Editing New Zealand English

{{Short description|Dialect of the English language}}
{{Redirect|NZE}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox language
|name=New Zealand English
|region= [[New Zealand]]
|ethnicity= [[New Zealanders]]
|speakers=3.8 million in New Zealand
|date=2013 census
|ref=<ref name=ethn>{{e18|eng|English (New Zealand)}}</ref>
|speakers2=150,000 [[L2 speakers]] of English in New Zealand (Crystal 2003)
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[Ingvaeonic languages|Ingvaeonic]]
|fam5=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
|fam6=[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
|fam7=[[English language|English]]
|ancestor=[[Old English]]
|ancestor2=[[Middle English]]
|ancestor3=[[Early Modern English]]
|ancestor4=[[Modern English]]
|ancestor5=[[Estuary English#19th Century Rural Estuary English|19th century Cockney English]]<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last1=Maclagan |first1=Margaret |last2=Lewis |first2=Gillian |last3=Gordon |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Trudgill |first4=Peter |date=2000 |title=Determinism in new-dialect formation and the genesis of New Zealand English |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=300 |doi=10.1017/S0022226700008161|s2cid=143393175 }}</ref>
|dia1 = Southern Burr (Southland/Otago)
|dia2 = [[Taranaki]]
|script = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[English alphabet]])<br />[[Unified English Braille]]
|isoexception=dialect
|glotto=newz1240
|ietf=en-NZ
|notice=IPA
}}
{{English language}}

'''New Zealand English''' ('''NZE''') is the [[List of dialects of English|variant]] of the [[English language]] spoken and written by most English-speaking [[New Zealanders]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=New Zealand English |last1=Hay |first1=Jennifer |last2=Maclagan |first2=Margaret |last3=Gordon |first3=Elizabeth |date=2008 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh}}</ref> Its [[language code]] in [[ISO standard|ISO]] and [[Internet standard]]s is '''en-NZ'''.<ref><code>en-NZ</code> is the language code for ''New Zealand English'', as defined by ISO standards (see [[ISO 639-1]] and [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]]) and Internet standards (see [[IETF language tag]]).</ref> It is the [[first language]] of the majority of the population.

The English language was established in New Zealand by colonists during the 19th century. It is one of "the newest native-speaker variet[ies] of the English language in existence, a variety which has developed and become distinctive only in the last 150 years".<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last1=Maclagan |first1=Margaret |last2=Lewis |first2=Gillian |last3=Gordon |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Trudgill |first4=Peter |date=2000 |title=Determinism in new-dialect formation and the genesis of New Zealand English |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=300 |doi=10.1017/S0022226700008161|s2cid=143393175 }}</ref> The variety of English that had the biggest influence on the development of New Zealand English was [[Australian English]], itself derived from [[English language in Southern England|Southeastern England English]], with considerable influence from [[Scottish English|Scottish]] and [[Hiberno-English]], and with lesser influences the British prestige accent [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP) and [[American English]]. An important source of vocabulary is the [[Māori language]] of the indigenous people of New Zealand, whose contribution distinguishes New Zealand English from other varieties.<ref name=Bayard2000>{{cite journal
|first =Donn | last = Bayard
| title = New Zealand English: Origins, Relationships, and Prospects
| year = 2000
| journal = Moderna Språk
| issn = 2000-3560
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 8–14
| publisher=Linnaeus University
| location = Sweden
| doi = 10.58221/mosp.v94i1.9625
| s2cid = 254175799
| url=https://www.ualberta.ca/~johnnewm/NZEnglish/Bayard.pdf |access-date=24 July 2010}}</ref>

[[Rhoticity in English|Non-rhotic]] New Zealand English is most similar to Australian English in pronunciation, but has key differences.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bauer |first1=Laurie |date=2011 |title=Origins of NZ English |url=https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/research/our-research-areas/new-zealand-english/publications/Origins_of_NZ_English.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826012754/https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/research/our-research-areas/new-zealand-english/publications/Origins_of_NZ_English.pdf |archive-date=2022-08-26 |access-date=2024-04-12 |website=School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies}}</ref> A prominent difference is the realisation of {{IPA|/ɪ/}} ([[lexical set|the <small>KIT</small> vowel]]): in New Zealand English this is pronounced as a [[schwa]]. New Zealand English has several increasingly distinct varieties, and while most New Zealanders speak non-rhotic English, [[Rhoticity in English|rhoticity]] is increasing quickly, especially among [[Pasifika New Zealanders|Pasifika]] and Māori in [[Auckland]] and the upper [[North Island]].<ref name=explained/>{{Failed verification|date=February 2024}}

==Dictionaries==
The first dictionary with entries documenting New Zealand English was probably the ''Heinemann New Zealand Dictionary'' published in 1979.<ref name=Trove_Reed_dict/> Edited by Harry Orsman (1928–2002), it is a 1,337-page book with information relating to the usage and pronunciation of terms that were widely accepted throughout the English-speaking world, and those peculiar to New Zealand. It includes a one-page list of the approximate date of entry into common parlance of the many terms found in New Zealand English but not elsewhere, such as "[[haka]]" (1827), "boohai" (1920), and "[[bach (New Zealand)|bach]]" (1905). A second edition was published in 1989 with the cover subtitle "The first dictionary of New Zealand English and New Zealand pronunciation". A third edition, edited by Nelson Wattie, was published as ''The Reed Dictionary of New Zealand English'' by [[Reed Publishing]] in 2001.<ref name=Trove_Reed_dict>{{cite book |url= https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/22519219 |title=The Reed dictionary of New Zealand English : the first dictionary of New Zealand English and New Zealand pronunciation / general editor, H.W. Orsman |isbn=9780790007526|last1=Orsman|first1=H. W. |last2=Wattie|first2=Nelson|year=2001 |access-date=22 May 2021}}</ref>

The first dictionary fully dedicated to the New Zealand variety of English was ''The New Zealand Dictionary'' published by New House Publishers in 1994 and edited by Elizabeth and Harry Orsman.<ref>{{cite web |title=Orsman, Harry |url=http://www.bookcouncil.org.nz/writer/orsman-harry/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907003426/http://www.bookcouncil.org.nz/writer/orsman-harry |archive-date=2018-09-07 |access-date=10 April 2018 |website=New Zealand Book Council}}</ref><ref name=dict1994>{{cite web |url= https://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/nzej/nzej-az-list#M |title=New Zealand English Journal: Bibliography alphabetical by author |website=Victoria University of Wellington |access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref> A second edition was published in 1995.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Orsman |first1=Elizabeth |title=The New Zealand dictionary |last2=Orsman |first2=H. W. |date=1995 |publisher=New House Publishers |isbn=978-1-86946-015-0 |edition=2nd |location=Auckland, N.Z}}</ref>

In 1997, [[Oxford University Press]] produced the Harry Orsman-edited ''The Dictionary of New Zealand English: A Dictionary of New Zealandisms on Historical Principles'', a 981-page book, which it claimed was based on over 40 years of research. This research started with Orsman's 1951 thesis and continued with his editing this dictionary. To assist with and maintain this work, the New Zealand Dictionary Centre was founded in 1997 by [[Victoria University of Wellington]] and Oxford University Press. This was followed by ''The New Zealand Oxford Paperback Dictionary'' in 1998, edited by New Zealand [[Lexicography|lexicographer]] Tony Deverson. It is based on ''The Oxford Paperback Dictionary, fourth edition'', and ''The Australian Oxford Paperback Dictionary, second edition''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Deverson | first=Tony | title=The New Zealand Oxford paperback dictionary | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=Auckland, N.Z. | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-19-558410-3 | oclc=45314926 }}</ref> Further lexicographical work culminated in the 1,374-page ''The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary'' published in 2004, by Tony Deverson and Graeme Kennedy. The dictionary contains over 100,000 definitions, including over 12,000 New Zealand entries and a wide range of encyclopedic information.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001/acref-9780195584516|title=The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary |via=Oxford Reference|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001|year=2005|isbn=9780195584516|publisher=Oxford University Press|editor1-last=Deverson|editor1-first=Tony|editor2-last=Kennedy|editor2-first=Graeme}}</ref> A second, revised edition of ''The New Zealand Oxford Paperback Dictionary'' was published in 2006,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deverson |first1=Tony |author2=New Zealand Dictionary Centre |title=The New Zealand Oxford paperback dictionary |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Auckland |isbn=9780195584790 |edition=2nd}}</ref> this time using standard lexicographical regional markers to identify the New Zealand content, which were absent from the first edition.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} The NZ Dictionary Centre ceased active operations after the retirement of its second Director, Dianne Bardsley, in 2012.<ref>New Zealand Dictionary Centre } URL: https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/centres-and-institutes/dictionary-centre | Victoria University of Wellington (accessed 1 October 2024)</ref>

