Editing Norman architecture

{{Short description|Styles of Romanesque architecture developed by the Normans}}{{Multiple issues|
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{{about|Romanesque architecture, primarily English|other buildings in Normandy|Architecture of Normandy}}
[[File:Durham Cathedral. Interior.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The nave of [[Durham Cathedral]] in England]]
[[File:MonrealeCathedral-pjt1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Interior of [[Monreale Cathedral]] in Sicily, Italy]]
[[File:swithun-natelyscures-swest.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[St Swithun's Church, Nately Scures]] in Hampshire, from the southwest]]
The term '''Norman architecture''' is used to categorise styles of [[Romanesque architecture]] developed by the [[Normans]] in the various lands under their dominion or influence in the 11th and 12th centuries. In particular the term is traditionally used for English [[Romanesque architecture]]. The Normans introduced large numbers of castles and [[fortification]]s  including Norman [[keep]]s, and at the same time [[monastery|monasteries]], [[abbey]]s, churches and cathedrals, in a style characterised by the usual Romanesque rounded [[arch]]es (particularly over windows and doorways) and especially massive proportions compared to other regional variations of the style.

==Origins==
These [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] styles originated in [[Normandy]] and became widespread in northwestern Europe, particularly in England, which contributed considerable development and where the largest number of examples survived. At about the same time, [[Hauteville family|a Norman dynasty]] that ruled in [[Sicily]] produced a distinctive variation–incorporating [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Saracen]] influences–also known as Norman architecture (or alternatively Sicilian Romanesque).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reilly |first=Lisa |title=The Invention of Norman Visual Culture: Art, Politics, and Dynastic Ambition |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781108488167 |location=Cambridge |language=en-uk}}</ref> 

The term Norman may have originated with eighteenth-century [[antiquarian]]s, but its usage in a sequence of styles has been attributed to [[Thomas Rickman]] in his 1817 work ''An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation''. In this work he used  the labels "Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular". The more inclusive term ''romanesque'' was used of the [[Romance languages]] in English by 1715,<ref>[[OED]] "Romanesque": in French a letter of 1818 by [[Charles-Alexis-Adrien Duhérissier de Gerville]] seems to be the first</ref> and was applied to architecture of the eleventh and twelfth centuries from 1819.<ref>OED same entry; in French by Gerville's friend [[Arcisse de Caumont]] in his ''Essaie sur l'architecture du moyen âge, particulièrement en Normandie,'' 1824.</ref>  

Although [[Edward the Confessor]] built the original [[Westminster Abbey]] in Romanesque style (now all replaced by later rebuildings), its construction predates the Norman Conquest: it is still believed to have been the earliest major Romanesque building in England. No other significant remaining Romanesque architecture in Britain can clearly be shown to predate the Norman Conquest. However, historians believe that many surviving "Norman" elements in buildings–nearly all churches–may well in fact be Anglo-Saxon elements.

==Norman arch==
The Norman arch is a defining point of Norman architecture. Grand [[arch]]ways are designed to evoke feelings of [[awe]] and are very commonly seen as the entrance to large religious buildings such as cathedrals. Norman arches are semicircular in form. Early examples have plain, square edges; later ones are often enriched with the zig-zag and roll mouldings. The arches are supported on massive [[column]]s, generally plain and [[Cylinder|cylindrical]], sometimes with spiral decoration; occasionally, square-section [[Pier (architecture)|pier]]s are found. Main doorways have a succession of receding semicircular arches, often decorated with mouldings, typically of chevron or zig-zag design; sometimes there is a [[Tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] at the back of the head of the arch, which may feature sculpture representing a Biblical scene. Norman windows are mostly small and narrow, generally of a single round-headed light; but sometimes, especially in a [[bell tower]], divided by a shaft into two lights.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bloxam |first=Matthew Holbeche |date=1841 |title=The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture |url=https://www.ajhw.co.uk/books/book68/book68.html#CHAPTER_IV |location=Oxford |publisher=John Henry Parker |pages=52–57 |author-link=Matthew Bloxam }}</ref>

