Open main menu
Home
Random
Recent changes
Special pages
Community portal
Preferences
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Incubator escapee wiki
Search
User menu
Talk
Dark mode
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Editing
Nilometer
Warning:
You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you
log in
or
create an account
, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.
Anti-spam check. Do
not
fill this in!
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}} {{Short description|Structure for measuring the Nile River's clarity and water level}} [[File:Cairo Nilometer 2.jpg|thumb|Measuring shaft of the nilometer on [[Roda Island]], Cairo]] A '''nilometer''' is a structure for measuring the [[Nile]] River's clarity and water level during the [[Flooding of the Nile|annual flood season]] in Egypt.<ref name="H" /> There were three main types of nilometers, calibrated in [[Egyptian cubits]]: (1) a vertical column, (2) a corridor stairway of steps leading down to the Nile, and (3) a deep well with a [[culvert]].<ref name=H/> If the water level was low, the fertility of the floodplain would suffer. If it was too high, the flooding would be destructive. There was a specific mark that indicated how high the flood should be if the fields were to get good soil.<ref name="H">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in ... |title= Nilometer |author= Helaine Elsin |page= 1753 |date= 2008 }}</ref><ref name="Fagan2010">{{cite book|author=Brian Fagan|title=The Great Warming: Climate Change and the Rise and Fall of Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dpUDCcbmZJIC&pg=PT167|date=1 August 2010|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-59691-780-4|page=167}}</ref> Nilometers originated in [[pharaonic]] times, were also built in Roman times, and were highly prevalent in Islamic Egypt in [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]], [[Umayyad Caliphate|Ummayad]], [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]], [[Tulunids|Tulunid]], [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]], [[Muhammad Ali dynasty|Alawiyya]] and [[History of republican Egypt|Republican]] periods, until the [[Aswan Dam]] rendered them obsolete in the 1960s. ==Description== [[File:Nilometre at the southern tip of Roda Island, Environs du Kaire (Cairo). Plan général de Boulâq, du Kaire, de l'île de Roudah (el-Rôda), du Vieux Kaire et de Gyzeh (Jîzah) (NYPL b14212718-1268726) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Nilometer shown {{circa}}1800 at the southern tip of Roda Island]] Between July and November, the reaches of the Nile running through [[Egypt]] would burst their banks and cover the adjacent [[floodplain]]. When the waters receded, around September or October, they left behind a rich [[Alluvium|alluvial deposit]] of exceptionally fertile black silt over the croplands. The ''akhet'', or [[Season of the Inundation]], was one of the three seasons into which the [[ancient Egypt]]ians divided their year. The annual flood was of great importance to Egyptian civilization. A moderate inundation was a vital part of the agricultural cycle; however, a lighter inundation than normal would cause [[famine]], and too much flood water would be equally disastrous, washing away much of the infrastructure built on the flood plain. Records from AD 622{{ndash}}999 indicate that, on average, 28% of the years saw an inundation that fell short of expectations.<ref name="Fagan2010" /> [[File:Palermo Ston fragment-Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|Palermo Stone, 5th Dynasty (2392 B.C.E-2283 B.C.E)]] Across Egypt various nilometers could be found that recorded readings of the Nile's annual levels. A fragment of a recovered Egyptian [[stele]] "Royal Annals of the Old Kingdom" known as the "[[Palermo Stone]]" deemed to be from the times of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] around 3,000 B.C.E.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-09 |title=The Palermo Stone and its unsolved mysteries {{!}} www.palermoviva.it |url=https://www.palermoviva.it/the-palermo-stone-and-its-unsolved-mysteries/ |access-date=2024-03-18 |language=it-IT}}</ref> The Palermo Stone reports systems of measurements utilizing units such as cubits, palms, and fingers.