Another authoritative work is the ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]'', first published in 1979 by [[HarperCollins]], which contains an abundance of well-cited New Zealand words and phrases, drawing from the 650-million-word [[Bank of English]], a British research facility set up at the [[University of Birmingham]] in 1980 and funded by Collins publishers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.lingsoft.fi/doc/engcg/Bank-of-English.html|title=The Bank of English Project|access-date=9 April 2018|archive-date=17 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417012433/http://www2.lingsoft.fi/doc/engcg/Bank-of-English.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Although this is a British dictionary of International English there has always been a credited New Zealand advisor for the New Zealand content, namely Professor Ian Gordon from 1979 until 2002 and Professor Elizabeth Gordon from the [[University of Canterbury]] since 2003.{{cn|date=November 2024}} 

Australia's ''[[Macquarie Dictionary]]'' was first published in 1981, and has since become the authority on Australian English. It has always included an abundance of New Zealand words and phrases additional to the mutually shared words and phrases of both countries. Every edition has retained a New Zealand resident advisor for the New Zealand content,<ref name="Manser2021">{{cite book |last1=Manser |first1=Pat |title=More Than Words: The Making of the Macquarie Dictionary |date=23 February 2021 |publisher=Macquarie |chapter=Ch. 5 |isbn=978-1-76098-109-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYMSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT56 |language=en}}</ref> the first being Harry Orsman.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/centres-and-institutes/dictionary-centre/about-us/new-zealand-lexicography|title=New Zealand Lexicography |date=12 December 2019 |publisher=School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington |access-date=22 May 2021}}</ref> and the most recent being [[Victoria University of Wellington]] lexicographer [[Laurie Bauer]].<ref name="Manser2021"/>

==Historical development==
From the 1790s, New Zealand was visited by British, French and American whaling, sealing and trading ships. Their crews traded European and American goods with the indigenous Māori.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/artwork/24312/maori-trading|title=Māori trading-Economic history|access-date=9 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/topic/1080|title=Cross-cultural exchange between Māori and Europeans|access-date=9 April 2018}}</ref> The first European settlers to New Zealand were mainly from Australia, some of them ex-convicts or escaped convicts. Sailors, explorers and traders from Australia and other parts of Europe also settled.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of New Zealand {{!}} Colonization, Maori, Map, Facts, & Government {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-New-Zealand |access-date=2024-06-30 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

When in 1788 the [[History of New South Wales#1788: Establishment of the colony|colony of New South Wales was formed]], most of New Zealand was nominally included, but no real legal authority or control was exercised. As a [[dependent territory|non-sovereign nation]], New Zealand remained ungoverned and most European settlers intermarried with and lived among the Māori iwi in harmony. Settlers were greatly outnumbered by Māori and relied on them for security and safety.<ref>Mark Derby, 'Cultural go-betweens – Pākehā–Māori', Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/cultural-go-betweens/page-2 (accessed 23 September 2024)</ref> The first official [[missionaries]], who were from England, arrived in New Zealand in 1814, bringing formal education and farming skills as well as Christianity to the communities, many of which by this time had become [[bi-lingual]].<ref>Mark Derby, 'Cultural go-betweens – Missionaries', Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/cultural-go-betweens/page-3 (accessed 23 September 2024)</ref>

When the [[New Zealand Company]] announced in 1839 its plans to establish formal colonies in New Zealand, this and the increased commercial interests of merchants in Sydney and London spurred the British to take stronger action to establish British sovereignty over New Zealand. Captain [[William Hobson]] was sent to New Zealand to persuade Māori to cede their sovereignty to the British Crown and on 6 February 1840 Hobson and about forty Māori chiefs (rangatira) signed the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands.<ref name="colenso">{{cite book |title=The Authentic and Genuine History of the Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi |last=Colenso |first=William |author-link=William Colenso |year=1890 |publisher=By Authority of George Didsbury, Government Printer |location=Wellington |url=http://www.waitangi.com/colenso/colhis1.html |access-date=31 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816123405/http://www.waitangi.com/colenso/colhis1.html |archive-date=16 August 2011  }}</ref> 

New Zealand broke its connection with New South Wales and became the [[Colony of New Zealand]] on 1 July 1841.<ref>'New Zealand Becomes a Colony', from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock, originally published in 1966. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/history-constitutional/page-2 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408100226/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/history-constitutional/page-2 |date=8 April 2015 }} (accessed 04 Dec 2022)</ref> From this point there was considerable European settlement, primarily from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland, and to a lesser extent the United States, South Africa, and various parts of continental Europe. Some 400,000 settlers came from Britain, of whom 300,000 stayed permanently. Most were young people and 250,000 babies were born. 

After the Treaty of Waitangi, the next few years saw tensions grow over disputed land purchases by settlers as well as some communities refusing to accept British rule. Conflicts escalated into what became the [[New Zealand Wars]] from 1845 to 1872.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/new-zealand-wars/page-6 |title=New Zealand wars |encyclopedia=Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand}}</ref> The colonial government summoned thousands of British troops from Britain and Australia, as well as locally recruited pro-British [[militia]] forces, to mount major campaigns to overpower the Māori and Māori-allied [[Separatism|separatist movement]]s, eventually resulting in the defeat of the rebel forces.<ref name="King 1977, p. 26">{{cite book |last=King |first=Michael |author-link=Michael King (historian) |year=1977 |title=Te Puea: A Biography |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton  |location=Auckland |page=26 |isbn=0-340-22482-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Dalton |first=B.J. |title=War and Politics in New Zealand 1855–1870 |publisher=Sydney University Press  |year=1967 |location=Sydney |page=179}}</ref><ref name="Belich 1986x, pp=204–205">{{cite book |first=James |last=Belich |year=1986x |title=The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict |edition=1st |publisher=Penguin |location=Auckland|pages=204–205 |isbn=0-14-011162-X}}</ref>

Despite the wars, gold discoveries in Otago (1861) and Westland (1865) caused a worldwide gold rush that more than doubled the New Zealand population from 71,000 in 1859 to 164,000 in 1863. Between 1864 and 1865, under the New Zealand Settlements Act 1863, 13 ships carrying citizens of England, Scotland, Ireland and South Africa arrived in New Zealand under the Waikato Immigration Scheme.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~jess/scrapbook/genealogy/waikato.html |title=Waikato Immigration: The Scheme |access-date=16 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012031342/http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/%7Ejess/scrapbook/genealogy/waikato.html |archive-date=12 October 2011 }}</ref> According to census data from 1871, around half the early settlers were English, a quarter Scots, a quarter Irish and 5%  Australian.<ref name=explained>{{cite news |last=Lynch |first=Keith |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/125209768/the-new-zealand-accent-explained|title=The New Zealand accent explained|work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=25 May 2021 |access-date=26 February 2024}}</ref> 

The European population of New Zealand grew explosively from fewer than 1000 in 1831 to 500,000 by 1881. By 1911 the [[1911 New Zealand census|population of New Zealand]] had reached a million, of which 49,844 were Māori. 702,779 were New Zealand-born. The largest foreign-born demographics were those born in England and Scotland, followed by Australia and Ireland.<ref name="1912 results">{{cite web | url = https://www3.stats.govt.nz/historic_publications/1911-census/1911-results-census.html | title=Results of a Census of the Dominion of New Zealand | publisher =[[Statistics New Zealand]] | date = 30 December 1912 | accessdate=24 September 2024}}</ref>  

A distinct New Zealand variant of the English language has been recognised since at least 1912, when [[Frank Arthur Swinnerton]] described it as a "carefully modulated murmur". From the beginning of the haphazard Australian and European settlements and latter official British migrations, a new dialect began to form by adopting Māori words to describe the different flora and fauna of New Zealand, for which English did not have words.<ref>''The Story of English'' by Robert McCrum, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. BBC Publications and Faber and Faber: London, 1986.</ref>