==Normandy==
{{further|Architecture of Normandy}}
[[Viking]] invaders arrived at the mouth of the [[river Seine]] in [[Normandy]] in 911, at a time when [[Franks]] were fighting on [[Equestrianism|horseback]] and Frankish lords were building castles. Over the next century the population of the territory ceded to the Vikings (now called [[Normans]]) adopted these customs as well as Christianity and the ''[[langue d'oïl]]''. Norman barons built timber castles on earthen mounds, beginning the development of [[motte-and-bailey castle]]s, and great stone churches in the Romanesque style of the Franks. By 950, they were building stone [[keep]]s. The Normans were among the most travelled peoples of Europe, exposing them to a wide variety of cultural influences which became incorporated in their art and architecture.  They elaborated on the early Christian basilica plan. Their churches were originally longitudinal with side [[aisle]]s and an apse. They then began to add [[tower]]s, as at the [[Church of Saint-Étienne-le-Vieux|Church of Saint-Étienne]] at Caen, in 1067. This would eventually form a model for the larger English cathedrals some 20 years later, after they had [[Norman Conquest|invaded]] and conquered England.

==England==
[[File:Andover - Norman Arch - geograph.org.uk - 556600.jpg|thumb|A Norman arch {{Circa|1150}} in [[Andover, Hampshire]]]]
[[File:Norman arch.jpg|thumb |A Norman arch with zig-zag mouldings above the church doorway at [[Guiting Power]], Gloucestershire]]
In England, Norman nobles and bishops had influence before the [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066, and Norman influences affected late [[Anglo-Saxon architecture]]. [[Edward the Confessor]] was brought up in Normandy and in 1042 brought masons to work on the first Romanesque building in England, [[Westminster Abbey]]. In 1051 he brought in Norman [[knight]]s who built "motte" castles as a defence against the Welsh. Following the invasion, Normans rapidly constructed [[motte-and-bailey]] castles along with  churches, [[abbey]]s, and more elaborate [[fortification]]s such as Norman stone [[keep]]s.

The buildings show massive proportions in simple geometries using small bands of sculpture. Paying attention to the concentrated spaces of [[Capital (architecture)|capital]]s and round doorways as well as the [[tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] under an arch. The "Norman arch" is the rounded, often with mouldings carved or incised onto it for decoration. [[Chevron (insignia)|chevron patterns]], frequently termed "zig-zag [[Molding (decorative)|mouldings]]", were a frequent signature of the Normans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Edward |title=On the Distinction Between Romanesque and Gothic |journal=The Archaeological Review |date=December 1888 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=237–251 |jstor=44245200 }}</ref> The [[Cruciform#Cruciform architectural plan|cruciform church]]es often had deep [[chancel]]s and a square [[crossing tower]] which has remained a feature of English [[ecclesiastical architecture]]. Hundreds of parish churches were built and the great English cathedrals were founded from 1083.

After a fire damaged [[Canterbury Cathedral]] in 1174 Norman masons introduced the new [[Gothic architecture]]. Around 1191 [[Wells Cathedral]] and [[Lincoln Cathedral]] brought in the English Gothic style, and Norman became increasingly a modest style of provincial building.

===Ecclesiastical architecture===
*[[Oxford Castle]] 1074: church tower doubles as a place of refuge
*[[St John's Chapel, London|St John's Chapel]] (''c.'' 1078), [[Tower of London]]
*[[Durham Cathedral]] (from 1093) was the first to employ a [[ribbed vault]] system with pointed arches
*[[Winchester Cathedral]] (from 1079)
*[[Ely Cathedral]] (1083–1109)
*[[Peterborough Cathedral]] (from 1118)
*[[Church of St Mary and St David, Kilpeck|Kilpeck Church]], Herefordshire
*St Nicholas Church, [[Pyrford]], Surrey (''c.'' 1140)
*[[Southwell Minster]], Nottinghamshire
*[[St Mary the Virgin, Iffley|St Mary the Virgin]], Iffley, Oxfordshire (1170)
*[[St Swithuns Nately Scures|St Swithun's]] in Nately Scures, Hampshire (1175), an example of a Norman single-cell apsidal church.
*[[Norwich Cathedral]] (1096–1145)
*[[St Edward's Church, Stow-on-the-Wold]] (eleventh century)
*[[St Botolph's Priory]], [[Colchester]]
*[[St John's Abbey, Colchester]]
*[[Tewkesbury Abbey]] ({{Circa|1102}})
*[[St Germans Priory]], Cornwall (12th Century)
*[[Church of St Peter and St Paul, Trottiscliffe]], Kent
*[[St Peter's Church, Tickencote]], [[Rutland]] – Norman chancel
*[[Dunstable Priory]], Bedfordshire


