Editing Nilo-Saharan languages

{{Short description|Proposed family of African languages}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Nilo-Saharan
| speakers      = c. 70 million for all branches listed below.<ref name=eth>{{cite web | url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/39/ | title=Nilo-Saharan; Ethnologue | access-date=2023-08-06 | archive-date=2023-03-09 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309092536/https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/39/ | url-status=live }}</ref><!--The figure as of the 26th ed. (2023) is 66.4 million. This includes a count of several million from last century for growing languages such as 750,000 Lendu (dated to 1996), which could easily have doubled in the meantime, so rounding up to the nearest 10M.-->
| acceptance    = disputed
| region        = [[Central Africa]], north-central Africa and [[East Africa]]
| familycolor   = Nilo-Saharan
| family        = Proposed language family
| map           = Nilo-Saharan.png
| mapcaption    = Distribution of Nilo-Saharan languages (in yellow)
| child1        = [[Berta languages|Berta]]
| child2        = [[Bʼaga languages|Bʼaga]]
| child3        = [[Fur languages|Fur]]
| child4        = [[Kadu languages|Kadu]]
| child5        = [[Koman languages|Koman]]
| child6        = [[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]]
| child7        = [[Kunama languages|Kunama]]
| child8        = [[Maban languages|Maban]]
| child9        = [[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
| child10       = [[Songhay languages|Songhay]]
| child11       = [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
| child12       = [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]]
| child13       = {{extinct}}[[Mimi-D]]?
| child14       = {{extinct}}Plateau?<ref>{{cite journal |last= Blench |first= Roger |year= 2015 |url= http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Isolates/MT%20XX%20Blench%20off%20print.pdf |title= Was there a now-vanished branch of Nilo-Saharan on the Dogon Plateau? Evidence from substrate vocabulary in Bangime and Dogon |journal= Mother Tongue |issue= 20}}</ref>
| protoname     = [[Wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Nilo-Saharan reconstructions|Proto-Nilo-Saharan]]
| iso2          = ssa
| iso5          = ssa
| glotto        = none
}}

The '''Nilo-Saharan languages''' are a proposed family of around 210 [[African languages]]<ref name=eth/> spoken by somewhere around 70 million speakers,<ref name=eth/> mainly in the upper parts of the [[Chari River|Chari]] and [[Nile]] rivers, including historic [[Nubia]], north of where the two tributaries of the Nile meet. The languages extend through 17 nations in the northern half of Africa: from [[Algeria]] to [[Benin]] in the west; from [[Libya]] to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] in the centre; and from [[Egypt]] to [[Tanzania]] in the east.

As indicated by its hyphenated name, Nilo-Saharan is a family of the African interior, including the greater Nile Basin and the Central [[Sahara]] Desert. Eight of its proposed constituent divisions (excluding [[Kunama languages|Kunama]], [[Kuliak]], and [[Songhai languages|Songhay]]) are found in the modern countries of [[Sudan]] and [[South Sudan]], through which the Nile River flows.

In his book ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'' (1963), [[Joseph Greenberg]] named the group and argued it was a [[genetic (linguistics)|genetic]] family. It contained all the languages that were not included in the [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]], [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] or [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] families. Although some linguists have referred to the phylum as "Greenberg's [[Wastebasket taxon|wastebasket]]", into which he placed all the otherwise unaffiliated non-[[click languages]] of Africa,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Lyle |last1=Campbell |first2=Mauricio J. |last2=Mixco |title=A Glossary of Historical Linguistics |year=2007 |publisher=University of Utah Press |isbn=978-0-87480-892-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=P. H. |last=Matthews |title=Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics |year=2007 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-920272-0 }},</ref> other specialists in the field have accepted it as a working hypothesis since Greenberg's classification.<ref name="BlenchSouag">Blench, Roger & Lameen Souag. m.s. ''[http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Saharan%20Songhay%20branch.pdf Saharan and Songhay form a branch of Nilo-Saharan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327212516/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Saharan%20Songhay%20branch.pdf |date=2016-03-27 }}''.</ref> Linguists accept that it is a challenging proposal to demonstrate but contend that it looks more promising the more work is done.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gerrit J. |last=Dimmendaal |chapter=Nilo-Saharan Languages |title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics |year=1992 |location=Oxford |volume=3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00newy/page/100 100–104] |isbn=0-19-505196-3 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00newy |url=https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00newy/page/100 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=M. Lionel |last=Bender |chapter=Nilo-Saharan |title=African Languages, An Introduction |year=2000 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=43–73 |isbn=0-521-66178-1 }}</ref><ref name="Blench & Ahland (2010)">{{cite conference |first1=Roger |last1=Blench |first2=Colleen |last2=Ahland |year=2010 |title=The Classification of Gumuz and Koman Languages |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316221945/http://25images.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/player/player.php?id=72&id_sequence=433&quality=hd |archive-date=March 16, 2012 |url=http://25images.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/player/player.php?id=72&id_sequence=433&quality=hd |conference=''Language Isolates in Africa'' workshop, Lyons, December 4 |accessdate=September 5, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Some of the constituent groups of Nilo-Saharan are estimated to predate the [[Neolithic Revolution#Africa|African neolithic]]. For example, the unity of [[Eastern Sudanic]] is estimated to date to at least the 5th millennium BC.<ref>{{cite book|first=John Desmond |last=Clark |title=From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa |publisher=University of California Press |year=1984|page=31 |isbn=0-520-04574-2 }}</ref> Nilo-Saharan genetic unity would thus be much older still and date to the late [[Upper Paleolithic]]. The earliest written language associated with the Nilo-Saharan family is [[Old Nubian]], one of the oldest written African languages, attested in writing from the 8th to the 15th century AD.

This larger classification system is not accepted by all linguists, however. ''[[Glottolog]]'' (2013), for example, a publication of the [[Max Planck Institute]] in Germany, does not recognise the unity of the Nilo-Saharan family or even of the Eastern Sudanic branch; [[Georgiy Starostin]] (2016) likewise does not accept a relationship between the branches of Nilo-Saharan, though he leaves open the possibility that some of them may prove to be related to each other once the necessary [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructive]] work is done. According to Güldemann (2018), "the current state of research is not sufficient to prove the Nilo-Saharan hypothesis."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Africa|last=Güldemann|first=Tom|editor-last=Güldemann|editor-first=Tom|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|chapter=Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa|year=2018|isbn=978-3-11-042606-9|doi=10.1515/9783110421668-002|location=Berlin|pages=299–308|series=The World of Linguistics series|volume=11|s2cid=133888593}}</ref>

==Characteristics==
The constituent families of Nilo-Saharan are quite diverse. One characteristic feature is a tripartite [[singulative number|singulative–collective–plurative number system]], which Blench (2010) believes is a result of a [[classifier (linguistics)|noun-classifier]] system in the [[protolanguage]]. The distribution of the families may reflect ancient watercourses in a green Sahara during the [[African humid period]] before the [[4.2-kiloyear event]], when the desert was more habitable than it is today.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Drake|first1=N. A.|last2=Blench |first2=R. M. |last3=Armitage |first3=S. J. |last4=Bristow |first4=C. S. |last5=White |first5=K. H. |year=2011 |title=Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=458–62 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1012231108 |pmid=21187416 |pmc=3021035 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108..458D |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Major languages==
Within the Nilo-Saharan languages are a number of languages with at least a million speakers (most data from SIL's ''Ethnologue'' 16 (2009)). In descending order:
*[[Luo dialect|Luo]] (''Dholuo'', 4.4 million). ''Dholuo'' language of the [[Luo people of Kenya and Tanzania]], Kenya's fourth largest ethnicity after the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking [[Kikuyu people|Agĩkũyũ]], [[Luhya people|Luhya]] and the [[Southern Nilotic languages|Southern Nilotic]]-speaking [[Kalenjin people|Kalenjin]] (the term [[Luo languages|"Luo"]] is also used for a wider group of languages which includes ''Dholuo''.).
*[[Kanuri language|Kanuri]] (4.0 million, all dialects; 4.7 million if [[Kanembu language|Kanembu]] is included). The major ethnicity around [[Lake Chad]].
*[[Zarma language|Zarma]] (6 million). Spread along the Niger River in [[Niger]] and into [[Nigeria]], in the southern region of the historic [[Songhai Empire]].
*[[Teso language|Teso]] (1.9 million). Related to [[Karamojong language|Karamojong]], [[Turkana people|Turkana]], [[Toposa people|Toposa]] and [[Nyangatom language|Nyangatom]]
*[[Nubian languages|Nubian]] (1.7 million, all dialects). The language of [[Nubia]], extending today from southern [[Egypt]] into northern [[Sudan]]. Many Nubians have also migrated northwards to [[Cairo]] since the building of the [[Aswan Dam]].
*[[Lugbara language|Lugbara]] (1.7 million, 2.2 if [[Aringa language|Aringa]] (Low Lugbara) is included). The major Central Sudanic language; [[Uganda]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].
*[[Nandi–Markweta languages]] (''Kalenjin'', 1.6 million). Kenyan [[Great Rift Valley, Kenya|Rift Valley, Kapchorua Uganda]].
*[[Lango language (Uganda)|Lango]] (1.5 million). A Luo language, one of the major languages of [[Uganda]].
*[[Dinka language|Dinka]] (1.4 million). The major ethnicity of [[South Sudan]].
*[[Acholi language|Acholi]] (1.2 million). Another Luo language of [[Uganda]].
*[[Nuer language|Nuer]] (1.1 million in 2011, significantly more today). The language of the [[Nuer people|Nuer]], another numerous people from [[South Sudan]] and [[Ethiopia]].
*[[Maasai language|Maasai]] (1.0 million). Spoken by the [[Maasai people]] of [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]].<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Lewis |editor-first=M. Paul |chapter=Maasai: A language of Kenya |year=2009 |title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |edition=Sixteenth |location=Dallas, TX |chapter-url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=mas |publisher=SIL International |access-date=2008-02-29 |archive-date=2008-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023220439/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=mas |url-status=live }}.</ref>
*[[Ngambay language|Ngambay]] (1.0 million with Laka). Central Sudanic, the principal language of southern [[Chad]].