The New Zealand accent first appeared in towns with mixed populations of immigrants from Australia, England, Ireland, and Scotland. These included the militia towns of the North Island and the gold-mining towns of the South Island. In more homogeneous towns such as those in Otago and Southland, settled mainly by people from Scotland, the New Zealand accent took longer to appear,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/speech-and-accent/page-2 |title=Speech and accent – Explanations of New Zealand speech |last=Gordon |first=Elizabeth  |website=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand}}</ref> while the accent was quick to develop in schools starting from the 1890s.<ref name="explained"/>

Since the latter 20th century New Zealand society has gradually divested itself of its fundamentally British roots<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/mar/12/new-zealands-flag-represents-a-country-that-no-longer-exists |title=New Zealand's flag represents a country that no longer exists|date=11 March 2014|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> and has adopted influences from all over the world, especially in the early 21st century when New Zealand experienced an increase of non-British immigration, which has brought about a more prominently multi-ethnic society. The Internet, television,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/blogs/voyages-in-america/6837596/The-strange-American-ness-of-NZ-pop-culture |title=The strange American-ness of NZ pop culture|date=2 May 2012 |website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref> movies and popular music have all brought international influences into New Zealand society and the New Zealand lexicon. [[Americanisation]] of New Zealand society and language has subtly and gradually been taking place since World War II and especially since the 1970s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10342128 |title=Tapu Misa: Clinging to Kiwiness on wave of Americanisation|date=23 August 2005|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]}}</ref>

===Legal status===
While the [[Māori language]] and [[New Zealand Sign Language]] are [[statute|statutory]] [[Official language#New Zealand|official languages]] of New Zealand, English is a ''de facto'' official language, which may be used in any public or official context.<ref name="Walters">{{cite news |last=Walters |first=Laura |title=Analysis: Why English does not need to be made an official language |url= https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/101497027/analysis-why-english-does-not-need-to-be-made-an-official-language |access-date=9 January 2021 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=16 Feb 2018}}</ref> In 2018, MP [[Clayton Mitchell (New Zealand politician)|Clayton Mitchell]] of [[New Zealand First]] put forward a bill for English to be recognised as an official language in legislation.<ref>{{Cite news | url= http://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2018/02/nz-first-submits-bill-for-english-to-be-recognised-as-official-language.html | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180215101032/http://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2018/02/nz-first-submits-bill-for-english-to-be-recognised-as-official-language.html | url-status= dead | archive-date= 15 February 2018 | title=NZ First submits Bill for English to be recognised as official language| work=[[Newshub]] | date=15 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PA1802/S00143/nz-first-bill-english-set-to-become-official.htm |title=NZ First Bill: English set to become official |website=Scoop News}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{Main|New Zealand English phonology}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right"
|+ Variation in New Zealand vowels
! rowspan="2" | [[Lexical set]]
! rowspan="2" | Phoneme
! colspan="2" | Phonetic realisation{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=609}}
|-
! Cultivated
! Broad
|- align="center"
| {{sc2|DRESS}}
| {{IPA|/e/}}
| {{IPAblink|e̞}}
| {{IPAblink|ɪ}}
|- align="center"
| {{sc2|TRAP}}
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
| {{IPAblink|æ}}
| {{IPAblink|ɛ̝}}
|- align="center"
| {{sc2|KIT}}
| {{IPA|/ə/}} 
| {{IPAblink|ɪ̠}}
| {{IPAblink|ə}}
|- align="center"
| {{sc2|NEAR}}
| {{IPA|/iə/}}
| {{IPA|[i̞ə]}}, {{IPA|[e̝ə]}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[i̞ə]}}
|- align="center"
| {{sc2|SQUARE}}
| {{IPA|/eə/}}
| {{IPA|[e̞ə]}}
|- align="center"
| {{sc2|FACE}}
| {{IPA|/æɪ/}}
| {{IPA|[æɪ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɐɪ]}}
|- align="center"
| {{sc2|PRICE}}
| {{IPA|/ɑɪ/}}
| {{IPA|[ɑ̟ɪ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɒ̝ˑɪ]}}, {{IPA|[ɔɪ]}}
|- align="center"
| {{sc2|GOAT}}
| {{IPA|/ɐʉ/}}
| {{IPA|[ɵʊ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɐʉ]}}
|- align="center"
| {{sc2|MOUTH}}
| {{IPA|/æʊ/}}
| {{IPA|[aʊ]}}
| {{IPA|[e̞ə]}}
|}

Not all New Zealanders have the same accent, as the level of cultivation (i.e. the closeness to [[Received Pronunciation]]) of every speaker's accent differs. An identifiable feature of New Zealand English is its [[chain shift]] where the {{sc2|TRAP}} vowel has moved up to the place of the traditional {{sc2|DRESS}} vowel, which in turn has moved up towards the traditional {{sc2|KIT}} vowel, which in turn is centralised. This makes "bat" sound like "bet", "bet" sound like "bit", and "bit" sound like "but" to foreign ears. For example "six" is {{IPA|[səks]}} in New Zealand English but {{IPA|[sɪks]}} in Australian English. General New Zealand English is [[Rhoticity in English|non-rhotic]], however Southland/Otago is semi-rhotic due to the accent's Scottish influence.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

==Vocabulary==
New Zealand English has a number of dialectal words and phrases.<ref name="NZImm">{{cite web |title=English and the official languages of New Zealand |url=https://www.new-zealand-immigration.com/migrate-to-new-zealand/language/ |website=New Zealand Immigration Concepts |language=en-NZ}}</ref> These are mostly informal terms that are more common in casual speech. Numerous [[loanword]]s have been taken from the [[Māori language]] or from Australian English.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction to New Zealand English |url=https://www.oed.com/discover/introduction-to-new-zealand-english/?tl=true |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240824045648/https://www.oed.com/discover/introduction-to-new-zealand-english/?tl=true |archive-date=2024-08-24 |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=www.oed.com |language=en}}</ref>

New Zealand adopted decimal currency in 1967 and the [[Metrication in New Zealand|metric system]] in 1974. Despite this, several imperial measures are still widely encountered and usually understood, such as feet and inches for a person's height, pounds and ounces for an infant's birth weight, and in colloquial terms such as referring to drinks in pints.<ref>[http://www.consumeraffairs.govt.nz/news-1/consumer-alerts/when-is-a-pint-not-a-pint "When is a pint not a pint? "] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207161708/http://www.consumeraffairs.govt.nz/news-1/consumer-alerts/when-is-a-pint-not-a-pint |date=7 February 2013 }}, Ministry of Consumer Affairs</ref><ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion-post/news/local-papers/the-wellingtonian/7621775/Is-a-pint-really-a-pint-in-Wellington "Is a pint really a pint in Wellington? "], 6 September 2012, The Wellingtonian</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dignan | first1 = J. R. E. | last2 = O'Shea | first2 = R. P. | year = 1995 |title = Human use of metric measures of length | journal = New Zealand Journal of Psychology | volume = 24 | pages = 21–25 }}</ref> In the food manufacturing industry in New Zealand both metric and non-metric systems of weight are used and usually understood, owing to raw food products being imported from both metric and non-metric countries. However, per the December 1976 Weights and Measures Amendment Act, all foodstuffs must be retailed using the metric system.<ref>[http://lamar.colostate.edu/~hillger/international.html#new_zealand Metric usage and metrication in other countries]. U.S. Metric Association (USMA), Inc. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831004546/http://lamar.colostate.edu/~hillger/international.html|date=31 August 2012}}</ref> In general, the knowledge of non-metric units is lessening.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Both the words ''amongst'' and ''among'' are used, as in British English. The same is true for two other pairs, ''whilst'' and ''while'' and ''amidst'' and ''amid''.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

===Australian English influences===
New Zealand English terms of Australian origin include ''bushed'' (lost or bewildered), ''chunder'' (to vomit), ''cooker'' (a derogatory term for [[Conspiracy_theory|conspiracy theorists]]), ''drongo'' (a foolish or stupid person), ''[[Fossicking|fossick]]'' (to search), ''larrikin'' (mischievous person), ''Maccas'' (slang for [[McDonald's]]), ''maimai'' (a duckshooter's hide; originally a makeshift shelter, from aboriginal ''mia-mia''), ''[[paddock]]'' ([[Field (agriculture)|field]], or [[meadow]]), ''pom'' or ''pommy'' (an Englishman), ''skite'' (verb: to boast), ''station'' (for a very large farm), ''wowser'' (non-drinker of alcohol, or killjoy), and ''ute'' ([[pickup truck]]).{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}