'''Bibliography'''
*[[Edmund Harold Sedding|Sedding, Edmund H]]. (1909) Norman Architecture in Cornwall: a handbook to old ecclesiastical architecture. With over 160 plates. London: Ward & Co.

===Military architecture===
*[[White Tower (Tower of London)]]
*[[Rochester Castle]]
*[[Norwich Castle]]
*[[Colchester Castle]], the largest Norman castle built and the first stone [[Keep]] in England<ref>Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester – Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ({{ISBN|1 897719 04 3}})</ref><ref>Denney, Patrick (2004) Colchester. Published by Tempus Publishing ({{ISBN|978-0-7524-3214-4}})</ref>
*[[Hedingham Castle]], Essex
*[[Carrickfergus Castle]], the best preserved Norman castle on the island of Ireland. Though it was heavily renovated, the keep, land walls and [[gatehouse]] are reasonably intact.

===Domestic architecture===
*[[Jew's House]], [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire|Lincoln]]
*[[Boothby Pagnell Manor]], Lincolnshire
*[[Oakham Castle]], [[Rutland]]
* [[Moyse's Hall Museum]], [[Bury St Edmunds]], Suffolk ({{Circa|1180}})<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.moyseshall.org |title=Moyse's Hall museum |publisher=Moyseshall.org |access-date=2011-06-11}}</ref>

==Scotland==
[[Scotland]] also came under early Norman influence with Norman nobles at the court of King [[Macbeth of Scotland|Macbeth]] around 1050. His successor [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Máel Coluim III]] overthrew him with English and Norman assistance, and his queen, [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]], encouraged the church. The [[Benedictine]] order founded a monastery at [[Dunfermline]]. Her sixth and youngest son, who became [[David I of Scotland|King David]], built [[St. Margaret's Chapel]] at the start of the 12th century.

===Ecclesiastical architecture===
*[[Dunfermline Abbey]], [[Dunfermline]] (founded about 1070 by [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|St Margaret]]) {{gbmapping|NT089872}}
*[[Cathedral of St Andrew, St Andrews|St Andrew Cathedral]] (from about 1070) {{gbmapping|NO516166}}
*[[St. Margaret's Chapel]], [[Edinburgh Castle]] (early 12th century) {{gbmapping|NT252735}}
*[[Dalmeny]] parish church (from about 1130) {{gbmapping|NT144775}}
*[[St Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall|St Magnus Cathedral]], Kirkwall (from about 1137) {{gbmapping|HY449112}}
*[[Jedburgh Abbey]], [[Jedburgh]] (founded about 1138 by [[David I of Scotland|David I]]) {{gbmapping|NT650204}}
*[[St Athernase Church]], [[Leuchars]] (12th century) {{gbmapping|NO455215}}
*[[Kirkliston]] Parish Church, Edinburgh (late 12th century)

==Ireland==
The Normans first landed in Ireland in 1169. Within five years earthwork [[castle]]s were springing up, and in a further five, work was beginning on some of the earliest of the great stone [[castle]]s. For example, [[Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath|Hugh de Lacy]] built a [[Motte-and-bailey]] castle on the site of the present day [[Trim Castle]], County Meath, which was attacked and burned in 1173 by the Irish king [[Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair]]. De Lacy, however, then constructed a stone castle in its place, which enclosed over three acres within its walls, and this could not be burned down by the Irish. The years between 1177 and 1310 saw the construction of some of the greatest of the Norman castles in Ireland. The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of Ireland, later known as [[the Pale]], and among other buildings they constructed were [[Swords Castle]] in [[Fingal]] (North County Dublin), [[Dublin Castle]] and [[Carrickfergus Castle]] in County Antrim.<ref>Castles in Ireland Feudal Power in a Gaelic World. by Tom McNeill. (London, 1997) {{ISBN|978-0-415-22853-4}}</ref>

