisoned in [[Burford]] Church until three were shot in the Churchyard on 17 May.{{sfn|Manganiello|2004|p=83}}

====Regiments added before or during the Second Civil War====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Type
! Colonel
! Origin
! Notes
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Horse
| [[John Lambert (general)|John Lambert]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Northern Association
| Raised in 1645. Originally commanded by [[Sydnam Poyntz]]. Taken over by Lambert in July 1647.{{sfn|Rogers|1968|p=270}}
|-
| style="text-align-center;"| Horse
| [[Robert Lilburne]]'s Regiment
| Army of the Northern Association
| Raised in Durham in 1644{{sfn|Rogers|1968|p=271}}
|-
| style="text-align-center;"| Horse
| unknown
| Army of the Northern Association
| Raised in Nottinghamshire in 1642{{sfn|Rogers|1968|p=271}}
|-
| style="text-align-center;"| Foot
| Charles Fairfax's Regiment
| Newly raised
| Raised in the West Riding of Yorkshire in the spring of 1648{{sfn|Rogers|1968|p=271}}
|-
| style="text-align-center;"| Foot
| Colonel Bright's Regiment
| Army of the Northern Association
| Raised in Yorkshire in 1643{{sfn|Rogers|1968|p=271}}
|-
| style="text-align-center;"| Foot
| Colonel Maleverer's Regiment
| Army of the Northern Association{{sfn|Rogers|1968|p=271}}
|
|-
| style="text-align-center;"| Foot
| Colonel Tichborne's Regiment
| Newly raised
| Originally raised to garrison the [[Tower of London]]. Establishment increased to field regiment 15 April 1648 and Tichborne replaced by Colonel Needham{{sfn|Rogers|1968|p=271}}
|}

===Ireland===
{{See also|Plantations of Ireland#Cromwellian land confiscation (1652)}}
Later that year, on 15 August 1649, the New Model Army landed in Ireland to start the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]]. At Kilkenny, in March 1650, the town's defenders skilfully beat back numerous Parliamentarian assaults before being forced to surrender.{{sfn|O'Siochru|2008|p=122}} Shortly afterwards, about 2,000 soldiers of the New Model died in abortive assaults against a breach defended by veteran Ulstermen in the [[siege of Clonmel]]. These bloody scenes were repeated during the [[siege of Charlemont]] Fort later that year.{{sfn|Bagwell|1909|p=236}}

The Army was also constantly at risk of attack by Irish guerrillas called ''[[Rapparee|tóraithe]]'' ("tories" in English), literally meaning "pursuer".{{Sfn|Joyce|1883|pp=49–50}}

Overall, around 43,000 English soldiers fought in the Parliamentarian army in Ireland between 1649 and 1653.  In addition, some 9,000 Irish Protestants also served.{{sfn|O'Siochru|2008|p=206}}

The Army generally performed well when storming fortifications, for example at the [[siege of Drogheda]], but paid a heavy price at [[siege of Clonmel|Clonmel]] when Cromwell ordered them to attack a well-defended breach.{{sfn|Wheeler|1999|pp=151–158}}

===Scotland===
[[File:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|''[[Cromwell at Dunbar]]'' by [[Andrew Carrick Gow]], 1886]]
In 1650, while the campaign in Ireland was still continuing, part of the New Model Army was transferred to Scotland to fight Scottish [[Covenanters]] at the start of the [[Third English Civil War]]. The Covenanters, who had been allied to the Parliament in the First English Civil War, had now crowned [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] as King. Despite being outnumbered, Cromwell led the Army to crushing victories over the Scots at the battles of [[battle of Dunbar (1650)|Dunbar]] and [[battle of Inverkeithing|Inverkeithing]]. Following the Scottish invasion of England led by Charles II, the New Model Army and local militia forces soundly defeated the Royalists at the [[Battle of Worcester]], the last [[pitched battle]] of the English Civil Wars.{{sfn|Fraser|2012|p=24}}

==Interregnum==
In England, the New Model Army was involved in numerous skirmishes with a range of opponents, but these were little more than policing actions. The largest rebellion of [[the Protectorate]] took place when the [[Sealed Knot]] instigated an insurrection in 1655.<ref>{{cite ODNB |last=Roberts |first=Stephen K. | year=2004 |title=Sealed Knot (act. 1653–1659) |id=98250}}</ref>

The major foreign entanglement of this period was the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1654)|Anglo-Spanish War]]. In 1654, the English Commonwealth declared war on Spain, and regiments of the New Model Army were sent to conquer the Spanish colony of [[Hispaniola]] in the Caribbean. They failed in the conflict and sustained heavy casualties from tropical disease. They took over the lightly defended island of [[Jamaica]]. The English troops performed better in the European theatre of the war in [[Flanders]]. During the [[Battle of the Dunes (1658)]], as part of [[Turenne]]'s army, the red-coats of the New Model Army under the leadership of Sir [[William Lockhart of Lee|William Lockhart]], Cromwell's ambassador at Paris, astonished both their French allies and Spanish enemies by the stubborn fierceness with which they advanced against a strongly defended sandhill {{convert|50|m|ft}} high.<ref>{{Harvnb|Atkinson|1911|p=248}}; {{Harvnb|Tucker|2009|p=634}}.</ref>