=== American English influences ===
Advancing from its British and Australian English origins, New Zealand English has evolved to include many terms of American origin, or which are otherwise used in American English, in preference over the equivalent contemporary British terms. In a number of instances, terms of British and American origin can be used interchangeably. Many American borrowings are not unique to New Zealand English, and may be found in other dialects of English, including British English.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vine |first=Bernardette |date=1999 |title=Americanisms in the New Zealand English Lexicon |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-971X.00118 |journal=World Englishes |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=13–22 |doi=10.1111/1467-971X.00118 |issn=0883-2919}}</ref> Some examples of such words in New Zealand English are the preferred usage of the American ''bobby pin'' over the British ''hair pin'',<ref>{{cite news |title=Why I'm moving into a bus with an 11-year-old, a dog and a cat |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/life-style/homed/renting/300244904/why-im-moving-into-a-bus-with-an-11yearold-a-dog-and-a-cat |access-date=17 April 2021 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=21 March 2021 |quote=I read about a woman who bartered her way up from a bobby pin to a small cabin. I don’t have enough faith or spare time for that, and I can never find a bobby pin when I need it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323060659/https://www.stuff.co.nz/life-style/homed/renting/300244904/why-im-moving-into-a-bus-with-an-11yearold-a-dog-and-a-cat |archive-date=23 March 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''muffler'' for ''silencer'',<ref>{{cite news |title=An illustrated history of electric car design |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/evs/124743456/an-illustrated-history-of-electric-car-design |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=15 April 2021 |quote=Milton O. Reeves and Marshall T. Reeves invented the first muffler to reduce petrol engine noise |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818115320/https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/evs/124743456/an-illustrated-history-of-electric-car-design |archive-date=18 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''truck'' for ''lorry'', ''station wagon'' for ''estate car'',<ref>{{cite news |title=Lessons learned after living with a Nissan Leaf |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/evs/124857656/lessons-learned-after-living-with-a-nissan-leaf |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=16 April 2021 |quote=it would be better if it was a little more squared off like a station wagon. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425055345/https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/evs/124857656/lessons-learned-after-living-with-a-nissan-leaf |archive-date=25 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''stove'' for ''cooker'', ''creek''<ref>{{cite dictionary|url= https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/creek |title=Creek definition and meaning |dictionary=[[Collins English Dictionary]]}}</ref> over ''brook'' or ''stream'', ''eggplant'' for ''aubergine'', ''median strip'' for ''central reservation'',<ref>{{cite news |title=Safe-hit posts installed on State Highway 1 near Ōhakea to stop overtaking on median strip |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/300038987/safehit-posts-installed-on-state-highway-1-near-hakea-to-stop-overtaking-on-median-strip |access-date=17 April 2021 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=21 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> ''pushup'' for ''press-up'', and ''potato chip'' for ''potato crisp''.<ref>{{cite news |title=McCain resumes normal chip production after Covid induced backlog |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/timaru-herald/news/122595783/mccain-resumes-normal-chip-production-after-covid-induced-backlog |access-date=17 April 2021 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=4 September 2020 |quote=With Kiwis eating fewer hot chips during lockdown, one of New Zealand’s largest potato chip manufacturers was forced to cut production significantly}}</ref>

Other examples of vocabulary directly borrowed from American English include ''[[the boonies]]'', ''bucks'' (dollars), ''butt'' (bum or arse), ''ding'' (dent), ''dude'', ''duplex'', ''faggot'' or ''fag'' (interchangeable with the British ''poof'' and ''poofter''), ''figure''<ref>{{cite dictionary |url= https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/figure |title=Figure definition and meaning|dictionary=[[Collins English Dictionary]]}}</ref> (to think or conclude; consider), ''hightail it'', ''homeboy'', ''hooker'', ''lagoon'', ''lube'' (oil change), ''man'' (in place of ''mate'' or ''bro'' in direct address), ''major'' (to study or qualify in a subject), ''to be over'' [some situation] (be fed up), ''rig'' (large truck),<ref>{{cite news |title=Big-rig driver helps end police chase in California by blocking getaway car |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/300272762/bigrig-driver-helps-end-police-chase-in-california-by-blocking-getaway-car |access-date=17 April 2021 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=9 April 2021}}</ref> ''sheltered workshop'' (workplace for disabled persons),<ref>{{cite news |title=Closing sheltered workshops did more harm than good for intellectually disabled |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/opinion/79045618/closing-sheltered-workshops-did-more-harm-than-good-for-intellectually-disabled |access-date=17 April 2021 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=18 April 2016}}</ref> ''spat''<ref>{{cite dictionary|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/spat|title=Spat definition and meaning |dictionary=[[Collins English Dictionary]]}}</ref> (a small argument), and ''subdivision'', and ''tavern''.<ref>{{cite dictionary|url= https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/tavern |title=Tavern definition and meaning |dictionary=[[Collins English Dictionary]]}}</ref>

Regarding grammar, ''gotten'' can be used as opposed to the standard British ''got'' in New Zealand English in [[Active voice|active]] contexts, though some speakers do not use it.<ref>{{Cite book |title=New Zealand English |last=Bell |first=Allan |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |year=1999 |location=Philadelphia, USA |url=https://archive.org/details/newzealandenglis00bell |pages=181|isbn=978-1-55619-723-9 }}</ref> It has been increasing in usage in recent years and is rarely written down.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/nz/universitypress/subjects/languages-linguistics/historical-linguistics/standards-english-codified-varieties-around-world |title=Standards of English: Codified Varieties around the World |date=December 2012 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521763899 |pages=328 |language=}}</ref>

===New Zealandisms===
[[File:Thames Kumara n.jpg|thumb|Kūmara ([[sweet potato]]es) for sale in [[Thames, New Zealand|Thames]], New Zealand]]
{{more citations needed|section|date=September 2019}}
Some English words are used almost exclusively in New Zealand.