Some other important Nilo-Saharan languages under 1 million speakers:
*[[Fur language|Fur]] (500,000 in 1983, significantly more today). The eponymous language of [[Darfur]] Province in western [[Sudan]].
*[[Tebu languages|Tubu]] (350,000 to 400,000) One of the northernmost Nilo-Saharan languages, extending from [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], and [[Chad]] into [[Libya]]. Most Tubu speakers live in Northern Chad close to the [[Tibesti Mountains]]. Tubu has two main varieties: the [[Daza language]] and the [[Teda language]].

The total for all speakers of Nilo-Saharan languages according to ''Ethnologue'' 16 is 38–39 million people. However, the data spans a range from ca. 1980 to 2005, with a weighted median at ca. 1990. Given population growth rates, the figure in 2010 might be half again higher, or about 60 million.

==History of the proposal{{anchor#History}}==
The Saharan family (which includes [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]], [[Kanembu language|Kanembu]], the [[Tebu languages]], and [[Zaghawa language|Zaghawa]]) was recognized by [[Heinrich Barth]] in 1853, the Nilotic languages by [[Karl Richard Lepsius]] in 1880, the various constituent branches of Central Sudanic (but not the connection between them) by [[Friedrich Müller (linguist)|Friedrich Müller]] in 1889, and the Maban family by [[Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes]] in 1907. The first inklings of a wider family came in 1912, when [[Diedrich Westermann]] included three of the (still independent) Central Sudanic families within Nilotic in a proposal he called ''Niloto-Sudanic'';<ref>Diedrich Westermann, 1912. [https://archive.org/details/shillukpeopleth00unkngoog/page/n119 <!-- pg=33 quote="niloto-sudanic". --> ''The Shilluk people, their language and folklore'']</ref> this expanded Nilotic was in turn linked to Nubian, Kunama, and possibly Berta, essentially Greenberg's Macro-Sudanic ('''Chari–Nile''') proposal of 1954.

In 1920 G. W. Murray fleshed out the Eastern Sudanic languages when he grouped Nilotic, Nubian, [[Nara language|Nera]], [[Gaam language|Gaam]], and Kunama. [[Carlo Conti Rossini]] made similar proposals in 1926, and in 1935 Westermann added [[Murle language|Murle]]. In 1940 A. N. Tucker published evidence linking five of the six branches of Central Sudanic alongside his more explicit proposal for East Sudanic. In 1950 Greenberg retained Eastern Sudanic and Central Sudanic as separate families, but accepted Westermann's conclusions of four decades earlier in 1954 when he linked them together as ''Macro-Sudanic'' (later ''Chari–Nile'', from the [[Chari River|Chari]] and [[Nile]] Watersheds).

Greenberg's later contribution came in 1963, when he tied Chari–Nile to Songhai, Saharan, Maban, Fur, and Koman-Gumuz and coined the current name ''Nilo-Saharan'' for the resulting family. [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Lionel Bender]] noted that Chari–Nile was an artifact of the order of European contact with members of the family and did not reflect an exclusive relationship between these languages, and the group has been abandoned, with its constituents becoming primary branches of Nilo-Saharan—or, equivalently, Chari–Nile and Nilo-Saharan have merged, with the name ''Nilo-Saharan'' retained. When it was realized that the [[Kadu languages]] were not Niger–Congo, they were commonly assumed to therefore be Nilo-Saharan, but this remains somewhat controversial.

Progress has been made since Greenberg established the plausibility of the family. [[Koman languages|Koman]] and [[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]] remain poorly attested and are difficult to work with, while arguments continue over the inclusion of Songhai. Blench (2010) believes that the distribution of Nilo-Saharan reflects the waterways of the [[wet Sahara]] 12,000 years ago, and that the protolanguage had [[noun classifier]]s, which today are reflected in a diverse range of prefixes, suffixes, and number marking.

==Internal relationships==
Dimmendaal (2008) notes that Greenberg (1963) based his conclusion on strong evidence and that the proposal as a whole has become more convincing in the decades since. Mikkola (1999) reviewed Greenberg's evidence and found it convincing. [[Roger Blench]] notes morphological similarities in all putative branches, which leads him to believe that the family is likely to be valid.

[[Koman languages|Koman]] and [[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]] are poorly known and have been difficult to evaluate until recently.{{vague|date=September 2019}} Songhay is markedly divergent, in part due to massive influence from the [[Mande languages]].<ref name="BlenchSouag"/> Also problematic are the [[Kuliak languages]], which are spoken by hunter-gatherers and appear to retain a non-Nilo-Saharan core; Blench believes they might have been similar to [[Hadza language|Hadza]] or [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]] and shifted incompletely to Nilo-Saharan.

Anbessa Tefera and Peter Unseth consider the poorly attested [[Shabo language]] to be Nilo-Saharan, though unclassified within the family due to lack of data; Dimmendaal and Blench, based on a more complete description, consider it to be a language isolate on current evidence. Proposals have sometimes been made to add Mande (usually included in [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]), largely due to its many noteworthy similarities with Songhay rather than with Nilo-Saharan as a whole, however this relationship is more likely due to a close relationship between Songhay and Mande many thousands of years ago in the early days of Nilo-Saharan, so the relationship is probably more one of ancient contact than a genetic link.<ref name="BlenchSouag"/>

The extinct [[Meroitic language]] of ancient [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]] has been accepted by linguists such as Rille, Dimmendaal, and Blench as Nilo-Saharan, though others argue for an [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] affiliation. It is poorly attested.

There is little doubt that the constituent families of Nilo-Saharan—of which only [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] and [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] show much internal diversity—are valid groups. However, there have been several conflicting classifications in grouping them together. Each of the proposed higher-order groups has been rejected by other researchers: Greenberg's Chari–Nile by Bender and Blench, and Bender's Core Nilo-Saharan by Dimmendaal and Blench. What remains are eight (Dimmendaal) to twelve (Bender) constituent families of no consensus arrangement.

===Greenberg 1963===
[[File:Lenguas nilo-saharianas.PNG|thumb|upright=2|The branches of the Nilo-Saharan languages]]
[[Joseph Greenberg]], in ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'', set up the family with the following branches. The Chari–Nile core are the connections that had been suggested by previous researchers.

{{clear}}

{{clade
|label1=Nilo-Saharan
|1={{clade
|1=[[Koman languages|Koman]] (including Gumuz)
|3=[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
|4=[[Songhay languages|Songhay]]
|5=[[Fur languages|Fur]]
|6=[[Maban languages|Maban]]
|label7=Chari–Nile
|7={{clade
|1=[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
|2=[[Kunama languages|Kunama]]
|3=[[Berta languages|Berta]]
|4=[[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] (including [[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]], [[Nubian languages|Nubian]] and [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]])
}}
}}
}}
[[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]] was not recognized as distinct from neighbouring Koman; it was separated out (forming "Komuz") by Bender (1989).