<ref>Danielle Brushaber, Ancient Egypt’s Religious Need For Mathematics, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, </ref> The ability to predict the volume of the coming inundation was part of the mystique of the ancient Egyptian priesthood. The same skill also played a political and administrative role, since the quality of the year's flood was used to determine the levels of tax to be paid. This is where the nilometer came into play, with priests monitoring the day-to-day level of the river and announcing the awaited arrival of the summer flood. Religious attributes related to the Nile intertwined with the ideology or belief in Ma'at (a system of natural balance). Nilometers were accessible to only members of the city's priests and nobles.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2016-05-18 |title=Ancient Device for Determining Taxes Discovered in Egypt |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/160517-nilometer-discovered-ancient-egypt-nile-river-archaeology |access-date=2024-03-18 |website=History |language=en}}</ref> The restriction on who may access these structures ensured both accountability in proper readings and political control for the religious communities and ruling classes.<ref name=":0" /> ==Designs== [[File:Nilometer Rhoda Island Cairo June 1966.jpg|thumb|left|Conical structure covers the nilometer on southern tip of Roda Island in the Nile River at Cairo. The structure is modern but the nilometer dates from 715 AD.<ref name="Fagan2010" />]] [[File:Île de Roudah (el-Rôda). 1. Plan général du meqyâs ou nilomètre; 2. Plan du puits; 3. Coupe du nilomètre; 4-6. Détails de la colonne (NYPL b14212718-1268734).jpg|thumb|upright|Diagrams of the nilometer on Roda Island c.1800]] The simplest nilometer design is a vertical column submerged in the waters of the river, with marked intervals indicating the depth of the water.<ref name="H" /> One that follows this simple design, albeit housed in an elaborate and ornate stone structure, can still be seen on the island of [[Roda Island|Roda]] in central [[Cairo]]<ref name="H" /><ref name="Fagan2010" /> {{nowrap|({{coord|30.0069|N|31.2250|E|type:landmark_region:EG_source:wikidata|display=inline|name=Rhoda Island nilometer}}).}} This nilometer visible today dates as far back as AD 861, when the [[Abbasid]] caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]] ordered its construction,<ref name="Behrens-Abouseif1992">{{cite book|author=Doris Behrens-Abouseif|title=Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=INsmT6zjAl8C&pg=PA51|year=1992|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-09626-4|page=51}}</ref> overseen by the astronomer [[al-Farghani]]. Another nilometer had been ordered in 715 by Usāma b. Zayd b. ʿAdī, who was in charge of collecting the land tax (''[[kharaj]]'') in Egypt for the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] caliph [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik|Sulaymān ibn ʿAbd al-Malik]].<ref name="Fagan2010" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/FP24037/08#page/n83/mode/1up|title=Tārīkh Madīnat Dimashq|last=Ibn ʿAsākir|pages=8:84}}</ref> [[File:Assuan Elephantine Nilometer 14.JPG|thumb|upright|Nilometer on [[Elephantine|Elephantine Island]] ]] The second nilometer design comprises a flight of stairs leading down into the water, with depth markings along the walls.<ref name=H/> The best known example of this kind can be seen on [[Elephantine]] in [[Aswan]],<ref name=H/> where a stairway of 52 steps leads down to a doorway at the Nile.<ref name="Farid">{{cite book |author= Farid Atiya |title= Pocket Book of Ancient Egypt |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LyWNFVeblO8C&pg=PA370 |page= 370 |date= 2008 |publisher= American Univ in Cairo Press |isbn= 9789771744399 |access-date= 2017-04-26}}</ref> This location was also particularly important, since for much of Egyptian history, Elephantine marked Egypt's southern border and was therefore the first place where the onset of the annual flood was detected. The most elaborate design involved a [[canal]] or [[culvert]] that led from the riverbank – often running for a considerable distance – and then fed a well, tank, or [[cistern]].<ref name=H/> These nilometer wells were most frequently located within the confines of [[temple]]s, where only the priests and rulers were allowed access. A particularly fine example, with a deep, cylindrical well and a culvert opening in the surrounding wall, can be seen at the [[Temple of Kom Ombo]], to the north of Aswan. ==History== While nilometers originated in Pharaonic times, they continued to be used by the later civilizations that held sway in Egypt.