Editing Northern flicker

{{Short description|Member of the woodpecker family}}
{{Other uses|Yellowhammer (disambiguation)}}
{{About|the North American bird |the Eurasian bird |Yellowhammer}}
{{Speciesbox
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Colaptes auratus'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T22726404A94921271 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22726404A94921271.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| image = Northern Flicker.jpg
| image_caption = Female in Oregon, USA
| image2 = 
| image2_caption = 
| genus = Colaptes
| species = auratus
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| range_map = {{Multiple image
| image1            = Colaptes auratus map.svg
| image2            = Colaptes cafer map.svg
| total_width       = 200
| image3            = Colaptes auratus map 2.svg
| perrow            = 1/2
| align             = center
}}
| range_map_caption = Approximate distribution of the species (top), the red-shafted group (left), and the yellow-shafted group (right).
{{leftlegend|#ff9955|Breeding}}
{{leftlegend|#8d5fd3|Year-round}}
{{leftlegend|#afc6e9|Nonbreeding}}
| range_map2 = 
| synonyms = *''Cuculus auratus'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}
*''Picus auratus'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1766}}
}}
The '''northern flicker''' or '''common flicker''' ('''''Colaptes auratus''''') is a medium-sized bird of the [[woodpecker]] family. It is native to most of North America, parts of Central America, Cuba, and the [[Cayman Islands]], and is one of the few woodpecker species that [[Bird migration|migrate]]. Over 100 common names for the northern flicker are known, including '''yellowhammer''' (not to be confused with the [[Yellowhammer|Eurasian yellowhammer (''Emberiza citrinella'')]]), '''clape''', '''gaffer woodpecker''', '''harry-wicket''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Burrowing Owl |url=http://www.grpg.org/birdExample.php?atype=Birds&aname=Northern-Flicker |access-date=2023-04-11 |website=www.grpg.org}}</ref> '''heigh-ho''', '''wake-up''', '''walk-up''', '''wick-up''', '''yarrup''', and '''gawker bird'''. Many of these names derive from attempts to imitate some of its [[Bird vocalization|calls]]. It is the state bird of Alabama (known by its colloquial name "yellowhammer").<ref>{{cite web |url=https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol/alabama/state-bird/yellowhammer-woodpecker |title=State symbols USA |date=23 April 2014 |access-date=27 February 2022}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Northern flicker, Roslyn (cropped).jpg|thumb|Male on the ground, in New York|left]]
The English naturalist [[Mark Catesby]] described and illustrated the northern flicker in his book ''The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands'' which was published between 1729 and 1732. Catesby used the English name "Gold-winged Wood-pecker" and the Latin ''{{Lang|la|Picus major alis aureis}}''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Catesby  | first=Mark | author-link=Mark Catesby | year=1729–1732 | title=The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands | volume=1 | place=London | publisher=W. Innys and R. Manby | page=18, Plate 18 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/40753170 }}</ref> When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] updated his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' for the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]], he included the northern flicker, coined the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Cuculus auratus'' and cited Catesby's book.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume=1 | edition=10th | page=112 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | place=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=la | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727017 }}</ref> 

The specific epithet {{Lang|la|auratus}} is a Latin word meaning "gilded" or "ornamented with gold".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | page=61 }}</ref> The [[type locality (biology)|type locality]] is [[South Carolina]].<ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Peters | editor-first=James Lee | editor-link=James L. Peters | year=1948 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=6 | publisher=Harvard University Press | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts  | page=102 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14477535 }}</ref> The northern flicker is one of 13 extant [[New World]] woodpeckers now placed in the [[genus]] ''[[Colaptes]]'' that was introduced by the Irish zoologist [[Nicholas Aylward Vigors]] in 1825 with the northern flicker (''Colaptes auratus'') as the [[type species]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Vigors | first=Nicholas Aylward | author-link=Nicholas Aylward Vigors | year=1825 | title=Observations on the natural affinities that connect the orders and families of birds | journal=Transactions of the Linnean Society of London | volume=14 | issue=3 | pages=395–517 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1823.tb00098.x | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/752835 }}</ref>