==Italy==

===Mezzogiorno===
The Normans began constructing castles, their trademark architectural piece, in Italy from an early date. [[William Iron Arm]] built one at an unidentified location (Stridula) in [[Calabria]] in 1045. After the death of [[Robert Guiscard]] in 1085, the [[Mezzogiorno]] (peninsular southern Italy) experienced a series of civil wars and fell under the control of increasingly weaker princes. Revolts characterised the region until well into the twelfth century and minor lords sought to resist ducal or royal power from within their own castles. In the [[Molise]], the Normans embarked on their most extensive castle-building programme and introduced the ''[[opus gallicum]]'' technique to Italy. Their clever use of the local stone artisans, together with the vast riches amassed from their enslaved population, made such tremendous feats possible, some as majestic as those of the ancient Roman structures they tried to emulate.

Besides the [[encastellation]] of the countryside, the Normans erected several religious buildings which still survive. They edified the shrine at [[Monte Sant'Angelo]] and built a [[mausoleum]] to the [[Hauteville family]] at [[Venosa]]. They also built many new Latin monasteries, including the famous foundation of [[Lamezia Terme#Sant'Eufemia Lamezia|Sant'Eufemia Lamezia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlante.beniculturalicalabria.it/schede.php?id=178 |title=Abbazia Benedettina di Sant' Eufemia |access-date=10 April 2017}}</ref> Other examples of great importance are the portal of the [[Shrine of Mary Queen of Anglona]] and the ambulatory and radiating chapels of the [[Aversa Cathedral]].

Here is a list of Norman architecture in the Mezzogiorno : 
* Castle of Circello. 
* Castle Monforte (Campobasso).
* [[Basilica of St. Peter Alli Marmi]] (Salerno)

===Sicily===
{{further|Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture}}
[[File:3420 - Catania - Absidi del duomo (1094) - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 5-July-2008.jpg|thumbnail|The oldest Norman cathedral in Sicily (1094), the cathedral of Catania]]
[[File:Cefalu Cathedral interior BW 2012-10-11 12-07-53.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[Cathedral of Cefalu]]]]
[[File:Duomo cefalu msu2017-0797.jpg|thumb|[[Cathedral of Cefalu]]]]
[[Sicily]]'s Norman period lasted from {{Circa|1061}} until about 1200.  The architecture was decorated in [[gilding|gild]]ed mosaics such as that at the cathedral at [[Monreale]].  The Palatine Chapel in [[Palermo]] built in 1130 is perhaps the strongest example of this. The interior of the [[dome]], (itself a Byzantine feature), is decorated in a [[mosaic]] depicting Christ Pantocrator accompanied by his [[angel]]s.

During Sicily's later Norman era early Gothic influences can be detected such as those in the [[Messina Cathedral|cathedral]] at Messina consecrated in 1197.  However, here the high Gothic [[campanile]] is of a later date and should not be confused with the early Gothic built during the Norman period; which featured pointed arches and windows rather than the [[flying buttress]]es and [[pinnacle]]s later to manifest themselves in the Gothic era.