===Bender 1989, 1991===
[[Lionel Bender]] came up with a classification which expanded upon and revised that of Greenberg. He considered Fur and Maban to constitute a [[Fur–Maban languages|Fur–Maban]] branch, added [[Kadu languages|Kadu]] to Nilo-Saharan, removed Kuliak from Eastern Sudanic, removed Gumuz from Koman (but left it as a sister node), and chose to posit [[Kunama languages|Kunama]] as an independent branch of the family. By 1991 he had added more detail to the tree, dividing Chari–Nile into nested clades, including a Core group in which [[Berta languages|Berta]] was considered divergent, and coordinating Fur–Maban as a sister clade to Chari–Nile.<ref>[[Lionel Bender|Bender, M. Lionel]] (1991) "Subclassification of Nilo-Saharan". In Bender, M. Lionel, ed. (1991) ''Proceedings of the Fourth Nilo-Saharan Conference'', Bayreuth, Aug. 30–Sep. 2, 1989. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. NISA 7, 1–36</ref><ref name="Niger-Saharan">{{cite book|author=Roger Blench|author-link=Roger Blench|year=2006|title=The Niger-Saharan Macrophylum|location=Cambridge|publisher=Mallam Dendo|page=5|url=http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Niger-Saharan%20book.pdf|access-date=2018-11-30|archive-date=2021-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124101347/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Niger-Saharan%20book.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{clade
|label1=Nilo-Saharan
|1={{clade
|1=[[Songhay languages|Songhay]]
|2=[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
|3=[[Kunama languages|Kunama–Ilit]]
|4=[[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]]
|5={{clade
|label1=Fur–Maban
|1={{clade
|1=[[Fur languages|Fur]]
|2=[[Maban languages|Maban]]
}}
|label2=Chari–Nile
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Eastern Central Sudanic languages|Moru–Mangbetu]]
|2=[[Bongo–Bagirmi languages|Sara–Bongo]]
}}
|label2=Core
|2={{clade
|1=[[Berta languages|Berta]]
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Eastern Sudanic languages|East Sudanic]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Surmic languages|Surmic]]–[[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]]
|2=[[Nubian languages|Nubian]], [[Nara language|Nara]], [[Taman languages|Taman]]
}}
|label2=[[Komuz languages|Komuz]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]]
|2=[[Koman languages|Koman]] (including Shabo)
}}
|3=[[Kadu languages|Kadugli–Krongo]]
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}

Bender revised his model of Nilo-Saharan again in 1996, at which point he split Koman and Gumuz into completely separate branches of Core Nilo-Saharan.<ref name="Bender (1996)">{{cite book |author-link=Lionel Bender (linguist) |first=Lionel |last=Bender |year=1996 |title=The Nilo-Saharan languages: a comparative essay |location=Munich |publisher=Lincom Europa }}</ref>

===Ehret 1989===
[[Christopher Ehret]] came up with a novel classification of Nilo-Saharan as a preliminary part of his then-ongoing research into the macrofamily. His evidence for the classification was not fully published until much later (see [[#Ehret 2001|Ehret 2001]] below), and so it did not attain the same level of acclaim as competing proposals, namely those of Bender and Blench.<ref name="Niger-Saharan" />

===Bender 2000===
By 2000 Bender had entirely abandoned the Chari–Nile and Komuz branches. He also added Kunama back to the "Satellite–Core" group and simplified the subdivisions therein. He retracted the inclusion of [[Shabo language|Shabo]], stating that it could not yet be adequately classified but might prove to be Nilo-Saharan once sufficient research has been done. This tentative and somewhat conservative classification held as a sort of standard for the next decade.<ref name="Bender (2000)">{{cite book |author-link=Lionel Bender (linguist) |first=Lionel |last=Bender |year=2000 |chapter=Nilo-Saharan |editor-first=Bernd |editor-last=Heine |editor2-first=Derek |editor2-last=Nurse |title=African Languages: An Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-66178-1 }}</ref>

{{clade
|label1=Nilo-Saharan
|1={{clade
|1=[[Songhay languages|Songhay]]
|2=[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
|3=[[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]]
|label4=Satellite–Core
|4={{clade
|1=[[Maban languages|Maban]]
|2=[[Fur languages|Fur]]
|3=[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
|4=[[Berta languages|Berta]]
|5=[[Kunama languages|Kunama]]
|label6=Core
|6={{clade
|1=[[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]]
|2=[[Koman languages|Koman]]
|3=[[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]]
|4=[[Kadu languages|Kadu]]
}}
}}
}}
}}

===Ehret 2001===
Ehret's updated classification was published in his book ''A Historical–Comparative Reconstruction of Nilo-Saharan'' (2001).<ref name="Ehret 2001">Ehret (2001)</ref> This model is notable in that it consists of two primary branches: Gumuz–Koman, and a ''Sudanic'' group containing the rest of the families (see ''[[Sudanic languages#Nilo-Saharan|Sudanic languages § Nilo-Saharan]]'' for more detail). Also, unusually, Songhay is well-nested within a core group and coordinate with Maban in a "Western Sahelian" clade, and Kadu is not included in Nilo-Saharan. Note that "Koman" in this classification is equivalent to [[Komuz languages|Komuz]], i.e. a family with Gumuz and Koman as primary branches, and Ehret renames the traditional Koman group as "Western Koman".

{{clade
|label1=Nilo-Saharan
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Komuz languages|Koman]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]]
|2=[[Koman languages|Western Koman]]
}}
|label2=[[Sudanic languages#Nilo-Saharan|Sudanic]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
|label2=Northern Sudanic
|2={{clade
|1=[[Kunama languages|Kunama]]
|label2=[[Saharo-Sahelian languages|Saharo-Sahelian]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
|label2=Sahelian
|2={{clade
|1=[[Fur languages|Fur]]
|2={{clade
|label1=Trans-Sahel
|1={{clade
|label1=Western Sahelian
|1={{clade
|1=[[Songhay languages|Songhay]]
|2=[[Maban languages|Maban]]
}}
|2=[[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sahelian]] (Eastern Sudanic)
(including [[Berta languages|Berta]])
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}

===Blench 2006===
{{See also|Niger–Congo languages#Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan}}
'''Niger-Saharan''', a language macrofamily linking the Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan phyla, was proposed by [[w:Roger Blench|Blench]] (2006).<ref>Blench, Roger. 2006. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Niger-Saharan%20book.pdf ''The Niger-Saharan Macrophylum''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126121641/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Niger-Saharan%20book.pdf |date=2013-11-26 }}.</ref> It was not accepted by other linguists. Blench's (2006) internal classification of the Niger-Saharan macrophylum is as follows:

{{tree list}}
*Proto-Niger-Saharan
**[[Songhay languages|Songhay]], [[Saharan languages|Saharan]], [[Maban languages|Maba]], [[Fur languages|Fur]], [[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]], [[Berta language|Berta]], [[Kunama language|Kunama]], [[Komuz languages|Komuz]], [[Shabo language|Shabo]]
**Kado-Sudanic
***[[Kadu languages|Kado]] (Kadugli-Krongo)
***Niger-Sudanic
****[[East Sudanic languages|East Sudanic]]
****Niger-Central Sudanic
*****[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
*****[[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]]
{{tree list/end}}

According to Blench (2006), typological features common to both Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan include:
*Phonology: ATR vowel harmony and the labial-velars /kp/ and /gb/
*Noun-class affixes: e.g., ''ma''- affix for mass nouns in Nilo-Saharan
*Verbal extensions and plural verbs

===Blench 2010===
With a better understanding of Nilo-Saharan classifiers, and the affixes or number marking they have developed into in various branches, Blench believes that all of the families postulated as Nilo-Saharan belong together. He proposes the following tentative internal classification, with Songhai closest to Saharan, a relationship that had not previously been suggested:

{{clade
|1=[[Kunama languages|Kunama]]
|2=[[Berta languages|Berta]]
|4={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Koman languages|Koman]]
|2=[[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]]
}}
|3={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
|2=[[Songhay languages|Songhay]]
}}
|2=[[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]]
|3={{clade
|1=[[Maban languages|Maban]]
|2=[[Fur languages|Fur]]
|3=[[Kadu languages|Kadu]]
|4=[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
|5=[[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]]
}}
}}
}}
}}

? [[Mimi of Decorse]]

===Blench 2015===
By 2015,<ref>Blench, Roger. 2015. [https://www.academia.edu/15754234/Was_there_a_now-vanished_branch_of_Nilo-Saharan_on_the_Dogon_Plateau_Evidence_from_substrate_vocabulary_in_Bangime_and_Dogon Was there a now-vanished branch of Nilo-Saharan on the Dogon Plateau? Evidence from substrate vocabulary in Bangime and Dogon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703200527/https://www.academia.edu/15754234/Was_there_a_now-vanished_branch_of_Nilo-Saharan_on_the_Dogon_Plateau_Evidence_from_substrate_vocabulary_in_Bangime_and_Dogon |date=2019-07-03 }}.