== Subspecies ==
Ten subspecies are recognized, one of which is now [[Extinct birds|extinct]], though it may be invalid.<ref name="ITIS">{{cite web |url= https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=178154|title= Colaptes auratus report|website= ITIS Report|publisher= Integrated Taxonomic Information System|access-date= 27 March 2016}}</ref> The extant subspecies were at one time considered subspecies of two separate species called the '''yellow-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;auratus'', with four subspecies) and the '''red-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;cafer'', with six subspecies, five living and one extinct), but they commonly interbreed where their ranges overlap and are now considered one species by the [[American Ornithologists Union]]. This is an example of what is referred to in science as the [[Species concept|species problem]].

{{Multiple image
| image1            = Northern Flicker, Confederation Park Hamilton, Van Wagners Beach Road, Hamilton, ON, Canada imported from iNaturalist photo 157945187 (cropped).jpg
| caption1          = Red-shafted, in Ontario
| image2            = A6305966 (50335324522).jpg
| caption2          = Yellow-shafted, in Illinois
| total_width       = 500
| align             = center
}}

=== Yellow-shafted group ===
*The '''southern yellow-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;auratus'') resides in the southeastern United States from Florida to Virginia.<ref name="Pyle">{{cite book |last1=Pyle |first1=Peter |last2=Howell |first2=Steve N. G. |title=Identification Guide to North American Birds |date=1997 |publisher=Slate Creek Press |location=Bolinas, CA |isbn=0961894024 |page=201}}</ref> It is yellow under the tail and underwings and has yellow shafts on its primaries. It has a gray cap, a beige face, and a red bar at the [[nape]] of the neck. Males have a black mustache. ''Colaptes'' comes from the Greek verb ''colapt'', meaning "to peck"; {{Lang|la|auratus}} is from the Latin root {{Lang|la|aurat}}, meaning "gold" or "golden", and refers to the bird's underwings. As the [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]] of [[Alabama]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.state.al.us/emblems/st_bird.html |title=Alabama State Bird |access-date=2007-03-18 |date=2006-04-27 |work=Alabama Emblems, Symbols and Honors |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives & History |archive-date=2019-01-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102071436/http://www.archives.state.al.us/emblems/st_bird.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> this subspecies is known by the common name "yellowhammer", a term that originated during the American Civil War to describe [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] soldiers from Alabama.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Record|first1=James|title=A Dream Come True: The Story of Madison County and Incidentally of Alabama and the United States|date=1970|publisher=John Hicklin Printing Company|location=Huntsville, Alabama|page=128}}</ref>
*The '''northern yellow-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;luteus''; formerly ''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;borealis'') resides from central Alaska throughout most of Canada to southern Labrador, Newfoundland, and the northeastern United States.
*The '''Cuban yellow-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;chrysocaulosus'') is restricted to [[Cuba]].
*The '''Grand Cayman yellow-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;gundlachi'') is restricted to [[Grand Cayman]] in the [[Cayman Islands]]. The subspecific epithet is named after Cuban naturalist [[Juan Gundlach]].