*Edifices in [[Palermo]]
**[[Palazzo dei Normanni|Norman palace]] with its [[Cappella Palatina|Palatine Chapel]]
**[[Zisa, Palermo|Zisa]]
**[[Cuba, Palermo|Cuba]]
**[[Castello di Maredolce|Castle of Maredolce]]
**[[Cathedral of Palermo]]
**[[San Giovanni dei Lebbrosi]]
**[[San Giovanni degli Eremiti]]
**[[Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio]] also known as [[Martorana]]
**[[San Cataldo, Palermo|San Cataldo]]
**[[Church of the Holy Spirit (Sicily)]] also known as [[Chiesa del Vespro]]
**{{illm|Basilica della Santissima Trinità del Cancelliere|lt=Santissima Trinità|it|Basilica della Santissima Trinità del Cancelliere}} known as [[Chiesa della Magione]]
**[[The Admiral's Bridge]] ("Ponte dell'Ammiraglio")
*[[Monreale|Monreale Cathedral]] and [[Benedictine]] [[cloister]]
*[[Cefalù Cathedral]]
*Edifices in [[Messina]]
**[[Messina|Messina Cathedral]]
**Church of Chiesa di Santa Maria della Valle
** [[Church of the Santissima Annunziata dei Catalani]]
*[[Erice]] the Venus Castle and the main church ("Duomo dell'Assunta")
*[[Castelvetrano]], Church of the Santissima Trinità di Delia
*[[Casalvecchio Siculo]], Church of [[Santi Pietro e Paolo d'Agrò]]
*[[Itala, Sicily|Itala]], the Arabic Norman Church of Saints Peter and Paul
*[[Montalbano Elicona]], Palatine Chapel
*[[Sciacca]], Church of San Nicolò la Latina and Church of Santa Maria della Raccomandata
*[[Caltanissetta]], Abbey of the Santo Spirito
*[[San Fratello]], Shrine of the Tre Santi
*[[Maniace]], Norman bridge and ''[[Castello di Maniace|Castle of Nelson]]'' (old Abbey of St. Mary in Maniace)
*[[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], Church of San Nicolò ai Cordari and Church of San Giovanni alle catacombe (St. John the Catacombs)
*Nicosia (Sicily), Norman castle
*[[Castle of Milazzo]]
*[[San Marco d'Alunzio]], Ruins of the Norman Church of St Saviour (S. Salvatore) and ruins of the Norman castle
*[[Adrano]], Norman castle
*[[Castello Normanno (Aci Castello)|Aci Castello]]
*[[Motta Sant'Anastasia]], Norman tower (Dongione)
*[[Caronia]], Norman castle
*[[Catania Cathedral]]
* Ponte dei Saraceni (Norman bridge), [[Adrano]]
* Ponte Calatrasi (Norman bridge), [[Roccamena]]
* Ponte di Cerami (Norman bridge), [[Cerami]]

===Malta===
After its Norman conquest in 1091, Malta saw the construction of several Norman pieces of architecture. Many have been demolished and rebuilt over the years (especially after the [[1693 Sicily earthquake]] which destroyed many old Norman buildings), however some fortresses and houses still exist in [[Mdina]] and [[Vittoriosa]].

==Transitional style==
As [[stone mason|master mason]]s developed the style and experimented with ways of overcoming the geometric difficulties of [[groin vault]]ed ceilings, they introduced features such as the pointed arch that were later characterised as being [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] in style. Architectural historians and scholars consider that a style must be assessed as an integral whole rather than an aggregate of features, and while some include these developments within the Norman or Romanesque styles, others describe them as transitional or "Norman–Gothic Transitional". A few websites use the term "Norman Gothic", but it is unclear whether they refer to the transitional style or to the Norman style as a whole.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britainexpress.com/History/Gothic-architecture.htm |title=Gothic Architecture in England |publisher=Britainexpress.com |access-date=2011-06-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.racine.ra.it/ungaretti/gothic/norman_gothic.htm |title=Norman Gothic |publisher=Racine.ra.it |access-date=2011-06-11}}</ref>

==Neo-Norman==
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2018}}
Neo-Norman architecture is a type of [[Romanesque Revival architecture]] based on Norman Romanesque architecture. There is sometimes confusion, especially in North America, between this style and revivalist versions of vernacular or later [[architecture of Normandy]], such as the "[[Architecture of Normandy#Vernacular domestic styles|Norman farmhouse style]]" popular for larger houses.

Romanesque Revival versions focus on the arch and capitals, and decorated doorways.  There are two examples in Manchester: the former Stock Exchange building and a synagogue in [[Fallowfield]].