Available in: http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Isolates/MT%20XX%20Blench%20off%20print.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703170928/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Isolates/MT%20XX%20Blench%20off%20print.pdf |date=2020-07-03 }}</ref> and again in 2017,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.academia.edu/28768228| title = Africa over the last 12,000 years| last1 = Blench| first1 = Roger| access-date = 2017-10-21| archive-date = 2022-04-09| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220409051204/https://www.academia.edu/28768228| url-status = live}}</ref> Blench had refined the subclassification of this model, linking Maban with Fur, Kadu with Eastern Sudanic, and Kuliak with the node that contained them, and added a tentative, extinct branch he names "Plateau" as to explain a possible Nilo-Saharan substrate in the Malian [[Dogon languages|Dogon]] and [[Bangime language|Bangime]] languages, for the following structure:

{{clade
|1=[[Berta languages|Berta]]
|3={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Koman languages|Koman]]
|2=[[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]]
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Kunama languages|Kunama]]
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
|2=[[Songhay languages|Songhay]]
}}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=Plateau †
}}
|label2=Central African
|2={{clade
|1=[[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]]
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Maban languages|Maban]]
|2=[[Fur languages|Fur]]
}}
|2=[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
|3={{clade
|1=[[Kadu languages|Kadu]]
|2=[[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]]
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}

Blench (2021) concludes that Maban may be close to Eastern Sudanic.

===Starostin (2016)===
[[File:NiloSaharanStarostin.png|thumb|upright=2|Starostin's "Macro-Sudanic" in purple, surrounding language families shown as well]]
[[Georgiy Starostin]] (2016),<ref>George Starostin (2016) [https://www.academia.edu/21582071 ''The Nilo-Saharan hypothesis tested through lexicostatistics: current state of affairs''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405211555/https://www.academia.edu/21582071 |date=2023-04-05 }}</ref> using [[lexicostatistics]] based on Swadesh lists, is more inclusive than ''Glottolog'', and in addition finds probable and possible links between the families that will require reconstruction of the proto-languages for confirmation. Starostin also does not consider Greenberg's Nilo-Saharan to be a valid, coherent clade.

In addition to the families listed in ''Glottolog'' (previous section), Starostin considers the following to be established:

*[[Northern Eastern Sudanic languages|Northern "K" Eastern Sudanic]] or "NNT" (Nubian, Nara, and Tama; see below for Nyima)
*[[Southern Eastern Sudanic languages|Southern "N" Eastern Sudanic]] (Surmic, Temein, Jebel, Daju, Nilotic), though their exact relationships to each other remain obscure
*[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] (including [[Birri language|Birri]] and [[Kresh languages|Kresh–Aja]], which may prove to be closest to each other)
*[[Koman languages|Koman]] (including Gule)

A relationship of [[Nyima languages|Nyima]] with Nubian, Nara, and Tama (NNT) is considered "highly likely" and close enough that proper comparative work should be able to demonstrate the connection if it's valid, though it would fall outside NNT proper (see [[Eastern Sudanic languages]]).

Other units that are "highly likely" to eventually prove to be valid families are:
*[[East Sudanic languages|East Sudanic]] as a whole
*Central Sudanic – Kadu (Central Sudanic + [[Kadu languages|Kadugli–Krongo]])
*Maba–Kunama ([[Maban languages|Maban]] + [[Kunama languages|Kunama]])
*[[Komuz languages|Komuz]] (Koman + Gumuz)

In summary, at this level of certainty, "Nilo-Saharan" constitutes ten distinct and separate language families: Eastern Sudanic, Central Sudanic – Kadu, Maba–Kunama, Komuz, Saharan, Songhai, Kuliak, Fur, Berta, and Shabo.

Possible further "deep" connections, which cannot be evaluated until the proper comparative work on the constituent branches has been completed, are:

*Eastern Sudanic + Fur + Berta
*Central Sudanic – Kadu + Maba–Kunama

There are faint suggestions that Eastern and Central Sudanic may be related (essentially the old Chari–Nile clade), though that possibility is "unexplorable under current conditions" and could be complicated if Niger–Congo were added to the comparison. Starostin finds no evidence that the Komuz, Kuliak, Saharan, Songhai, or Shabo languages are related to any of the other Nilo-Saharan languages. [[Mimi-D]] and [[Meroitic language|Meroitic]] were not considered, though Starostin had previously proposed that Mimi-D was also an isolate despite its slight similarity to Central Sudanic.

In a follow-up study published in 2017, Starostin reiterated his previous points as well as explicitly accepting a genetic relationship between Macro-East Sudanic and Macro-Central Sudanic. Starostin names this proposal "Macro-Sudanic". The classification is as follows.<ref>Starostin, Georgiy C. 2017. [https://www.academia.edu/40139133/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%82_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC_III_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8_Languages_of_Africa_A_New_Lexicostatistical_Classification_Vol_III_Nilo_Saharan_Languages_ Языки Африки. Опыт построения лексикостатистической классификации. Т. 3. Нило-сахарские языки] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806153431/https://www.academia.edu/40139133/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%82_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC_III_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8_Languages_of_Africa_A_New_Lexicostatistical_Classification_Vol_III_Nilo_Saharan_Languages_ |date=2021-08-06 }} / Languages of Africa: an attempt at a lexicostatistical classification. Volume 3: Nilo-Saharan languages. Moscow: Издательский Дом ЯСК / LRC Press. 840 p. {{ISBN|978-5-9909114-9-9}}</ref>

{{tree list}}
* Macro-Sudanic
** Macro-Sudanic macrofamily
*** Macro-Central Sudanic family
**** [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] family
***** [[Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi]] (West-Central Sudanic branch)
***** [[Kresh languages|Kresh]]-[[Aja language (Nilo-Saharan)|Aja]]-[[Birri language|Birri]]
***** East-Central Sudanic branch
****** [[Mangbutu-Efe]]
****** [[Mangbetu-Asoa]]
****** [[Lendu-Ngiti]]
****** [[Moru-Madi]]
**** [[Krongo-Kadugli]] (Kadu) group
**** [[Maban languages|Maba]] group
*** Macro-Eastern Sudanic family
**** [[Eastern Sudanic]] family
***** [[Northeast Sudanic languages|Northeast Sudanic]] family
****** [[Nubian languages|Nubian]] group
****** [[Taman languages|Tama]] group
****** [[Nara language]]
****** Nyimang-Afitti Group
***** [[Southeast Sudanic languages|Southeast Sudanic]] family
****** [[Surmic languages]] (Southern Surmic + Northern Surmic / [[Majang language|Majang]] branches)
****** [[Nilotic languages]] (Western, Eastern, Southern branches)
****** [[Eastern Jebel languages|Jebel]] group
****** [[Temein languages|Temein]] group
****** [[Daju languages|Daju]] group
**** [[Berta language|Berta]] group
**** [[Fur languages|Fur-Amdang]] group
*** [[Kunama languages|Kunama-Ilit]] group
** Koman-Gumuz ("[[Komuz languages|Komuz]]") family
*** [[Koman languages|Koman]] family
**** "Narrow Koman" group
**** [[Gule language|Gule]] (Anej) language
*** [[Gumuz languages]] (group)
** [[Saharan languages|Saharan]] family
*** Western Saharan group (Kanuri-Kanembu + Teda-Dazaga)
*** Eastern Saharan group (Zaghawa + Berti)
** [[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]] group
** [[Songhay languages|Songhay]] group
** [[Shabo language]] (Mikeyir)
{{tree list/end}}

Starostin (2017) finds significant lexical similarities between Kadu and Central Sudanic, while some lexical similarities also shared by Central Sudanic with Fur-Amdang, Berta, and Eastern Sudanic to a lesser extent.