* ''[[Bach (New Zealand)|bach]]'' (noun) – cheaply built and basic holiday home; located at beaches throughout the country<ref>{{Citation |last=Deverson |first=Tony |title=bach |date=2010 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001/acref-9780195584974-e-201 |work=The Oxford Dictionary of New Zealandisms |access-date=2023-11-16 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-558497-4}}</ref>
* ''Carbonettes'' (noun, especially in the [[North Island]]) – pieces of charcoal used in barbecues<ref name="genderi.org">{{Cite web |title=CHAPTER II. EXAMPLES OF COMMON WORDS AND GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE USED IN NEW ZEALAND |url=http://www.genderi.org/foreign-languages.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510183232/http://www.genderi.org/foreign-languages.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=10 May 2024 |access-date=2024-05-10 |website=www.genderi.org |language=az}}</ref>
* ''convert'' (verb) – to steal a car, hence also the name for car theft being ''car conversion''<ref name="genderi.org"/>
* ''chur'' (interj) — hello, cheers, thanks<ref>{{Cite news |title=Chur - te reo Māori words now official and included in the new Oxford English Dictionary |last=Los'e |first=Joseph |date=2023-03-15 |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/kahu/chur-te-reo-maori-words-now-official-and-included-in-the-new-oxford-english-dictionary/3MINW42AQ5H5RICNKW5PLEZH6U/ |access-date=2024-11-24 |work=[[New Zealand Herald]] }}</ref>
* ''[[Bach (New Zealand)|crib]]'' (noun) – similar to ''bach'' (above), used more in [[Otago]] and [[Southland, New Zealand|Southland]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Deverson |first=Tony |title=crib |date=2010 |work=The Oxford Dictionary of New Zealandisms |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001/acref-9780195584974-e-1159 |access-date=2024-05-30 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-558497-4}}</ref>
* ''[[Dairy (store)|dairy]]'' (noun) – corner shop; convenience store.<ref>{{Citation |last=Deverson |first=Tony |title=dairy |date=2010 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001/acref-9780195584974-e-1236 |work=The Oxford Dictionary of New Zealandisms |access-date=2023-11-16 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-558497-4}}</ref>
* ''durry'' (noun'') –'' cigarette<ref>{{Citation |last=Deverson |first=Tony |title=durry |date=2010 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001/acref-9780195584974-e-1456 |work=The Oxford Dictionary of New Zealandisms |access-date=2023-11-16 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-558497-4}}</ref>
* ''[[eh]]?'' (particle) – used to elicit a response. Used much more in New Zealand than in the stereotypical [[Canadian English]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/113796639/why-do-new-zealanders-say-eh-so-much|title=Why do New Zealanders say 'eh' so much?|first=Joel|last=MacManus|date=29 Jun 2019|access-date=25 May 2021|work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] }}</ref>
* ''handle'' (noun) – a 425–500 mL glass of beer with a handle, as sold in pubs<ref>{{Cite web |title=Handle Definition & Meaning {{!}} Britannica Dictionary |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/handle |access-date=2024-05-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
* ''hardout/hard'' – used to show agreement, or used to show emphasis/intensity. Examples: Agreement: "Yeah hard/hardout". "He was running hardout."<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Zealand slang {{!}} 100% Pure New Zealand |url=https://www.newzealand.com/uk/new-zealand-slang/ |access-date=2023-12-27 |website=www.newzealand.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>
* ''heaps'' (adjective, adverb) – abundant, plenty, plentifully. Examples: "There are heaps of cops surrounding the house." "I love you heaps." "Give it heaps!" – give it your best effort!<ref name="NZImm"/> often in cooking someone would say, "that's heaps" meaning 'that's too much'  (also used in Australia)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-28 |title=Definition of HEAP |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/heap |access-date=2024-06-30 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
* ''[[Hokey pokey (ice cream)|hokey pokey]]'' (noun) – the New Zealand term for [[honeycomb toffee]]; also a flavour of [[ice cream]] consisting of plain vanilla ice cream with small, solid lumps of honeycomb toffee.<ref>[http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&cl=search&d=EP19271219.2.166.2&srpos=1&e=01-01-1839-19-01-1933--10--1-byDA---0hokey+pokey+recipe-- "Hokey Pokey"], Recipe, ''Evening Post'', 1927</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://www.chelsea.co.nz/recipes/210/hokey-pokey.aspx |title=Chelsea Sugar – Hokey Pokey |publisher=Chelsea.co.nz |access-date=28 October 2010 |archive-date=26 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426123321/http://www.chelsea.co.nz/recipes/210/hokey-pokey.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kiwiwise.co.nz/recipe/hokey-pokey |title=Hokey Pokey – New Zealand Kids Recipe at KiwiWise |publisher=Kiwiwise.co.nz |access-date=28 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kiwianatown.co.nz/kiwiana-recipes.html |title=Popular Kiwi recipes – pavlova, anzac biscuits, roast lamb, pikelets etc |publisher=Kiwianatown.co.nz |access-date=28 October 2010 |archive-date=4 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604103210/http://www.kiwianatown.co.nz/kiwiana-recipes.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* ''jandals'' (noun) – the NZ term for [[flip-flops]]. Originally a trademarked name derived from "Japanese sandals".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/timeline/04/10|access-date=22 February 2017|title=Morris Yock trademarks the jandal|date=4 October 1957|publisher=New Zealand History}}</ref>
* ''jug'' (noun) – a kettle  (also used in Australia)<ref>{{Citation |last=Deverson |first=Tony |title=jug |date=2010 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001/acref-9780195584974-e-2435 |work=The Oxford Dictionary of New Zealandisms |access-date=2023-11-16 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-558497-4}}</ref>
* ''kai'' (noun) – [[Māori language|Māori]] word meaning food, or something to eat, used by Māori and [[Pākehā]] alike<ref>{{Citation |last=Deverson |first=Tony |title=kai |date=2010 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001/acref-9780195584974-e-2457 |work=The Oxford Dictionary of New Zealandisms |access-date=2023-11-16 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584974.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-558497-4}}</ref>
* ''kūmara'' (noun) – sweet potato,<ref>{{cite web |title=kumara |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/kumara |website=dictionary.com |access-date=1 April 2022}}</ref> specifically those historically cultivated by Māori.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of KUMARA |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kumara |access-date=2024-05-10}}</ref> 
* ''munted'' (adj.) – broken; ruined; wrecked<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=English language in New Zealand - New words |encyclopedia=Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |last=Bardsley |first=Dianne |year=2013 |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/40335/munted |access-date=13 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Flood |first=Alison |title=Oxford English Dictionary extends hunt for regional words around the world |website=The Guardian |date=19 June 2018 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/jun/19/oxford-english-dictionary-extends-hunt-for-regional-words-around-the-world |access-date=12 December 2024}}</ref>
* ''puckerood'' (adj) – broken; busted; wrecked.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/puckerood|access-date=30 July 2017|title=Definition of puckerood|work=Collins English Dictionary}}</ref> From Māori "''pakaru''" – to shatter<ref>{{Cite dictionary|title=pakaru |url=https://maoridictionary.co.nz/word/4982 |access-date=2024-04-18 |dictionary=Te Aka Māori Dictionary |language=en}}</ref>
* ''sweet as!'' (interj) – cool; awesome<ref name=nmit>{{cite web |title=What are some of the slang terms I will hear in New Zealand? |url=https://support.nmit.ac.nz/kb/articles/what-are-some-of-the-slang-terms-i-will-hear-in-new-zealand |publisher=Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology |access-date=19 February 2019 |archive-date=19 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219183356/https://support.nmit.ac.nz/kb/articles/what-are-some-of-the-slang-terms-i-will-hear-in-new-zealand |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="NZImm"/> 
* ''tramping'' (noun)'' tramp'' (verb) – Bushwalking, hiking. Usage is exclusive to New Zealand.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Flickerwell |title=New Zealand Style Guide |url=https://styleguide.nz/ |access-date=2025-03-07 |website=New Zealand Style Guide |language=en-NZ}}</ref>