After Cromwell died, [[the Protectorate]] died a slow death, as did the New Model Army. For a time, in 1659, it appeared that factions of the New Model army forces loyal to different generals might wage war on each other. Regiments garrisoned in Scotland under the command of General Monck were marched to London to ensure the security of the capital prior to the [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]], without significant opposition from the regiments under other generals, particularly those led by [[Charles Fleetwood]] and [[John Lambert (general)|John Lambert]]. Following the riots led by [[Thomas Venner]] in 1661, which were quelled with the aid of soldiers from Monck's Regiment of Foot and the Regiment of Cuirassiers, the New Model Army was ordered disbanded, with the large arrears of pay financed by a [[Poll tax#17th century|poll tax]]. Monck's Regiment of Foot, upon the end of the New Model Army, was incorporated into the army of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] as the [[Coldstream Guards]].<ref name=history>{{cite web|url=http://www.coldstreamguards-boro.org/Regimental%20History.htm|title=History of the Coldstream Guards|access-date=26 April 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906170010/http://coldstreamguards-boro.org/Regimental%20History.htm|archive-date=6 September 2013}}</ref>

Some of the demobilized soldiers and officers of the New Model Army were sent to Portugal, to support the [[Portuguese Restoration War]] and help Portugal regain its independence after many decades of Spanish rule. The British brigade, which numbered 3,000, arrived in Portugal in August 1662{{sfn|Hardacre |1960|pp=112–125}} and proved a decisive factor in winning back Portugal's independence,{{sfn|Riley|2014|loc=Back cover}} defeating the Spanish in a major engagement at [[Battle of Ameixial|Ameixial]] on 8 June 1663, and this forced John of Austria to abandon Évora and retreat across the border with heavy losses.{{sfn|Riley|2014|p=}}

==See also==
* [[Robert Blake (admiral)]] for developments in the Navy at the time
* [[British military history]]

== Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== General sources ==
* {{cite EB1911|last=Atkinson |first=Charles Francis |wstitle=Fronde, The |volume=11 |page=248}}
* {{cite book|last=Bagwell |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Bagwell |date=1909 |title=Ireland under the Stuarts and under the Interregnum |volume=2 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co. |publication-place=London |url=https://archive.org/details/irelandunderstua02bagw/}}
* Barnett, Correlli. ''Britain and her army, 1509–1970: a military, political and social survey'' (Lane, Allen, 1970), pp.&nbsp;79–110.
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Great Rebellion}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Cotton |first=ANB |date=1975 |title=Cromwell and the Self-Denying Ordinance |journal=History |volume=62 |issue=205 |pages=211–231 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.1977.tb02337.x |jstor=24411238}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ede-Borrett |first=Stephen |date=2009 |title=Some Notes on the Raising and Origins of Colonel John Okey's Regiment of Dragoons, March to June, 1645 |journal=Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research |volume=87 |issue=351 |pages=206–213 |jstor=44231688}}
* {{cite web |last=Fairfax |first=Thomas |author2=General Council of the New Model Army <!--|month=5-8 June-->|year=1647 |url=http://www.theteacher99.btinternet.co.uk/ecivil/solemn_engagement.htm |title=Solemn Engagement of the Army. 1647 (annotated) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309174452/http://www.theteacher99.btinternet.co.uk/ecivil/solemn_engagement.htm |archive-date=9 March 2012}}
* {{Cite book |last=Falls |first=Cyril |url=https://archive.org/details/greatmilitarybat0000fall |title=Great Military Battles |publisher=Spring Books |year=1969 |isbn=9780600016526 |location=London |url-access=registration |orig-year=1964}}
* {{Cite book |last=Firth |first=C. H. |url=https://archive.org/details/transactions17royauoft |title=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |year=1898 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/transactions17royauoft/page/67 67]–119 |chapter=Royalist and Cromwellian Armies in Flanders, 1657–1662 |author-link=C.H. Firth |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/transactions17royauoft#page/67/mode/1up}}
* {{Cite book |last=Firth |first=C. H. |title=Cromwell's Army: A history of the English soldier during the civil wars, the Commonwealth and the Protectorate |publisher=Methuen & Co Ltd |year=1972 |edition=1st |location=London |orig-year=1902}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fraser |first1=Sarah |title=The Last Highlander: Scotland's Most Notorious Clan Chief, Rebel & Double Agent |publisher=HarperCollins UK |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Br3ifE0dTwcC&pg=PT24 |isbn=9780007302642}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Hardacre |first=Paul |date=1960 |title=The English Contingent in Portugal, 1662–1668 |journal=Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research |volume=38 |issue=155 |pages=112–125 |jstor=44228921}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hibbert |first=Christopher |title=Charles I |date=1968 |place=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |author-link=Christopher Hibbert}}
* {{Cite book |last=HMSO |url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/commons-jrnl/vol4/pp64-65 |title=Journal of the House of Commons: Volume 4, 1644–1646 |date=1802 |publisher=HMSO}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |title=The Royalist War Effort 1642–1646 |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-30540-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Joyce |first=Patrick Weston |title=The Origin and History of Irish Names of Places |date=1883 |isbn=9781377939018 |oclc=1129714288 |ol=19372548M |author-link=Patrick Weston Joyce |orig-date=1800}}
* {{cite book |last=LaFontaine|first=Bruce|title=History of the Sword|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1998|isbn=978-0486401393}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lipscombe|first=Nick|title=The English Civil War: An Atlas and Concise History of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms 1639–51|date=2020|publisher=Bloomsbury USA|isbn=978-1472829726}}
* {{cite book |last=Manganiello|first=Stephen C.|title=The Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639–1660|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0810851009}}
* {{cite book |last=Money|first=Walter|title=The first and second battles of Newbury and the siege of Donnington Castle during the Civil War, 1643–6|publisher=Simpkin, Marshall|year=1884}}
* {{Cite book |last=O'Siochru |first=Michael |title=God's Executioner – Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland |publisher=Faber & Faber |year=2008 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ram |first=Robert |title=The Souldiers Catechism: Composed for the Parliaments Army, Consisting of Two Parts Wherein are Chiefly Taught: 1. the Justification, 2. the Qualifications of Our Souldiers. Written for the Incouragement and Instruction of All that Have Taken Up Armes in this Cause of God and His People, Especially the Common Souldiers |publisher=J. Wright |year=1644 |ol=1678135M |author-link=Robert Ram}}
* {{Cite book |last=Riley |first=Jonathon P. |ol=28109076M |title=The Last Ironsides: The English Expedition to Portugal, 1662–1668 |publisher=Helion |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-909982-20-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Keith |title=Cromwell's War Machine |publisher=Pen and Sword Military |year=2005 |isbn=1-84415-094-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Stephen K |url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/no-series/cromwell-army-officers/surnames-v |title=Surnames beginning 'V' in The Cromwell Association Online Directory of Parliamentarian Army Officers |date=2017 |publisher=British History Online}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Colonel H.C.B. |title=Battles and Generals of the Civil Wars |publisher=Seeley Service & Company |year=1968}}
* {{Cite book |last=Royle |first=Trevor |title=Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms 1638–1660 |publisher=Abacus |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-349-11564-1}}
* {{Cite web |last=Simpson |first=John |date=3 May 2013 |title=The Oxford English Dictionary and its chief word detective |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22378819 |website=BBC News Magazine |publisher=BBC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith|first=D.|title=Constitutional Royalism and the search for settlement, c. 1640–1649|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0511522819}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Temple |first=Robert KG |date=1986 |title=The Original Officer List of the New Model Army |journal=Historical Research |volume=59 |issue=139 |pages=50–77 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2281.1986.tb01179.x}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-85109-672-5 |edition=illustrated |ol=24032712M |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA634 634]}}
* {{cite book|last=Wallace|first=David C.|title=Twenty-Two Turbulent Years 1639–1661|year=2013|publisher=Upfront Publishing|isbn=978-1780356600}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wanklyn |first=Malcolm |date=2014 |title=Choosing Officers for the New Model Army, February to April 1645 |journal=Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research |volume=92 |issue=370 |pages=109–125 |jstor=44232556}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wedgwood |first=C.V. |title=The King's War, 1641–1647 |publisher=[[Penguin Classics]] |orig-year=1958 |isbn=978-0-14-006991-4 |year=1983}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wheeler |first=James Scott |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1mNlQgAACAAJ |title=Cromwell in Ireland |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-312-22550-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Young |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/englishcivilwarm00youn |title=The English Civil War:A Military History of the Three Civil Wars, 1642–1651 |last2=Holmes |first2=Richard |publisher=Wordsworth Editions |year=2000 |isbn=1-84022-222-0 |location=Ware, Hertfordshire |author-link=Peter Young (historian) |author-link2=Richard Holmes (military historian) |url-access=registration}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite web |last=Appleby  |first=David |date=10 October 2012 |title=Cromwell's Whelps: the death of the New Model Army |publisher=olivercromwell.org  |url=http://www.olivercromwell.org/wordpress/?page_id=1292 |access-date=27 October 2018}}
{{refend}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:New Model Army| ]]
[[Category:1645 establishments in England]]
[[Category:1660 disestablishments in England]]
[[Category:Former armies by country]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1645]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1660]]
[[Category:Military units and formations of the English Civil War]]
[[Category:Republicanism in England]]
[[Category:Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]