===Dimmendaal 2016, 2019===
[[Gerrit J. Dimmendaal]]<ref name=Dimmendaal2016>{{cite journal|first=Gerrit J.|last=Dimmendaal|title=On stable and unstable features in Nilo-Saharan|year=2016|journal=The University of Nairobi Journal of Language and Linguistics|url=https://www.academia.edu/28046112|access-date=2018-11-16|archive-date=2023-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620122059/https://www.academia.edu/28046112|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Gerrit Dimmendaal, Colleen Ahland, Angelika Jakobi & Constance Kutsch-Lojenga (2019) "Linguistic features and typologies in languages commonly referred to as 'Nilo-Saharan'", in Wolff, Ekkehard (ed.) ''Cambridge Handbook of African Linguistics'', p.326-381.</ref> suggests the following subclassification of Nilo-Saharan:

{{clade
|label1=Nilo-Saharan
|1={{clade
|label1=Northeastern
|1={{clade
|1=[[Maban languages|Maban]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Kunama languages|Kunama]]
|2=[[Fur languages|Fur]]
}}
|3={{clade
|1=[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
|2=[[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] (including [[Berta languages|Berta]])
}}
|4=[[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]]
}}
|2=[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
}}
}}

Dimmendaal et al. consider the evidence for the inclusion of [[Kadu languages|Kadu]] and [[Songhay languages|Songhay]] too weak to draw any conclusions at present, whereas there is some evidence that [[Koman languages|Koman]] and [[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]] belong together and may be Nilo-Saharan.<ref>{{cite book|first=Gerrit J.|last=Dimmendaal|title=Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African Languages|year=2011|publisher=John Benjamins|isbn=978-90-272-8722-9|page=313}}</ref>

The large Northeastern division is based on several typological markers:
* tolerance of complex [[syllable structure]]
* higher amount of both inflectional and derivational morphology, including the presence of [[case (linguistics)|cases]]
* verb-final (SOV or OSV) word order
* [[coverb]] + [[light verb]] constructions
* [[converb]]s

===Blench 2023===
By 2023,<ref>Blench, Roger. 2023. [https://www.academia.edu/104666399/In_defence_of_Nilo_Saharan_Saharan In defence of Nilo-Saharan].</ref> Blench had slightly revised the model for a deep primary split between Koman–Gumuz and the rest. Kunama and Berta are "provisionally" placed as the next to branch off, because they only partially share the features that unite the rest of the family. However, it is not clear if this is because they actually diverged early, or if they might have lost those features at a later date. For example, Berta shares plausible lexical cognates with the [[Eastern Jebel languages]] (East Sudanic) and its system of grammatical number "closely resembles" those of the [[East Sudanic languages]]; Kunama could be divergent "due to long-term interaction with [[Afroasiatic languages]]." Saharan–Songhay (especially Songhay) have seen substantial erosion of key characteristics, but this appears to be a secondary development and not evidence of early branching. "Core" Nilo-Saharan ("Central African" in Blench 2015) thus appears to be a typological rather than genetic grouping, though Maban is treated as a divergent branch of Eastern Sudanic; Kadu also seems to be quite close. The resulting structure is as follows:

{{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Koman languages|Koman]]
|2=[[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]]
}}
|2={{clade
|3=? [[Kunama languages|Kunama]]
|2=? [[Berta languages|Berta]]
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
|2=[[Songhay languages|Songhay]]
}}
|2=[[Fur languages|Fur]]
|3=[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]]
|4={{clade
|1=[[Kadu languages|Kadu]]
|2=[[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]]
|3={{clade
|1=[[Maban languages|Maban]]
|2=[[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]]
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}

Beyond the work of Colleen Ahland, Blench notes that the inclusion of Koman is buttressed by the work of Manuel Otero.<ref name=Otero/> The argument for Songhay is mostly lexical, especially the pronouns. Blench gives Greenberg credit for both East and Central Sudanic. Saharan and Songhay have some "striking" similarities in their lexicon, which Blench argues is genetic, though the absence of reliable proto-Sarahan and proto-Songhay reconstructions makes evaluation difficult.

===''Glottolog'' 4.0 (2019)===
In summarizing the literature to date, Hammarström et al. in ''[[Glottolog]]'' do not accept that the following families are demonstrably related with current research:

*[[Berta language|Berta]]
*[[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] (excluding [[Kresh-Aja languages|Kresh–Aja]]; [[Birri language|Birri]] is also questionable as Central Sudanic)
*[[Daju languages|Daju]] (putatively ''East Sudanic'')
*[[Eastern Jebel languages|Eastern Jebel]] (putatively ''East Sudanic'')
*[[Fur languages|Furan]]
*[[Gule language|Gule]]
*[[Gumuz languages|Gumuz]]
*[[Kadugli-Krongo languages|Kadugli–Krongo]]
*[[Koman languages|Koman]] (excluding [[Gule language|Gule]])
*[[Kresh-Aja languages|Kresh–Aja]] (putatively ''Central Sudanic'')
*[[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]]
*[[Kunama language|Kunama]]
*[[Maban languages|Maban]] (including Mimi-N)
*[[Mimi-Gaudefroy language|Mimi-Gaudefroy]] (Mimi-D)
*[[Nara language|Nara]] (putatively ''East Sudanic'')
*[[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] (putatively ''East Sudanic'')
*[[Nubian languages|Nubian]] (putatively ''East Sudanic'')
*[[Nyima languages|Nyimang]] (putatively ''East Sudanic'')
*[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]
*[[Songhai languages|Songhai]] 
*[[Surmic languages|Surmic]] (putatively ''East Sudanic'')
*[[Taman languages|Tama]] (putatively ''East Sudanic'')
*[[Temein languages|Temein]] (putatively ''East Sudanic'')

==External relations==
Proposals for the external relationships of Nilo-Saharan typically center on [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]: Gregersen (1972) grouped the two together as ''[[Kongo–Saharan]]''. However, Blench (2011) proposed that the similarities between Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan (specifically Atlantic–Congo and Central Sudanic) are due to contact, with the noun-class system of Niger–Congo developed from, or elaborated on the model of, the noun classifiers of Central Sudanic.

==Phonology==
Nilo-Saharan languages present great differences, being a highly diversified group. It has proven difficult to reconstruct many aspects of Proto-Nilo-Saharan. Two very different reconstructions of the proto-language have been proposed by [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Lionel Bender]] and [[Christopher Ehret]].

===Bender's reconstruction===
The consonant system reconstructed by Bender for Proto-Nilo-Saharan is:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! colspan="2" | [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[plosive consonant|plosive]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t, *t₂}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*k, *kʰ}}
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*b}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*d, *d₂}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɟ}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*g}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[fricative consonant|fricative]]
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*f}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*s}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[liquid consonant|liquid]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*r, *l}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*r₂}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[nasal consonant|nasal]]
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*m}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*n}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ŋ}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[semivowel]]
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*w}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*j}}
| colspan="2" |
|}

The phonemes {{IPA|/*d₂, *t₂/}} correspond to coronal plosives, the phonetic details are difficult to specify, but clearly, they remain distinct from {{IPA|/*d, *t/}} and supported by many phonetic correspondences (another author, Cristopher Ehret, reconstructs for the coronal area the sound {{IPA|[d̪], [ḍ]}} and {{IPA|[t̪], [ṭ]}} which perhaps are closer to the phonetic detail of {{IPA|/*d₂, *t₂/}}, see infra)

Bender gave a list of about 350 [[cognate]]s and discussed in depth the grouping and the phonological system proposed by Ehret. Blench (2000) compares both systems (Bender's and Ehret's) and prefers the former because it is more secure and is based in more reliable data.<ref name="Blench 2000">[[Roger Blench|Blench, Roger M.]] (2000) [http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology%20data/Africa/Blench%20Chapter%203.pdf "The classification of Nilo-Saharan"] (Afrika und Übersee 83). p. 299.{{dead link|date=November 2018}}</ref> For example, Bender points out that there is a set of phonemes including [[implosive consonant|implosives]] {{IPA|/*ɓ, *ɗ, *ʄ, *ɠ/}}, [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] {{IPA|/*pʼ, *tʼ, (*sʼ), *cʼ, *kʼ/}} and prenasal constants {{IPA|/*ᵐb, *ⁿd, (*ⁿt), *ⁿɟ, *ᵑg/}}, but it seems that they can be reconstructed only for core groups (E, I, J, L) and the collateral group (C, D, F, G, H), but not for Proto-Nilo-Saharan.