===Differences from Australian English===
Many of these relate to words used to refer to common items, often based on which major brands become [[Proprietary eponym|eponym]]s.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
|-
! style="width:120px;"| NZ !! style="width:120px;"| Australia
! Translation to US/UK English
|-
|valign=top| [[cooler|chilly bin]]
|valign=top| [[Esky]]<ref group=note name=tm>a [[generic trademark|genericised trademark]]</ref>
|valign=top| An insulated box used to keep food or drink cool, also known as a [[cooler]]
|-
| [[Bach (New Zealand)|bach]]<br/>crib<ref group=note>''Crib'' is mainly used in the southern part of the South Island, ''bach'' in the rest of New Zealand.</ref>
|valign=top| [[shack]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://homes.ninemsn.com.au/houseandgarden/advice/8214763/home-for-the-holidays-queensland-beach-shack |title=Queensland beach shack |last=Nixon |first=Kate |date=3 January 2011 |publisher=Homes.ninemsn.com.au |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105105558/http://homes.ninemsn.com.au/houseandgarden/advice/8214763/home-for-the-holidays-queensland-beach-shack |archive-date=5 November 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=21 September 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|valign=top| a small, often very modest [[vacation property|holiday property]], often at the seaside
|-
|valign=top| [[Dairy (store)|dairy]]<ref group=note>In larger cities in New Zealand ''convenience store'' is used due to immigration (and to current NZ law forbidding a dairy from selling alcohol<!--http://www.chenpalmer.com/WhatsNew/LatestArticles/tabid/85/ctl/ViewPressRelease/mid/435/PressReleaseID/54/ReturnTab/79/Default.aspx{{dead link|date=November 2010}}-->), though ''dairy'' is used commonly in conversation.</ref>
|valign=top| [[milk bar]]<br/>[[Delicatessen|deli]]
|valign=top| [[Convenience store]], a small store selling mainly food
|-
|valign=top| drinking fountain<br/>water fountain
|valign=top| [[bubbler]] 
|valign=top| Drinking fountain. (Bubbler is also used in some parts of the United States, like Rhode Island and Wisconsin)
|-
|valign=top| [[duvet]]
|valign=top| Doona<ref group=note name=tm/>
|valign=top| Doona is an Australian trade mark for a brand of duvet/quilt. 
|-
|valign=top| [[ice pop|ice block]]<br/>[[Ice pop|pop]]sicle
|valign=top| ice block<br/>Icy Pole<ref group=note name=tm/>
|valign=top| [[Ice pop]], [[ice lolly]]
|-
|valign=top| [[jandals]]<ref group=note>The word ''jandals'' was originally a trademarked name derived from "Japanese sandals".</ref>
|valign=top| thongs
|valign=top| [[Flip-flops]]
|-
|valign=top| [[thong]], [[G-string]]
|valign=top| [[G-string]]
|valign=top| [[Thong]]
|-
|valign=top| [[cotton candy|candy floss]]
|valign=top| fairy floss
|valign=top| Candy floss in the UK, [[cotton candy]] in the US
|-
|valign=top| [[cattle grid|cattle stop]]
|valign=top| cattle grid
|valign=top| A device for preventing cattle wandering onto country roads
|-
|valign=top| sallies
|valign=top| salvos
|valign=top| Followers of the [[Salvation Army]] church; also the second-hand shops run by the Salvation Army Church.
|-
|valign=top| [[speed bump]]<br/>speed hump<br/>judder bar<ref>judder bar. Collins English Dictionary&nbsp;— Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved 3 September 2012 from [http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/judder-bar collinsdictionary.com]
</ref><ref group=note>The term ''judder bar'' is regional in its usage in New Zealand, and is rarely encountered in some parts of the country.</ref>
|valign=top| speed bump<br/>speed hump<ref group=note>The latter is used in [[New South Wales]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]</ref>
|valign=top| A raised section of road used to deter excessive speed
|-
|valign=top| no exit
|valign=top| no through road
|valign=top| Signage for a road with a dead end, a [[cul-de-sac]]
|-
|valign=top| [[correction fluid|Twink]]<ref group=note name=tm/>
|valign=top| [[Liquid Paper]]<ref group=note name=tm/><br/>[[Wite-Out]]<ref group=note name=tm/>
|valign=top| [[Correction fluid]]. Twink is a New Zealand brand name which has entered the vernacular as a generic term, being the first product of its kind introduced in the 1980s. The common Australian general term is white-out.<ref>{{cite web |title=Search Results |url=https://www.jasonl.com.au/pages/search-results-page?q=liquid |access-date=30 September 2017 |website=Officeworks.com.au}}</ref> Liquid Paper is also a brand name which is sometimes used as a generic term in Australia or New Zealand. As with other countries (but not Australia) the European brand [[Tipp-Ex]] is also available in New Zealand and is sometimes used as a generic term as well.
|-
|valign=top| [[motorway]]
|valign=top| [[freeway]], [[motorway]]
|valign=top| In Australia, [[controlled-access highway]]s can be named as either freeway (a term not used in NZ; generally used in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]) or motorway (used in NZ, as well as [[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]], etc.), depending on the state. Tolled roads are common in some cities in Australia, and the term freeway is not used for roads that require a toll for use, the implication being that their use is not "free". "Highway" is common outside major cities in Australia.
|-
|valign=top| "[[kia ora]]"<br>"howdy"<br/>"g'day"<br>"hello"
|valign=top| "g'day"<br/>"hello" (etc.)
|valign=top| Although the greeting "g'day" is as common in New Zealand as it is in Australia, the term "howdy" can be heard throughout New Zealand<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.classic-computers.org.nz/forums/viewtopic.php?f=6&t=1615|title=New Zealand Vintage Computer Forums • View topic – Howdy gents...|website=Classivc-computers.org.nz|access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jefit.com/forum/showthread.php?24160-Howdy-from-New-Zealand|title=Howdy from New Zealand|website=Jefit.com|date=26 December 2012 |access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Two forum posts aren't adequate to establish consensus and this seems like original research, is there an academic source for this?|date=May 2022}} but not as frequently in Australia. This contraction of "how do you do?" is actually of English origin (South English dialect {{circa|1860}}), however is contemporarily associated with cowboys and Southern American English, particularly [[Texan English]] where it is a common greeting. It is possible the NZ origin is from the earlier British usage. In present day, "howdy" is not commonly used, with "how are you?" being more ubiquitous. When a rising intonation is used the phrase may be interpreted as an enquiry, but when slurred quickly and/or with a descending intonation, may be used as a casual greeting.
|-
|valign=top| togs
|valign=top| bathers, swimmers, togs
|valign=top| A [[bathing suit]]. In NZ, "togs" is used throughout the country. In Australia however, it is one of the most well-known examples of regional variation in Australian English. The term for a bathing suit is "bathers" in the southern states as well as [[Western Australia]] and the [[Northern Territory]], "swimmers" in [[New South Wales]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]] and "togs" in [[Queensland]].
|-
|valign=top| vivid, sharpie
|valign=top| texta
|valign=top| A [[marker pen]]; permanent marker. These are common brand names in their respective countries and they have become generic terms.
|-
|valign=top| tramping <br/>hiking<ref>{{Cite web |title=The great hiking vs tramping debate {{!}} Stories |url=https://www.mountainsafety.org.nz/read/the-great-hiking-vs-tramping-debate |access-date=2025-04-14 |website=NZMSC |language=en-US}}</ref>
|valign=top| bushwalking <br/>(or less commonly) hiking
|valign=top| Travel through open or (more often) forested areas on foot
|-
|colspan="3"| ''Notes''
{{reflist|group=note}}
|}


==Usage==
Some New Zealanders often reply to a question with a statement spoken with a [[high rising terminal|rising intonation]] at the end. This often has the effect of making their statement sound like another question. There is enough awareness of this that it is seen in exaggerated form in comedy parody of New Zealanders, such as in the 1970s comedy character ''[[Ginette McDonald#"Lyn of Tawa"|Lyn Of Tawa]]''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Lynn of Tawa |first=Chris |last=Maclean |url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/video/13446/lynn-of-tawa |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=1 March 2016 |access-date=11 November 2024}}</ref> This rising intonation can also be heard at the end of statements that are not in response to a question but to which the speaker wishes to add emphasis. High rising terminals are also heard in Australia.{{sfnp|Crystal|2003|p=355}}

In informal speech, some New Zealanders use the third person feminine ''she'' in place of the third person neuter ''it'' as the subject of a sentence, especially when the subject is the first word of the sentence. The most common use of this is in the phrase "She'll be right" meaning either "It will be okay" or "It is close enough to what is required". Similar to Australian English are uses such as "she was great car" or "she's a real beauty, this [object]".{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Another specific New Zealand usage is the way in which New Zealanders refer to the country's two main islands. They are always (except on maps) referred to as "the [[North Island]]" and "the [[South Island]]". And because of their size, New Zealanders tend to think of these two islands as being 'places', rather than 'pieces of land', so the [[preposition]] "in" (rather than "on") is usually used – for example, "my mother lives in the North Island", "Christchurch is in the South Island". This is true only for the two main islands; for smaller islands, the usual preposition "on" is used – for example, "on [[Stewart Island]]", or "on [[Waiheke Island]]".{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

As in some other varieties of English, "us" is sometimes used in place of "me". A common example is "give us a go", meaning "give me a go".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bauer |first=Laurie |author-link=Laurie Bauer |date=2007 |title=Some grammatical features of New Zealand English |url=https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/resources/publications/nzej-backissues/2007-laurie-bauer.pdf |journal=New Zealand English Journal |volume=21 |access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref> About half the country pronounce the words "grown" and "known" with two syllables, as "growen" and "knowen". Similarly to other English varieties, when {{IPA|/l/}} follows a vowel it is often [[L-vocalisation|vocalised]], dropping the usual contact of the tongue and the sound becomes a vowel. An example of this is changing the words "feel" to "fee-u" or "railway" to "rai-u-way".<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 September 2013 |title=Sound changes in speech |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/speech-and-accent/page-4 |access-date=31 January 2025 |website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]]}}</ref>

==Māori influence==
{{Main|Māori language influence on New Zealand English}}
Many local everyday words are [[loanwords]] that have been assimilated from the [[Māori language]], including words for local flora, fauna, place names and the natural environment.