=== Red-shafted group ===
*The '''western red-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;cafer'') resides in western North America. It is red under the tail and underwings and has red shafts on its primaries. It has a beige cap and a gray face. Males have a red mustache. The subspecific name ''cafer'' is the result of an error made in 1788 by the German [[systematics|systematist]] Johann Gmelin, who believed that its original habitat was in [[South Africa]] among the [[Xhosa people]], then known as the "[[Kaffir (racial term)|Kaffir]]s". As the origin of the subspecies designation is regarded as offensive by some, proposals to change the scientific name of this subspecies to ''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;lathami'' have been presented to the [[American Ornithological Society]]. The Society, in accordance with the rules governing scientific nomenclature, has as of September 2018 declined to support a change of the subspecific name, but may consult with the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature|ICZN]] on the matter.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://checklist.americanornithology.org/nacc/proposals/2019.html|title=Checklist of North and Middle American Birds Proposals 2019 |publisher=American Ornithological Society |access-date=2023-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404031311/http://checklist.americanornithology.org/nacc/proposals/2019.html |archive-date=2022-04-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://checklist.aou.org/assets/proposals/PDF/2019-A.pdf|title=Change the specific/subspecific/morphological group name of the Red-shafted Flicker from ''cafer'' to ''lathami''|pages= 46–51|last1= Aguillon|first1= Stepfanie M.|last2= Lovette|first2= Irby J.|issue= Proposal Set 2019-A|journal= AOS Classification Committee – North and Middle America Proposals|date= 2018-09-18 |access-date=2023-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404031311/http://checklist.americanornithology.org/assets/proposals/PDF/2019-A.pdf |archive-date=2022-04-04}}</ref>
*The '''coastal red-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;collaris'') has a range that closely overlaps that of ''C. a. cafer'', extending along much of the West Coast of North America from British Columbia to northwestern Mexico.
*The '''dwarf red-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;nanus'') resides in western Texas south to northeastern Mexico.
*The '''Mexican red-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;mexicanus'') resides in central and southern Mexico from Durango to San Luis Potosí and Oaxaca.
*The '''Guatemalan red-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;mexicanoides'') resides in the highlands of southern Mexico and Central America. It is considered by some authorities to be a separate species, the '''Guatemalan flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;mexicanoides'').
*The '''Guadalupe red-shafted flicker''' (''C.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;rufipileus'')† is extinct and was formerly restricted to [[Guadalupe Island]], off the northwestern coast of Baja California, Mexico. It was last recorded in 1906. It may be invalid.<ref>{{cite web |title=Northern Flicker: Colaptes auratus (Linnaeus, 1758) |url=http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?lang=EN&avibaseid=75600969&sec=summary |access-date=5 July 2017 |website=Avibase - the world bird database |publisher=Bird Studies Canada}}</ref> Individuals of an extant mainland red-shafted subspecies (which one is unknown) were observed breeding on Guadalupe Island in 1996.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sweet |first1=P.R. |last2=Barrowclough |first2=G. F. |last3=Montanez-Godoy |first3=P. |date=2001 |title=Recolonization of the Flicker and other notes from Isla Guadalupe, Mexico |url=https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?httpsredir=1&article=1032&context=hrc_ornithology |journal=Western Birds |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=71–80}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
File:Southeastern Yellow-shafted Flicker, Kent County, DE, USA imported from iNaturalist photo 62634945.jpg|''C. a. auratus'', in Delaware
File:Northern flicker pair.jpg|''C. a. cafer'' female (left) and male (right), in Washington
File:Northern flicker (Colaptes auratus chrysocaulosus) female.JPG|''C. a. chrysocaulosus'' female, in Cuba
File:Southwestern Red-shafted Flicker, Foothills Green, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA imported from iNaturalist photo 452304844 (cropped).jpg|''C. a. collaris'' male, in Colorado
File:Grand Cayman Flicker, Cayman Islands, Cayman Islands, Cayman Islands, KY imported from iNaturalist photo 35488401 (cropped).jpg|''C. a. gundlachi'', in Grand Cayman
File:Northern Yellow-shafted Flicker, Powderhorn Park, Minneapolis, MN 55407, USA imported from iNaturalist photo 437335546 (cropped).jpg|''C. a. luteus'' male, in Minnesota
File:Colaptes auratus mexicanoides 84221588.jpg|''C. a. mexicanoides'' female, in Guatemala
File:Colaptes rufipileus (Guadalupe flicker).jpg|†''C. a. rufipileus'' male taxidermied specimen
</gallery>