<ref name=H/> Some were constructed in Roman times.<ref name=H/> In the 20th century, the Nile's annual inundation was first greatly reduced, and then eliminated entirely, with the construction of the [[Aswan Dam]]s. While the [[Aswan High Dam]]'s impact on Egypt and its agriculture has been controversial for other, more complex reasons, it has also had the additional effect of rendering the nilometer obsolete. === Roda Island === The first nilometer on [[Roda Island]] was constructed by Usama bin Zayd bin Adl before [[Jumada al-Thani|Jumada II]], 96 [[Hijri year|AH]] (February 715), during the reign of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] caliph [[Al-Walid I|al-Walid]]. The 14th-century Arabic historian [[Al-Maqrizi|Maqrīzī]] claims that the construction cost 24,000 [[Dirham|dirhams]]. During the reign of [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik]], Usama wrote to the caliph informing him of the dilapidated state of the nilometer. He received a reply ordering him to construct a new one, which he did in 97 AH (5 September 715—24 August 716).<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Creswell |first=K. A. C. |title=Early Muslim Architecture: Umayyads, Early 'Abbasids and Tulunids: II: Early 'Abbasids, Umayyads of Cordova, Aghlabids, Tulunids and Samanids. A.D. 751 - 905, Part 2 |date=1 January 1978 |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |language=English}}</ref>{{Rp|page=296}} [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]], writing in the 12th–13th centuries, claims that in the beginning of year 247 AH (March 861), during [[Yazid ibn Abdallah al-Hulwani|Yazid ibn Abd Allah al-Turki's]] governorship of Egypt, the Abbasid caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]] had the 'new' nilometer constructed and ordered that the privilege of measuring the river 'be taken away from the Christians.' The governor then appointed a man from [[Basra]] named Abu'r-Raddad who had emigrated to Egypt and taught [[hadith]]. He died in 266 AH (879/80), with Yaqut claiming 'the supervision of the Nilometer has remained in the hands of his descendants until the present day' (which would have been around 1225 for the author).<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=297}} [[Ibn Khallikan]], a 13th-century historian, gives a different account of this nilometer, recounting that a 'pious' [[muezzin]] in the old [[Amr ibn al-As Mosque|Mosque of Amr]] wished to carve inscriptions in various places of the nilometer. After consulting with Yazid ibn Abd Allah, [[Sulayman ibn Wahb]] and Hasan al-Khadim, the muezzin proposed to inscribe various [[Quran|Qu'ranic]] passages in the name of al-Mutawakkil. Sulayman ibn Wahb then wrote to the caliph, who replied in writing to choose verses of the Qu'ran 'most appropriate' to the nilometer and to inscribe the caliph's name.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=297-298}} Ibn Khallikan writes that the architect of the nilometer was Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Hasib. Abu Ja'far al-Katib and [[Ibn Abi Usaybi'a]] mention that [[Al-Farghani|Ahmad ibn Kathir al-Farghani]] was sent to [[Fustat]] by al-Mutawakkil to supervise the construction. [[Abu al-Mahasin Yusuf al-Fasi|Abu al-Mahasin Yusuf]] (d. 1604) makes the same statement but calls him Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani (full name: Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani). For this reason, [[Gaston Wiet]] and [[K. A. C. Creswell|Creswell]] argue that the al-Farghani and al-Hasib are the same person.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=303}} In 872–3 (259 AH), [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]], the autonomous ruler of Egypt, would also have the nilometer restored. Al-Mutawakkil's name was removed from the [[Kufic]] inscription of the nilometer.