The dominant influence of Māori on New Zealand English is lexical. A 1999 estimate based on the Wellington corpora of written and spoken New Zealand English put the proportion of words of Māori origin at approximately 0.6%, mostly place and personal names.<ref>Kennedy, Graham & Shinji Yamazaki 1999. The Influence of Maori on the New Zealand English Lexicon. In John M. Kirk (ed), Corpora Galore: Analyses and Techniques in Describing English. Amsterdam: Rodopi: 33–44</ref>

Some Māori words occur in New Zealand English, such as ''[[kia ora]]'' (hello).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.maorilanguage.net/maori-words-phrases/maori-words-used-new-zealand-english/|title=Māori Words used in New Zealand English|website=Māori Language.net|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-25}}</ref>

Māori is ever present and has a significant conceptual influence in the legislature, government, and community agencies (e.g. health and education), where legislation requires that proceedings and documents be translated into Māori (under certain circumstances, and when requested). Political discussion and analysis of issues of sovereignty, environmental management, health, and social well-being thus rely on Māori at least in part. Māori as a spoken language is particularly important wherever community consultation occurs.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

==Dialects and accents==
Recognisable regional variations are slight, except for [[Southland, New Zealand|Southland]] and the southern part of neighbouring [[Otago]], with its "Southland burr", where the [[Rhoticity in English|postvocalic R]] is pronounced rather than clipped. This southern area traditionally received heavy immigration from Scotland (see [[Dunedin]]). Several words and phrases common in [[Scots language|Scots]] or Scottish English persist there; examples include the use of ''wee'' for "small", and phrases such as ''to do the messages'' meaning "to go shopping". Other Southland/Otago features which may also relate to early Scottish settlement are the use of the {{sc2|TRAP}} (short A) vowel in a set of words which usually use the {{sc2|PALM}} vowel (long A), such as ''dance'' or ''castle'', which is also common in Australian English. Another feature is the maintaining of the {{IPA|/ʍ/}} ~ {{IPA|/w/}} distinction (e.g. where ''which'' and ''witch'' are not homophones).<ref name=warren>{{cite journal |last=Warren |first=Paul |date=2012 |title=Origins and development of New Zealand English |journal=International Journal of Language, Translation and Intercultural Communication |volume=1 |pages=87–102 |doi=10.12681/ijltic.12 |url=https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/latic/article/download/2719/2489 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Recent research (2012) suggests that postvocalic {{IPA|/r/}} is not restricted to Southland & Otago, but is found also in the central North Island where there may be a [[Pasifika New Zealanders|Pasifika]] influence, but also a possible influence from modern New Zealand hip‐hop music, which has been shown to have high levels of non‐prevocalic {{IPA|/r/}} after the {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel.<ref name=warren/>

[[Taranaki]] has been said to have a minor regional accent, possibly due to the high number of immigrants from the south-west of England. However, this is becoming less pronounced.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Ainsworth |first=Helen |title=Regional Variation in New Zealand English : The Taranaki Sing-song Accent |date=2004 |publisher=Victoria University of Wellington |type=PhD |hdl=10063/551 }}</ref>

Some [[Māori people|Māori]] have an accent distinct from the general New Zealand accent; and also tend to include [[Māori language|Māori words]] more frequently. Comedian [[Billy T. James]] and the ''[[bro'Town]]'' TV programme were notable for featuring exaggerated versions of this.<ref>As well as other Polynesian accents</ref> Linguists recognise this as "Māori English", and describe it as strongly influenced by [[Isochrony|syllable-timed]] Māori speech patterns.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Szakay |first=Anita |title=Identifying Māori English and Pākehā English from Suprasegmental Cues: A Study Based on Speech Resynthesis |date=2007 |publisher=University of Canterbury |hdl=10092/975 }}</ref> Linguists count "Pākehā English" as the other main accent, and note that it is beginning to adopt similar rhythms, distinguishing it from other stress-timed English accents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/saturday/audio/2205127/language-with-jeanette-king|title=Language with Jeanette King|date=17 March 2011|website=[[Radio NZ]] |access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref>

It is commonly held that New Zealand English is spoken very quickly.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://naumainz.studyinnewzealand.govt.nz/help-and-advice/life-and-culture/speaking-new-zealand-english/|title=Speaking New Zealand English &#124; NauMai NZ|website=naumainz.studyinnewzealand.govt.nz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newzealandnow.govt.nz/live-in-new-zealand/english-language|title=Understanding New Zealand English &#124; New Zealand Now|website=www.newzealandnow.govt.nz|date=14 July 2022 }}</ref> This idea is given support by a study comparing adult New Zealand English and American English speakers which observed faster speaking and [[Speech tempo|articulation rates]] among the New Zealand English group overall.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Robb|first1=Michael P.|last2=Maclagan|first2=Margaret A.|last3=Chen|first3=Yang|date=2004-01-01|title=Speaking rates of American and New Zealand varieties of English|journal=Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics|volume=18|issue=1|pages=1–15|doi=10.1080/0269920031000105336|issn=0269-9206|pmid=15053265|s2cid=145246900}}</ref> However, a similar study with American and New Zealand English-speaking children found the opposite, with the speaking and articulation rates of the New Zealand children being slower.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Robb|first1=Michael P.|last2=Gillon|first2=Gail T.|author2-link= Gail Gillon |date=2007-01-01|title=Speech rates of New Zealand English- and American English-speaking children|journal=Advances in Speech Language Pathology|volume=9|issue=2|pages=173–180|doi=10.1080/14417040601013695|s2cid=42993620|issn=1441-7049}}</ref> The same study proposed that differences in the relative number of [[Tenseness|tense]] and lax vowels between the two speaker groups may have influenced the speaking and articulation rates.<ref name=":0" />

==Spelling==
* Where there is a difference between British and US spelling (such as ''cancelling''/''canceling'' and ''jewellery''/''jewelry''), the British spelling of double-''L'' is universally used. The British use of single-''L'' is also universally used in words such as ''enrol''.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
*New Zealand English prefers the use of ''tyres'', not ''tires'', except for trademarks such as [[Cooper Tire & Rubber Company|Cooper Tires]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coopertires.co.nz/index.php?page=7-reasons-why-you-should-choose-cooper-tyres|title=Tyre – Tires – Why You Should Choose Cooper Tyres|website=Coopertires.co.nz|access-date=30 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407113752/http://www.coopertires.co.nz//index.php?page=7-reasons-why-you-should-choose-cooper-tyres|archive-date=7 April 2017|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* The Commonwealth spelling of ''kerb'' (at roadside) is used over US ''curb''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://grammarist.com/spelling/curb-kerb/|access-date=23 March 2017|title=Curb vs. kerb|date=4 January 2012 |publisher=grammarist.com}}</ref>
* New Zealand spelling of ''-re'' words such as ''centre'', ''fibre'', ''litre'', and ''theatre'' has always followed the British spelling as opposed to the American ''center'', ''fiber'', ''liter'', and ''theater''.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
* Nouns with the ''-ce'' suffix such as ''defence'' and ''licence'' are usually spelt with ''-ce'' as opposed to the American ''defense'' and ''license''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Driver licences |website=NZ Transport Agency Waka Kotahi |url=https://www.nzta.govt.nz/driver-licences/ |access-date=26 October 2024}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
* With ''-our'' words like ''colour''/''color'' or ''favour''/''favor'' the spelling of ''-our'' is almost always used<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.onlinegrammar.com.au/us-and-australian-spelling/ |title=American and Australian spelling |first=Mary |last=Morel |work=Online Grammar |access-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512092058/http://www.onlinegrammar.com.au/us-and-australian-spelling/ |archive-date=12 May 2013 }}</ref> except ''arbor'' in [[Arbor day]] or unless it is a trademark, such as Colorsteel<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nzsteel.co.nz/products/colorsteel%C2%AE |title=Colorsteel |website= New Zealand Steel|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620082735/http://www.nzsteel.co.nz/products/colorsteel%C2%AE |archive-date=20 June 2014 }}</ref> or The Color Run.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://thecolorrun.co.nz/ |title=Home – The Color Run |website=The Color Run |access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref>