==Description==
[[File:Yellow-shafted × Red-shafted Flicker, Southeast Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada imported from iNaturalist photo 270312661.jpg|thumb|Hybrid male. Has a red moustache like the red-shafted group, and a red nape like the yellow-shafted group. The face and throat are intermediate between the grey colour of the former and the peach colour of the latter. In Alberta.]]
Adults are brown with black bars on the back and wings. A mid- to large-sized northern flicker measures {{convert|28|-|36|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} in length and {{convert|42|-|54|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} in wingspan.<ref name="CLO-AAB" /><ref>{{cite web| title=Northern flicker {{!}} ''Colaptes auratus'' |url=http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Colaptes_auratus/ |year=2011}}</ref> The body mass can vary from {{convert|86|to|167|g|oz|frac=8|abbr=on}}.<ref name="CRC">''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), {{ISBN|978-0-8493-4258-5}}.</ref> Among standard scientific measurements, the wing bone measures {{convert|12.2|-|17.1|cm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}}, the tail measures {{convert|7.5|-|11.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}}, the bill measures {{convert|2.2|-|4.3|cm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} and the tarsus measures {{convert|2.2|-|3.1|cm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}}. The largest-bodied specimens are from the northern stretches of the species' range at the latitude of Alaska and Labrador, while the smallest specimens come from [[Grand Cayman Island]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Woodpeckers: An Identification Guide to the Woodpeckers of the World |first1=Hans |last1=Winkler |first2=David A. |last2=Christie |first3=David |last3=Nurney |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-395-72043-1}}</ref> A necklace-like black patch occupies the upper breast, while the lower breast and belly are [[beige]] with black spots. Males can be identified by a black (in the eastern part of the species' range) or red (in the western part) [[Moustache|mustachial]] stripe at the base of the [[beak]], while females lack this stripe. The tail is dark on top, transitioning to a white [[Bird anatomy|rump]] which is conspicuous in flight. Subspecific [[plumage]] is variable.

===Call and flight===
{{Multiple image
| image1            = Colaptes auratus.ogg
| image2            = Northern Flicker Yosemite National Park.ogg
| direction         = vertical
| caption1          = Long Island, NY, August 1996
| caption2          = Yosemite National Park, California
| header            = Calls
}}
This bird's call is a sustained laugh, ''ki ki ki ki'', quite different from that of the [[pileated woodpecker]] (''Dryocopus pileatus''). One may also hear a constant knocking as they often drum on trees or even metal objects to declare territory. Like most woodpeckers, northern flickers drum on objects as a form of communication and territory defense. In such cases, the purpose is to make as loud a noise as possible, so woodpeckers sometimes drum on metal objects.

Like many woodpeckers, its flight is undulating. The repeated cycle of a quick succession of flaps followed by a pause creates an effect comparable to a roller coaster.

==Diet==
[[File:Northern Yellow-shafted Flicker, Powderhorn Park, Minneapolis, MN 55407, USA imported from iNaturalist photo 437335513.jpg|thumb|''C. a. luteus'' foraging on the ground, in Minnesota]]
[[File:Northern Yellow-shafted Flicker, Webster, NY, US imported from iNaturalist photo 361142828.jpg|thumb|''C. a. luteus'' eating [[suet]] at a feeder, in New York]]
According to the [[National Audubon Society|Audubon]] field guide, "flickers are the only woodpeckers that frequently feed on the ground", probing with their beak, also sometimes catching insects in flight. Although they eat fruits, berries, seeds, and nuts, their primary food is insects. Ants alone can make up 45% of their diet. Other invertebrates eaten include flies, butterflies, moths, beetles, and snails. Northern flickers also eat berries and seeds, especially in winter, including those of [[poison ivy]], [[poison oak]], dogwood, [[sumac]], wild cherry and grape, bayberries, hackberries, and [[Sambucus|elderberries]], as well as sunflower and [[thistle]] seeds. Northern flickers often break into underground ant colonies to get at the nutritious larvae there, hammering at the soil the way other woodpeckers drill into wood. They have been observed breaking up cow dung to eat the insects living within. Their tongues can dart out {{convert|50|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} beyond the end of the bill to catch prey.<ref name="CLO-AAB" /> The northern flicker is a natural predator of the [[European corn borer]] (''Ostrinia nubilalis''), an [[invasive species]] of moth that costs the U.S. agriculture industry more than $1 billion annually in crop losses and population control.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/field/e_corn_borer.htm|title=European corn borer - Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner)|website=entnemdept.ufl.edu|access-date=2017-11-13}}</ref> As well as eating ants, northern flickers exhibit a behavior known as [[Anting (bird activity)|anting]], in which they use the [[formic acid]] from the ants to assist in preening, as it is useful in keeping them free of parasites.