<ref>{{Cite book |last=yeomans |first=richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5NFPAAAAMAAJ |title=the art and architecture of islamic cairo |date=2006 |publisher=Garnet Pub. Limited |isbn=978-1-85964-154-5 |pages=30 |language=en}}</ref> K. A. C. Creswell states that the main inscription of the nilometer was probably tampered with by Ibn Tulun, saying "there can be little doubt that it was he who removed the name of the [[List of Abbasid caliphs|Abbasid Khalif]]." Ibn Tulun would however refrain from substituting his own name, with Creswell claiming as he did not feel sufficiently secure to do so. The first [[Tulunids|Tulunid]] [[Emir]] during 872-873 would spend 1,000 dinars on works carried out on the nilometer.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=298-299}} Consequently, according to Abdul Rofik Bruno, the Nile's irrigation would be enhanced, and agricultural output increased.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=A |first1=Muhammad Esa Prasastia |last2=Rofiq |first2=Abdul |date=2022 |title=Analysis of The Causes of The Disintegration of The Government of The Abbasiyah Dynasty (1000 M-1250 M) |url=https://www.academia.edu/97440998 |journal=Devotion: Journal of Community Service |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=241 |issn=2797-6068}}</ref> [[Amr ibn al-As]] after the [[Arab conquest of Egypt|conquest of Egypt]] reported to the [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] that when the Nile rose to 14 cubits there was a sufficient harvest, 16 an abundant harvest, 17 being the most advantageous height of all, and that at 18, one-fourth of Egypt would be [[Flood|inundated]] and usually be followed by plague. The Baghdad doctor, [[Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi]] who traveled Egypt between 1192-1201 would also relate similar measurements. In the exceedingly low water levels of 1201 and 1202, the nilometer remained dry. In 1201, the year commenced with a rise in 2 cubits before rising an average 15¹⁶⁄₂₄ cubits. In 1202, the year began with 1½ cubits before rising to 15²³⁄₂₄ cubits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ardagh |first=J. C. |date=1889 |title=Nilometers |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1800840 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=28–38 |doi=10.2307/1800840 |jstor=1800840 |issn=0266-626X}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=31-32}} During the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Period]], the nilometer was used to measure the river level and hence determine the [[Islamic taxes|rates of tax]] in Egypt.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-24 |title=Nilometer {{!}} IRCICA |url=https://www.islamicarchitecturalheritage.com/listings/nilometer |access-date=2024-04-15 |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1937, efforts to drain and excavate the nilometer were begun by Kamil Bey Ghalib, the Under-Secretary of State for Public Works, employing a new method used by Rothpletz and Lienhard. In this method, the mud could be removed completely and the structure examined.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=304}} [[File:BarragemAssuão.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of Aswan Dam, Aswan Egypt]] == See also == * [[Hunger stone]] {{-}} == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == {{Commons}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Abbeloos |editor1-first=Jean Baptiste |editor2-last=Lamy |editor2-first=Thomas Joseph |title=Bar Hebraeus, Chronicon Ecclesiasticum (3 vols) |year=1877 |location=Paris}}{{full citation needed|date=July 2015}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Architecture in Egypt]] [[Category:Measuring instruments]] [[Category:Nile]] [[Category:Water supply]] [[Category:Hydrology instrumentation]]
Edit summary
(Briefly describe your changes)
By publishing changes, you agree to the
Terms of Use
, and you irrevocably agree to release your contribution under the
CC BY-SA 4.0 License
and the
GFDL
. You agree that a hyperlink or URL is sufficient attribution under the Creative Commons license.
Cancel
Editing help
(opens in new window)
Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page
(
help
)
:
Template:-
(
edit
)
Template:Authority control
(
edit
)
Template:Circa
(
edit
)
Template:Cite book
(
edit
)
Template:Cite encyclopedia
(
edit
)
Template:Cite journal
(
edit
)
Template:Cite web
(
edit
)
Template:Clear
(
edit
)
Template:Commons
(
edit
)
Template:Full citation needed
(
edit
)
Template:Ndash
(
edit
)
Template:Nowrap
(
edit
)
Template:Reflist
(
edit
)
Template:Rp
(
edit
)
Template:Short description
(
edit
)
Template:Sister project
(
edit
)
Template:Use dmy dates
(
edit
)