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Greencastle County Down.jpg|[[Greencastle, County Down]]
Raviscanina.jpg|Castle at [[Raviscanina]]: redoubt of the rebel [[Andrew of Rupecanina]]
Palermo-Castle-bjs-2.jpg|The [[Palazzo dei Normanni]] in Palermo
Christ Pantokrator, Cathedral of Cefalù, Sicily.jpg|The [[Pantocrator]] in the apse of the [[Cathedral of Cefalù]] in Sicily
Palermo-cattedrale.jpg|The [[Cathedral of Palermo]] was erected in 1185 by [[Walter Ophamil]], the archbishop of Palermo and King William II's minister
New Romney Church Tower - New Romney - Kent - June 2007.jpg|[[New Romney]] church tower, an example of English small-town Norman architecture
Winchester Cathedral - geograph.org.uk - 1736947.jpg|[[Winchester Cathedral]], an example of Norman architecture in England
St Bees Priory westdoor evening sun.jpg|[[St Bees Priory]], Cumbria, west door, {{Circa|1160}}
Norman Tower and Gatehouse, Bury St Edmunds - geograph.org.uk - 6158218.jpg|Archway, Norman Tower, [[Bury St Edmunds]], Suffolk, {{Circa|1120}}–1148
St Lawrence arches 2.jpg|Arches in the southern nave of the [[Church of St Lawrence, Alton]], Hampshire, {{Circa|1070}}–1100
St Michaels Mickleham.jpg|St Michael's church at [[Mickleham, Surrey|Mickleham]] in Surrey, {{Circa|950}}-1180
Palazzo_Falson_Palazzo_Navarra.png|[[Palazzo Falson]], [[Mdina]], [[Malta]] {{Circa|1494}}
Mdina-palazzo-santa-sofia.JPG|[[Palazzo Santa Sofia]], [[Mdina]], [[Malta]] {{Circa|1233}} (first floor)
St Leonard's church, Hythe - Norman archway.jpg|Archway in St Leonard's church, [[Hythe, Kent]]
</gallery>

==See also==
{{portal|Architecture}}
*[[Norman Revival architecture]]
*[[English Gothic architecture]]
*[[Renaissance architecture]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources and literature===
{{refbegin}}{{citation |last=Bilson |first=John |author-link=John Bilson (architect) |title=Durham Cathedral and the Chronology of Its Vaults |journal=Archaeological Journal |volume=79 |year=1929}}
*{{citation |last=Clapham |first=Alfred William |title=English Romanesque Architecture after the Conquest |place=Oxford |year=1934}}
*{{citation |last=Clifton-Taylor |first=Alec |title=The Cathedrals of England |place=London |year=1967}}
*{{citation |last=Cook |first=George Henry |title=The English Cathedrals through the Centuries |place=London |year=1957}}
*{{citation |last=Escher |first=Konrad |title=Englische Kathedralen |place=Zürich |year=1929}}
*{{citation |last=Fernie |first=Eric |title=The Architecture of Norman England |place=Oxford |year=2000}}
*{{citation |title=Lexikon der Weltarchitektur |last1=Pevsner |first1=Nikolaus |first2=John |last2=Fleming |first3=Hugh |last3=Honour |orig-year=1966 |place=München |year=1971}}
*{{citation |last=Wagner-Rieger |first=Renate |title=Studien zur mittelalterlichen Architektur Englands |work=Wiener Kunstwiss. Blätter, Jg. 2 |year=1953}}
*{{citation |last=Short |first=Ernest H. |title=Norman Architecture in England |year=2005}}
*{{citation |last=Webb |first=Geoffrey |title=Architecture in Britain: The Middle Ages |work=Pelican History of Art |at=London |year=1956}}{{refend}}

==External links==
*[https://www.crsbi.ac.uk/ CRSBI (''The Corpus of ROMANESQUE SCULPTURE in Britain and Ireland'') website]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174715/http://www.mondes-normands.caen.fr/angleterre/ The Normans, a European People] (archived copy).
{{Commons category|Norman architecture|position=left}}

{{Architecture of England}}
{{Archhistory}}

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[[Category:11th-century architecture]]
[[Category:12th-century architecture]]
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[[Category:Duchy of Normandy|Architecture]]
[[Category:Romanesque architecture in England|*]]
[[Category:Romanesque architecture in France|*]]