===Influence of diet on offspring===
According to an article published in ''[[Ibis (journal)|Ibis]]'', the availability of food affects the coloration of feathers in northern flicker nestlings. The article focused on the correlation between melanin spots and carotenoid-based coloration on the wings of nestlings with food stress via indirect manipulation of [[brood size]]. The article found that there was a positive correlation between the quality of the nestlings' diet and T-cell-mediated immune response. T-cell-mediated immune response was found to be positively correlated with brightness of pigmentation in flight feathers, but not related to melanin spot intensity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315989236|title=Brood size manipulations reveal relationships among physiological performance, body condition and plumage colour in Northern Flicker Colaptes auratus nestlings |last1= Musgrove|first1= Annessa|last2= Wiebe|first2= Karen |author-link2=Karen L. Wiebe |last3= Fischer|first3= Clare|last4= Romero|first4= Michael|date= April 2017|website= ResearchGate|publisher= [[Ibis (journal)|Ibis]]|access-date=2020-04-30 }}</ref>

==Habitat==
The northern flicker may be observed in open habitats near trees, including woodlands, edges, yards, and parks. In the western United States, one can find it in mountain forests all the way up to the [[tree line]]. The northern flicker generally nests in holes in trees like other woodpeckers. Occasionally, it has been found nesting in old, earthen burrows vacated by [[belted kingfisher]]s (''Megaceryle alcyon'') or [[sand martin]]s (''Riparia riparia'').<ref name="AAB-Overview">{{Cite web |title=Northern Flicker Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Northern_Flicker/overview |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=www.allaboutbirds.org |language=en}}</ref> Both sexes help with the nest excavation. The entrance hole is about {{cvt|8|cm|0}} in diameter, and the cavity is {{cvt|33|-|41|cm|frac=2}} deep. The cavity widens at the bottom to make room for the eggs and the incubating adult. Inside, the cavity is bare except for a bed of wood chips for the eggs and chicks to rest on.<ref name="Wild-Bird-Watching.com">{{Cite web |title=Northern Flicker Habits What They Eat, Nesting, Mating Behaviors |url=https://www.wild-bird-watching.com/Northern_Flicker.html |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=Wild-Bird-Watching.com |language=en}}</ref> Once the nestlings are about 17 days old, they begin clinging to the cavity wall rather than lying on the floor. They can create cavities inside homes, especially homes of stucco or weak wooden siding.<ref name="Wild-Bird-Watching.com" />

==Lifespan==
[[File:Southeastern Yellow-shafted Flicker, North Carolina, US imported from iNaturalist photo 4620704.jpg|thumb|Male ''C. a. auratus'' killed in a [[Bird–window collisions|window collision]], in North Carolina]]
A study from 2006 examined the mortality rates of male and female northern flickers over a six-year period using capture-tag-recapture techniques. The researchers observed that only one to two birds out of every 300 adults were 7 or more years old. This observation data correlated well with a mortality model that predicted a 0.6% 7-year survival rate.<ref name="Fisher2006">{{cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=Ryan J. |last2=Wiebe |first2=Karen L. |author-link2=Karen L. Wiebe |title=Effects of Sex and Age on Survival of Northern Flickers: A Six-Year Field Study. |journal=The Condor |date=2006 |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=193–200 |jstor=4123207 |doi=10.1650/0010-5422(2006)108[0193:EOSAAO]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=85035861 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The data also illustrated that there were no significant differences between male and female survival rates for the general population.
The oldest yet known "yellow-shafted" northern flicker lived to be at least 9 years 2 months old, and the oldest yet known "red-shafted" northern flicker lived to be at least 8 years 9 months old.<ref name="CLO-AAB">{{cite web |url=http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Northern_Flicker/lifehistory |title=Northern Flicker |access-date=2015-10-03 |publisher=The Cornell Lab of Ornithology (All About Birds)}}</ref>

===Reproduction===
The northern flicker's breeding habitat consists of forested areas across North America and as far south as [[Central America]]. It is a cavity nester that typically nests in trees, but may also use posts and birdhouses if sized and situated appropriately. It prefers to excavate its own home, although it may reuse and repair damaged or abandoned nests. Often the old nests are created by belted kingfishers or sand martins.<ref name="AAB-Overview"/> Abandoned northern flicker nests create habitats for other cavity nesters. The northern flicker is sometimes driven away from its nesting site by other cavity nesters like the [[common starling]] (''Sturnus vulgaris'').