===Ehret's reconstruction===
[[Christopher Ehret]] used a less clear methodology and proposed a maximalist phonemic system:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[alveolar consonant|Alveol.]]
! [[retroflex consonant|Retrof.]]
! [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="5" |[[plosive]]
! <small>[[implosive consonant|implosive]]</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɓ}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɗ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɗ̣}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɠ}}
|
|- align=center
! <small>voiced</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*b}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*d̪}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*d}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ḍ}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*g}}
|
|- align=center
! <small>voiceless</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*p}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t̪}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ṭ}}
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*k}}
|
|- align=center
! <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirate]]</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*pʰ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t̪ʰ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*tʰ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ṭʰ}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*kʰ}}
|
|- align=center
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*pʼ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t̪ʼ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*tʼ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ṭʼ}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*kʼ}}
|
|- align=center
! colspan="2" |[[fricative]]
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*θ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*s, *z}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ṣ}}
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
! rowspan="2" |[[nasal consonant|nasal]]
! <small>simple</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*m}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*n}}
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɲ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ŋ}}
| 
|- align=center
! <small>prenasal</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿb}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿð}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿd}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿḍ}}
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿg}}
| 
|- align=center
! colspan="2" |[[liquid consonant|liquid]]
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*l̪}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*r, *l}}
| 
| 
|
|- align=center
! rowspan="2" |[[approximant]]
! <small>plain</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*w}}
|
|
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*j}}
|
| 
|- align=center
! <small>complex</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ʼw}}
|
|
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ʼj}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*h}}
|}
Ehret's maximalist system has been criticized by [[Lionel Bender|Bender]] and [[Roger Blench|Blench]]. These authors state that the correspondences used by Ehret are not very clear and because of this many of the sounds in the table may only be allophonic variations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blench|first=Roger|date=2004|title=Review of The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800|journal=The African Archaeological Review|volume=21|issue=4|pages=239–242|issn=0263-0338|jstor=25130809|doi=10.1007/s10437-004-0752-7|s2cid=162354153}}</ref>

==Morphology==
Dimmendaal (2016)<ref name="Dimmendaal2016"/> cites the following morphological elements as stable across Nilo-Saharan:
* [[Causative]] prefix: *ɪ- or *i-
* Deverbal noun (abstract / [[Participle|participial]] / [[Agent noun|agent]]) prefix: *a-
* [[Grammatical number|Number]] suffixes: *-i, *-in, *-k
* [[Reflexive pronoun|Reflexive]] marker: *rʊ
* [[Personal pronoun]]s: first person singular *qa, second person singular *yi
* [[Logophoric pronoun]]: *(y)ɛ
* [[Deictic]] markers: singular *n, plural *k
* [[Postposition]]s: [[Possession (linguistics)|possessive]] *ne, [[locative]] *ta
* [[Preposition]]: *kɪ
* Negative verb: *kʊ

==Comparative vocabulary==
Sample basic vocabulary in different Nilo-Saharan branches:

''Note'': In table cells with slashes, the singular form is given before the slash, while the plural form follows the slash.