* New Zealand English retains the distinctions between ''program'' ("computer heuristic") and ''programme'' ("schedule", "broadcast show"), ''disk'' ("information storage device") and ''disc'' ("flat circular object"), and ''analog'' (as in ''[[analog stick]]'') and ''analogue'' (all other senses) as found in British and often in Australian English.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://australiandictionary.blogspot.com.au/2013/11/is-it-analogue-or-analog.html|title=Australian Dictionary – Australian English Dictionary – Spellcheck (spell check): Is it analogue or analog?|first=Kelvin|last=Eldridge|date=9 November 2013|website=Australiandictionary.blogspot.com.au|access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref>
* It is usual to form past tenses and past participles of certain verbs with ''-t'' and not ''-ed''. For example, ''learn'' becomes ''learnt'', ''spoil'' becomes ''spoilt'', ''burn'' becomes ''burnt'', ''dream'' becomes ''dreamt'' {{IPA|/dɹemt/}}, and ''smell'' becomes ''smelt''. These verb forms are pronounced with a final unvoiced {{IPA|/t/}} sound, meaning ''spoilt'' is pronounced {{IPA|/spoɪlt/}} not {{IPA|/spoɪld/}}. This contrasts with [[American English]], where ''-ed'' is far more common and is pronounced {{IPA|/d/}} (e.g. ''dwelled'' {{IPA|/dweld/}} is an American form of ''dwelt'' {{IPA|/dwelt/}}). ''Learned'', the adjective meaning "wise", is universally spelt thus and pronounced as two syllables ({{IPA|/ˈlɵːnəd/}}). The past tenses and past participles of ''earn'' and ''boil'' are ''earned'' and ''boiled'' respectively, though they may be pronounced ending with a {{IPA|/t/}} sound.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
* Words with the digraphs ''ae'' and ''oe'' in British English are usually spelt as such in New Zealand English (e.g. ''faeces'' not ''feces'') rather than with just ''e'' as with American English.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}
* In [[hyperbole|hyperbolic statements]], the spellings of ''ton'' and ''tons'' are commonly used (e.g. ''I have tons of friends'' and ''I feel tons better''), despite the [[metric system]] with its [[tonne]] having been introduced in the 1970s.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
* In words that may be spelt with either an ''-ise'' or an ''-ize'' suffix (such as ''organise''/''organize'') it is acceptable to use either in New Zealand English but ''-ise'' has taken precedence over several decades. This contrasts with American and Canadian English, where ''-ize'' is generally preferred, and British English, where ''-ise'' is also generally preferred. In Australian English ''-ise'' is strictly used.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://onlinewritingtraining.com.au/writeaussie-australian-american-spelling-differences/ | title=Australian & American spelling differences &#124; Mary Morel | work=Online Writing Training | date=23 February 2015 | last1=Morel | first1=Mary }}</ref>
* New Zealand favours ''fiord'' over ''[[fjord]]'', unlike most other English-speaking countries. The ''fiord'' spelling was the normal one in English until the early 1920s,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/70499 |title=fiord / fjord, n. |website=Oxford English Dictionary |access-date=7 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518042412/http://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/70499 |archive-date=18 May 2014 }}</ref> and is preserved in many place names worldwide. In New Zealand it is used in [[Fiordland]], a rugged region in the south-west.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
* When spelling words borrowed from [[Māori language|Māori]], New Zealand English can either spell them with [[Macron (diacritic)|macrons]] or without (e.g. ''Maori'' and ''Māori'' are both accepted spellings).{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Macrons have become more widespread over time.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Crewdson |first=Patrick |date=2017-09-10 |title=Why Stuff is introducing macrons for te reo Māori words |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/96578644/why-stuff-is-introducing-macrons-for-te-reo-maori-words |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |language=en}}</ref>
* Australia and New Zealand always use ''jail'' over the British ''gaol'' (which is now considered obsolete, even in the United Kingdom).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govt.nz/browse/crime-and-justice/prison-life/prison-life-and-going-to-prison/|title=Prison life and going to prison|website=Govt.nz |date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213062711/https://www.govt.nz/browse/law-crime-and-justice/prison-life/prison-life-and-going-to-prison |archive-date= Feb 13, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11433763|title=West Coast man sentenced to 11 months jail for serious assault on wife|date=16 April 2015|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/prisons/page-1 |title=Prisons – New Zealand's prisons |last=Clayworth |first=Peter |website=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[Gram]], the unit of mass, is commonly spelt as such and not ''gramme'', which is somewhat found in British English. The same holds true for the word's derivates (e.g., ''[[kilogram]]'' is more common than ''kilogramme'').{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
* [[Contraction (grammar)|Contraction]]s (i.e. shortened words that retain the final letter of the full word) do not terminate with a full stop. Thus the abbreviation of ''Doctor'' is ''Dr'' and that of ''Mister'' is ''Mr'', as opposed to ''Dr.'' and ''Mr.'' in American English. Initialisms and acronyms such as ''USA'' and ''NASA'' (or ''Nasa'') also do not include full stops. This has been the practice in New Zealand since the late 1970s.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}
Since the advent of word processors with spell-checkers, in modern assignment writing in New Zealand universities{{which|date=March 2021}} the rule is to use either 100% British spelling or 100% American spelling, the emphasis being consistency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=American vs. British spelling – OWLL |url=http://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/american-vs-british-spelling.php |access-date=30 September 2017 |website=Massey University}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2024|talk=Claimed rule not supported by reference}}

==See also==
{{Portal|New Zealand|Language}}
* [[Culture of New Zealand]]
* [[Australian English]]
* [[South African English]]
* [[Zimbabwean English]]
* [[Falkland Islands English]]
* [[Commonwealth English]]
* [[Regional accents of English]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{citation
|last1=Bartlett
|first1=Christopher
|year=1992
|title=Regional variation in New Zealand English: the case of Southland
|journal=New Zealand English Newsletter
|volume=6
|pages=5–15
|ref=none
}}
* {{citation
|last1=Bauer
|first1=Laurie
|last2=Warren
|first2=Paul
|last3=Bardsley
|first3=Dianne
|last4=Kennedy
|first4=Marianna
|last5=Major
|first5=George
|title=New Zealand English
|journal=[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association]]
|year=2007
|volume=37
|issue=1
|pages=97–102
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282778721
|doi=10.1017/S0025100306002830
|doi-access=free
}}
* [[Cryer, Max]] (2002). ''Curious Kiwi Words''. Auckland: HarperCollins Publishers (NZ) Ltd.
* {{citation
|last=Crystal
|first=David
|year=2003
|title=The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language
|edition=2nd
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
}}
*Deverson, Tony, and Graeme Kennedy (eds.) (2005). ''The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary''. Oxford University Press.
* {{citation
|last1=Gordon
|first1=Elizabeth
|last2=Maclagan
|first2=Margaret
|year=2004
|chapter=Regional and social differences in New Zealand: phonology
|editor-last=Schneider
|editor-first=Edgar W.
|editor2-last=Burridge
|editor2-first=Kate
|editor3-last=Kortmann
|editor3-first=Bernd
|editor4-last=Mesthrie
|editor4-first=Rajend
|editor5-last=Upton
|editor5-first=Clive
|title=A handbook of varieties of English
|volume=1: Phonology
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|pages=603–613
|isbn=3-11-017532-0
}}
*Grant, L.E., and Devlin, G.A. (eds.) (1999). ''In other words: A dictionary of expressions used in New Zealand''. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press.
*Leland, Louis S., jr. (1980). ''A personal Kiwi-Yankee dictionary''. Dunedin: John McIndoe Ltd.
*[[Harry Orsman|Orsman H.W.]], (ed.) (1997). ''The Dictionary of New Zealand English: a dictionary of New Zealandisms on historical principles''. Auckland: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-558380-9}}.
*[[Harry Orsman|Orsman H.W.]], (ed.) (1979). ''Heinemann New Zealand dictionary''. Auckland: Heinemann Educational Books (NZ) Ltd.
* {{citation
|last1=Trudgill
|first1=Peter
|author1-link=Peter Trudgill
|last2=Hannah
|first2=Jean
|year=2002
|title=International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English
|edition=4th
|location=London
|publisher=Arnold
}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book
|last1=Hay
|first1=Jennifer
|last2=Maclagan
|first2=Margaret
|last3=Gordon
|first3=Elizabeth
|year=2008
|title=New Zealand English
|series=Dialects of English
|publisher=Edinburgh University Press
|isbn=978-0-7486-2529-1
}}
*  {{Cite book|title=The Emergence of New Zealand English|last=Kirkpatrick|first=A.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|location=Oxford}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{subject bar|auto=y|d=y|wikt=y}}
* [http://www.newzealandslang.com New Zealand Slang]
* [https://www.ualberta.ca/~johnnewm/NZEnglish/origins.html Origins of New Zealand English]
* [http://www.canterbury.ac.nz/nzilbb/research/onze/ The Origins of New Zealand English Project] at the University of Canterbury
* [https://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/centres-and-institutes/dictionary-centre New Zealand Dictionary Centre]
** [https://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/centres-and-institutes/dictionary-centre/about-us/new-zealand-english-in-the-21st-century New Zealand English in the 21st century]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100209041916/http://www.chemistry.co.nz/kiwi.htm Kiwi Words & Phrases]
* [http://www.nzonscreen.com/title/new-zild-2005 New Zild – The Story of New Zealand English]
* [http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/eng6365-ladd.htm English, Maori, and Maori English in New Zealand]
* [http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001/acref-9780195584516 The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary]
* [http://www.brenontheroad.com/travellers-guide-new-zealand-slang The Ultimate Traveller's Guide To New Zealand Slang]

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