{| class="wikitable sortable"  style="font-size: 85%"
! Language !! eye !! ear !! nose !! tooth !! tongue !! mouth !! blood !! bone !! tree !! water !! eat !! name
|-
| Proto-[[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]]<ref>Dimmendaal, Gerrit Jan. 1988. "The lexical reconstruction of proto-Nilotic: a first reconnaissance." ''Afrikanistische'' (''AAP'') 16: 5–67.</ref> || *(k)ɔŋ, pl. *(k)ɔɲ || *yit̪ || *(q)ume || *kɛ-la(-c) || *ŋa-lyɛp || *(k)ʊt̪ʊk ||  || *käw || *kɛ-ɛt, *kɪ-yat || *pi(-ʀ) || *ɲam || *ka-ʀin
|-
| Proto-[[Eastern Jebel languages|Jebel]]<ref>Bender, M. Lionel. 1998. "The Eastern Jebel Languages of Sudan." ''Afrika und Übersee'' 81: 39–64.</ref> || **ed ~ *er || **si(di ~ gi) ||  || **ɲi-di || **kala-d || **udu || **k-afa-d || **(g-)am- || **kaca || **cii ~ *kii || **ɲam || (siigə, saag)
|-
| [[Temein language|Temein]]<ref>Blench, Roger. ''[http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/Eastern%20Sudanic/Temein%20cluster/Comparative%20Temein%20wordlist.pdf Temein languages comparative wordlist] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125150641/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/Eastern%20Sudanic/Temein%20cluster/Comparative%20Temein%20wordlist.pdf |date=2021-01-25 }}''.</ref> || nɪ́ŋɪ̀nàʈ / kɛ̀ɛ́n || wénàʈ / kwèén || kɪ́mɪ́nʈɪ̀n / kɪkɪ́mɪ́nʈɪ́nɪ̀ || awɪ̀s / kɛ́ɛ̀ʔ || mɛ́nɖɪnyàʈ || íʈùk / k(w)úʈɪ̀n || mónɪ̀ʈ || àmɪ̀s / kɔ́maʔ || mɛ́rɛŋɪ̀s / mɛ́rɛŋ || múŋ || láma || kàlɪ́n, kàlɪ́ŋ
|-
| Proto-[[Daju languages|Daju]]<ref>Thelwall, Robin. 1981. ''The Daju Language Group''. Doctoral dissertation. Coleraine: New University of Ulster.</ref> || *aŋune / *aŋwe ~ *aŋun || *wunute / *wunuge || *mu-ne || *ɲiɣte / *ɲiɣke || *ɲabire / *ɲabirta || *ikke / *ikku || *tamuke || *ŋai / *ŋayu || *ewete / *ewe || *ma- || *si- || *ange / *angu
|-
| [[Kadugli language|Kadugli]] (Talla dialect)<ref>[[Thilo C. Schadeberg|Schadeberg, Thilo]]. 1994. Comparative Kadu Wordlists. ''Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere'' 40:11–48. University of Cologne.</ref> || ayyɛ / iyyɛ || naasɔ / isinɛ́ || ámb-/nigáŋg-árɔk || t̪- / iŋŋini || áŋdáɗuk / ni- || niinɔ / niginíínɔ || ariid̪ʊ || t̪iŋguba / kuba || ffa / nááfa || ɓiid̪i || oori || ɛɛrɛ / nigirɛɛnɛ
|-
| Proto-[[Northern Eastern Sudanic languages|Northern Eastern Sudanic]]<ref name="Rilly2010"/> || *maɲ || *ɲog-ul || *em-u || *ŋes-il || *ŋal || *ag-il ~ *ag-ul || *ug-er || *kɛs-ɛr || *koɲ-er- || *mban || *kal- / *kamb- || *(ŋ)ɛr-i
|-
| [[Nara language|Nara]]<ref name="Rilly2010"/> || no, nòò / no-ta, nóó-ta || tús / túsá || demmo, dəmmo, dàm̀mò, dòmmò || nɪ̀hɪ̀ / nɪ̀hɪ̀t-tá; nèʃɪ̀ / nèʃá || hàggà, àggà, ààdà, hàdà || aùlò / aùl-lá; àgúrá / àgúr-tà || kitto, kɪ̀tò || ketti, kəti, kátɪ́ / ketta, kátá || tüm, tûm; kè́l || emba, mbàà || kal, kál, kár || ade, ààdà
|-
| Proto-[[Nubian languages|Nubian]]<ref name="Rilly2010">Rilly, Claude. 2010. Le méroïtique et sa famille linguistique. Leuven: Peeters Publishers.</ref> || *maaɲ, sg. *miɲ-di || *ugul(-e), sg. *ugul-di || ? || *ŋil, sg. *ŋíl-di || *ŋal, sg. ŋal-di || *agil || *ùg-er || *kiser, sg. *kisir-ti || *koor, sg. *koor-ti || *es-ti || *kal- || *er-i
|-
| Proto-[[Taman languages|Taman]]<ref name="Rilly2010"/> || *me-ti, pl. *mVŋ || *(ŋ)usu-ti (sg) || *eme, sg. emi-ti (sg.) || *ŋesi-t(i), pl. *ŋes-oŋ || *laat || *auli || *agi || *kei-ti, pl. *kei-ŋ || *gaan; *kiɲe(-ti) (?) || *kal /*kaal || *ŋan- || *(ŋ)aat, pl. *(ŋ)ari-g
|-
| Proto-[[Nyimang languages|Nyima]]<ref name="Rilly2010"/> || *a̍ŋV || *ɲɔgɔr- || *(o)mud̪- (?) || *ŋil- || ? || *ŋàl- || *wule || *amV || *t̪uma || *bɔ́ŋ || *t̪a̍l- / *ta̍m- || 
|-
| Proto-[[Surmic languages|SW Surmic]]<ref name="Yigezu2001">Yigezu, Moges. 2001. ''A comparative study of the phonetics and phonology of Surmic languages''. Bruxelles: Université libre de Bruxelles. Doctoral dissertation, University of Bruxelles.</ref> || *kɛɓɛrɛ (pl.) || *it̪t̪at || *ʊŋɛtʃ (?) || *ɲiggɪtta || *ʌgʌʌt || *(k)-ʊt̪t̪ʊk || *ɓɪj- || *ɛmmɛ || *kɛɛt̪ || *maam || *ɗak- || *ðara
|-
| Proto-[[Surmic languages|SE Surmic]]<ref name="Yigezu2001"/> || *kabari || *ɲabi (?) || *giroŋ || *ɲigidda (?) || *kat || *tuk- || *ɲaɓa || *giga (?) || *kɛdo (?) || *ma ||  || *sara
|-
| Proto-[[Kuliak languages|Kuliak]]<ref>Heine, Bernd. 1976. The ''Kuliak Languages of Eastern Uganda''. Nairobi: East African Publishing House.</ref> || *ekw, pl. *ekw=ẹk || *beos, pl. *beosẹk || *nyab, pl. *nyabẹk ||  || *ɛd-eɓ || *ak, pl. *akẹk || *seh || *ɔk || *ad, pl. *ad=is || *kywɛh ||  || *yed, pl. *yedẹk
|-
| [[Shabo language|Shabo]]<ref>Jordan, Linda, Hussein Mohammed, and Jillian Netzley. 2015. Sociolinguistic Survey of the Shabo of Ethiopia. SIL Electronic Survey Report 2015-019. SIL International.</ref> || sɛ || k’iti || sonɑ || k’ɑu || hɑndɑ || kɑusɛ || dɑmo || emɑhɑ; egege || k’ɔnɑ || wɔː ||  || woŋgɑse
|-
| [[Ongota language|Ongota]]<ref>Wedekind, Klaus. 2001. ''[http://www.sil.org/silesr/2002/SILESR2002-066.pdf Sociolinguistic Survey Report of the Languages of the Gawwada, Tsamay, and Diraasha Areas with Excursions to Birayle (Ongota) and Arbore (Irbore): Part 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728092241/http://www.sil.org/silesr/2002/SILESR2002-066.pdf |date=2012-07-28 }}''. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2002-066: 6–15.</ref> || ˈʔaːfa || ˈwoːwa || ˈsiːna (loan?) || ʔitiˈma || ʔɑdabo (loan?) || ˈʔiːfa ||  || ˈmitʃa (loan?) || ˈhɑntʃa || ˈtʃaːhawa || ʔeˈdʒak || ˈmiʃa
|-
| Proto-[[Bongo-Bagirmi languages|Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi]]<ref>Boyeldieu, Pascal, Pierre Nougayrol, and Pierre Palayer. 2006. ''[http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/SBB/afficheSeries.html Lexique comparatif historique des langues Sara-Bongo-Baguirmiennes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124093625/http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/SBB/afficheSeries.html |date=2021-01-24 }}''. Online version.</ref> || *kamɔ; *kamu; *kama || *imbi; *EmbE; *mbili; *mbElE; *imbil-; *EmbEl- || *Samɔ; *Samu; *Somu; *kanu; *kunu; *kVnV || *kanga; *nganga || *unɖɛ(C-) || *tara || *manga; *masu; *mVsV; *nɖuma || *Kinga; *Kunga; *Kingo || *kaga || *mEnE; *mAnɛ; *mani || *OɲO; *ɔɲɔ; *VɲV || *iɭi; *ʈV
|-
| Proto-[[Mangbetu languages|Mangbetu]]<ref>Demolin, Didier. 1992. ''Le Mangbetu: etude phonétique et phonologique'', 2 vols. Brussels: Faculté de Philosophie et Lettres, Université libre de Bruxelles dissertation.</ref> || *mʷɔ̀ || *bɪ́ || *amɔ̀ || *kɪ́ || *kàɖrà || *tí(kpɔ̀) || *álí || *kpɔ̀ || *kɪ́rɪ́ɛ̀ || *gʷò || *láɲɔ̀ || *kɛ̀lʊ̀
|-
| [[Mangbutu language|Mangbutu]]<ref name="Bokula">Bokula, Moiso & Agozia-Kario Irumu. 1994. Bibliographie et matériaux lexicaux des langues Moru-Mangbetu (Soudan-Central, Zaïre). ''Annales Aequatoria'' 10: 203‒245.</ref> || owékékí || ubí || tongi || usɛ́ || kedrú || utí || koto || ikpi || okpá || uwɛ || ano || aɓé
|-
| [[Lendu language|Bale]]<ref name="Bokula"/> || ɲɔ̌ || bí || ndǔ̱tú̱ || kú || da || tso || zú || kpa || tsú || cû || wyɔ || ngbá / nzú
|-
| [[Ndrulo language|Ndru]]<ref name="Bokula"/> || nikpɔ́ || ɓi(na) || ondǐ̹tsǔ̹ || ku || da || tsu || âzû || kpá || ítsú || ǐɗá || ɲú || óvôná
|-
| [[Ma'di language|Ma'di]] (Uganda)<ref>Boone, Douglas; Richard L. Watson (editors). 1996. ''[https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/42/91/56/42915629557882956271906201383741312783/silesr1999_001.pdf Moru-Ma'di survey report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305112023/https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/42/91/56/42915629557882956271906201383741312783/silesr1999_001.pdf |date=2022-03-05 }}''. Nairobi, Kenya: Summer Institute of Linguistics.</ref> || mī || bí || ɔ̀mvɔ̄ || sí || lɛ̀ɖá || ti || àrɪ́ || hʷa || kʷɛ || èyí || ɲā || rú
|-
| [[Birri language|Birri]]<ref name="Santandrea1966">Santandrea, Stefano. 1966. The Birri language: Brief elementary notes. ''Afrika und Übersee'' 49: 81‒234.</ref> || mɛ́; mʊ́ || nvö; nvu || ímɔ̀; ámɔ̀ || sì || ìnɖrɔ́; ìnɖrá || tyi(di) || ɔ́tɔ́ || kpɔ || kpi; kpɪ || wu || ɔnyo || iri
|-
| [[Kresh language|Kresh]]<ref name="Santandrea1976">Santandrea, Stefano. 1976. ''The Kresh group, Aja and Baka languages (Sudan): A linguistic contribution''. Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale.</ref> || mumu || mbímbi || uŋú || ʃɛ́ʃɛ̀ || ndjindja || – || srama || kpɔkpɔ́ || kpikpi || ùyù || ɔ́ʃɔ́ || díri
|-
| [[Dongo language (Nilo-Saharan)|Dongo]]<ref name="Santandrea1976"/> || mómu || mbimbi || ʔɔŋu || cẹ̀cẹ̀ || ndjándja || – || ọọs || kpọkpŏ || kpikpi || ùyù || l-ọc(ic) || díri
|-
| [[Aja language (Nilo-Saharan)|Aja]]<ref name="Santandrea1976"/> || iɲi || mimbi || múmú || uku || ndindyi || – || usa || gbäbí || cící || ɓaɓa || aɲ || kiri
|-
| [[Kunama language|Kunama]]<ref>Bender, Lionel. 2001. English-Kunama lexicon. ''Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere'' 65: 201–253.</ref> || wà || ùkùˈnà || bòbòˈnà || mà || ŋèeˈlà || ùˈdà || kòkòˈbà || sàŋˈgà || èˈlà || bìˈà || ˈìŋ(à) || ˈkíidà
|-
| [[Berta language|Berta]]<ref>Bender, M. Lionel. 1989. Berta Lexicon. In Bender, M. Lionel (ed.), ''Topics in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics'', 271–304. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.</ref> || aře || iile || amúŋ || ndu-fuudí || hala || n'du || k’aβa || k’aara || s’ís’ía || fɪ'ri || θɪ́ŋa || huu (= foot)
|-
| [[Gumuz language|Gumuz]], Northern<ref>Ahland, Colleen and Eliza Kelly. 2014. ''[https://www.academia.edu/16371000/Daats%CA%BCi_in-Gumuz_Comparative_Word_list Daatsʼíin-Gumuz Comparative Word list] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329012835/https://www.academia.edu/16371000/Daats%CA%BCi_in-Gumuz_Comparative_Word_list |date=2019-03-29 }}''.</ref> || kʼwácá || tsʼéa || ííta || kʼósa || kʼótʼá || sa || maχá || ʒákwá || ɟá || aja || sá || tsʼéa
|-
| Proto-[[Koman languages|Koman]]<ref name=Otero>Otero, Manuel Alejandro. 2019. ''A Historical Reconstruction of the Koman Language Family''. Doctoral thesis. Department of Linguistics, University of Oregon.</ref> || *D̪E || *cʼɛ || *ʃʊnʃ || *ʃE || *lEtʼ̪a || *tʼ̪wa || *sʼámá; *bàs || *ʃUImakʼ || *cwálá || *jiɗE || *ʃa; *kʼama || *D̪uga
|-
| [[Gule language|Gule]]<ref>Evans-Pritchard, Edward E. 1932. Ethnological Observations in Dar Fung. ''Sudan Notes and Records'' 15: 1–61.</ref> || yan || ĭgŭn || fufŭn ||  || ŏdāīān ||  || wāīdjo ||  || wŏt || āī ||  || 
|-
| [[Gule language|Gule]]<ref>Seligmann, Brenda Z. 1911–1912. Note on Two Languages in the Sennar Province of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. ''Zeitschrift für Kolonialsprachen'' 2: 297–308.</ref> || yan || igă̄n || fufan ||  || adad ayan || ĭten ||  ||  ||  || ai ||  || 
|-
| [[Amdang language|Amdang]] (Kouchane)<ref>Wolf, Katharina. 2010. ''[https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/9036 Une enquête sociolinguistique parmi les Amdang (Mimi) du Tchad: Rapport Technique] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720055853/https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/9036 |date=2020-07-20 }}''. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2010-028</ref>  || ni || dili, kiliŋgɛ || gʊrnɑ || kɑlkɑ || dɔlː || sɪˈmi || tʃoː || dʊrtu || sɔŋ || sunu || zɑm || tʃuluk
|-
| Proto-[[Maban languages|Maba]]<ref>Blench, Roger. 2021. ''[https://www.academia.edu/44876227/The_Maban_languages_and_their_place_within_Nilo_Saharan The Maban languages and their place within Nilo-Saharan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115023408/https://www.academia.edu/44876227/The_Maban_languages_and_their_place_within_Nilo_Saharan |date=2021-01-15 }}''.</ref> || *kàSì-k ||  || *dúrmì || *sati-k; *sàdí-k / *sadi-ɲi || *delemi-k ||  || *fàrí-ŋ ||  ||  || *ta-k / *ta-si || *-aɲɔ- || *mílí-ik
|-
| [[Maba language|Maba]]<ref name="Edgar1991">Edgar, John T. 1991. ''Maba-group Lexicon''. (Sprache und Oralität in Afrika: Frankfurter Studien zur Afrikanistik, 13.) Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.</ref> || kàʃì-k/-ñi || koi-k || boiñ || sati-k || delmi-k || kan-a/-tu || àríi || kàñjí-k || soŋgo-k || inji || añ || mílí-i/-síi
|-
| [[Mimi of Decorse]]<ref>Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Maurice. 1907. Document sur les Langues de l'Oubangui-Chari. In ''Actes du XVIe Congrès International des Orientalistes, Alger, 1905'', Part II, 172–330. Paris: Ernest Leroux.</ref> || dyo || feɾ || fir || ɲain ||  || ɲyo ||  ||  || su || engi || ɲyam || 
|-
| [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]<ref>Doris Löhr, H. Ekkehard Wolff (with Ari Awagana). 2009. [https://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/5 Kanuri vocabulary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804135648/https://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/5 |date=2020-08-04 }}. In: Haspelmath, Martin & Tadmor, Uri (eds.) ''World Loanword Database''. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 1591 entries.</ref> || shîm || sə́mò || kə́nzà || tímì; shélì || tə́làm || cî || bû || shíllà || kə̀ská || njî || bù || cû
|-
| [[Zaghawa language|Zaghawa]]<ref>Blažek, Václav. 2007. [https://www.muni.cz/en/research/publications/763232 On application of Glottochronology for Saharan Languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328105036/https://www.muni.cz/en/research/publications/763232 |date=2020-03-28 }}. In ''Viva Africa'' 2007. Proceedings of the IInd International Conference on African Studies (April 2007). Plzeň: Dryáda, 2007. p. 19-38, 19 pp. {{ISBN|978-80-87025-17-8}}.</ref><ref>Tourneux, Henry. 1992. Inventaire phonologiques et formation du pluriel en zaghawa (Tchad). ''Afrika und Übersee'' 75, 267–277.</ref> || í || kέbέ || síná || màrgiː || tàmsiː || áá || ógú || úrú || bɛ̀gìdiː || bí || sε:gì || tír
|-
| [[Dendi language|Dendi]]<ref>Zima, Petr. 1994. ''Lexique dendi (songhay): [[Djougou]], Bénin: avec un index français-dendi''. (Westafrikanische Studien 4). Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.</ref> || mò || háŋŋá || nínè || hínydyè || dɛ́llɛ̀ || méè || kpííʀì || bíʀí || túúʀì || hàʀí || ŋwáà || máà
|-
| [[Tadaksahak]]<ref>Christiansen-Bolli, Regula. 2010. ''A Grammar of Tadaksahak: a Northern Songhay Language of Mali''. Leiden.</ref> || mó || haŋgá || t-í-nʒar || ée-ʃan || íilǝs || míya || kud-én || biidí || tugúdu || aryén || ŋá || mân
|}

==See also==
*[[Languages of Sudan]]
*[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Nilo-Saharan word lists|Nilo-Saharan word lists]] (Wiktionary)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book |title=Archaeology, language, and the African past |first=Roger |last=Blench |author-link=Roger Blench |date=2006 |publisher=AltaMira Press |isbn=0-7591-0465-4 |location=Lanham, MD |oclc=62281704}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Dimmendaal |first=Gerrit J. |date=2008-09-01 |title=Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent |journal=Language and Linguistics Compass |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=840–858 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00085.x |issn=1749-818X}}
* {{Cite book |title=A historical-comparative reconstruction of Nilo-Saharan |first=Christopher |last=Ehret |author-link=Christopher Ehret |date=2001 |publisher=R. Köppe Verlag |isbn=3-89645-098-0 |location=Köln |oclc=48027016 |series=Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika. SUGIA Supplements |volume=12}}
*{{Cite journal |title=The languages of Africa |first=Joseph |last=Greenberg |author-link=Joseph Greenberg |date=1970 |publisher=Indiana University |isbn=0-87750-115-7 |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=29 |issue=1 |publication-place=Bloomington |oclc=795772769}}
* {{cite journal |first=Pertti |last=Mikkola |year=1999 |title=Nilo-Saharan revisited: some observations concerning the best etymologies |journal=Nordic Journal of African Studies |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=108–138}}

===External relationships===
* {{cite conference |last=Blench |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Blench |year=2011 |title=Can Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic help us understand the evolution of Niger-Congo noun classes? |url=http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/blench-call-leiden-2011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518213056/http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/blench-call-leiden-2011.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-18 |conference=CALL 41 |location=Leiden}}
*{{cite journal |last=Gregersen |first=Edgar |year=1972 |title=Kongo-Saharan |journal=Journal of African Languages |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=69–89 }}

==External links==
*[http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/NS%20page.htm Roger Blench: Nilo-Saharan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122032513/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/NS%20page.htm |date=2013-11-22 }}
**[http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/NS%20language%20list.pdf Nilo-Saharan list] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625153552/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/NS%20language%20list.pdf/ |date=2020-06-25 }} (Blench 2012)
*[http://starling.rinet.ru/maps/maps15.php?lan=en Map of Nilo-Saharan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224061753/http://starling.rinet.ru/maps/maps15.php?lan=en |date=2013-02-24 }}
*[https://human-language.teachable.com/p/nilo-saharan Popular Overview of Nilo-Saharan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903201935/https://human-language.teachable.com/p/nilo-saharan |date=2022-09-03 }}

{{Nilo-Saharan families}}
{{Language families}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nilo-Saharan Languages}}
[[Category:Nilo-Saharan languages| ]]
[[Category:Proposed language families]]