The northern flicker commonly breeds during the months of February to July, depending upon the temperature of the area. During the breeding season, both mates will stay together. After the season, they do not stay together.<ref name="Wild-Bird-Watching.com"/> Before breeding season, one to two weeks are needed for a mated pair to build the nest. Male flickers find female flickers by head bobbing and their personal mating call.<ref name="Pappas">{{Cite web |last=Pappas |first=Janice |title=Colaptes auratus (northern flicker) |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Colaptes_auratus/ |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=Animal Diversity Web |language=en}}</ref> The common sounds the male bird makes towards a female is "woikawoikawoika", symbolizing their relationship to one another and other birds. If the call is used towards a male, it is a territorial sign.<ref name="Wild-Bird-Watching.com" />&nbsp; The calls' pattern can be classified as flat and gradually rises into a loud noise. The call type is a chirp that drums and rattles.<ref name="www.audubon.org">{{Cite web |title=Northern Flicker {{!}} Audubon Field Guide |url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/northern-flicker |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=www.audubon.org |language=en}}</ref>

Additional territorial signs towards other males can be head swinging when in close proximity to another or repeatedly creating loud noises with their beaks. Commonly used objects are wood or metal for a louder sound.<ref name="AAB-Overview" /> While making the loud noises, they will spread their wings, moving them up and down, spreading their tail to flash their colorful underside.<ref name="www.audubon.org" /> The color of their feathers depends on the environment surrounding the bird.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=D. T. Tyler |last1=Flockhart |first2=Karen L. |last2=Wiebe |title=Absence of Reproductive Consequences of Hybridization in the Northern Flicker (''Colaptes auratus'') Hybrid Zone |journal=The Auk |volume=126 |issue=2 |year=2009 |pages=351–358 |doi=10.1525/auk.2009.08086}}</ref> Currently, there is no direct correlation between the birds' colors and mate choice. Rather, it plays a bigger role in territory.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Systematics – Northern Flicker – Colaptes auratus – Birds of the World |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/norfli/cur/systematics |access-date=2024-03-11 |website=birdsoftheworld.org |language=en}}</ref>

The northern flicker may also point its bill forward towards a competitor for territorial reasons.<ref name="Pappas" />&nbsp;Juvenile northern flickers are often helpless against predators who enter the nest. The common predators are [[Cooper's hawk]]s (''Astur cooperii''), [[sharp-shinned hawk]]s (''Accipter striatus''), [[raccoon]]s (''Procyon lotor''), [[squirrel]]s, and [[snake]]s. Full grown northern flickers are preyed upon by larger birds and hunting birds.<ref name="Pappas" /> The entrance hole of their nest is roughly <!--CheckRmi1-->{{convert|5|to|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide. The hole entrance is often facing east to southeast. On average, the northern flicker can have one to two clutches each breeding season.<ref name="Wild-Bird-Watching.com" /> A typical [[Clutch (eggs)|clutch]] consists of six to eight eggs whose shells are pure white with a smooth surface and high gloss. The eggs are the second-largest of the North American woodpecker species, exceeded only by the pileated woodpecker's. Incubation is by both sexes for about 11 to 12 days. Commonly the male will sit on the eggs overnight, and both the male and female will incubate the eggs during the day.<ref name="Wild-Bird-Watching.com" /> The young are fed by regurgitation and [[fledge]] about 25 to 28 days after hatching.<gallery mode="packed" heights="120">
File:Northern-flicker-males-territorial-display.jpg|Two males in a territorial display during spring
File:Northern Flicker - 51159532100.jpg|In a dominance display, a northern flicker spreads its wings to show off its size and colors
File:Flicker hole in CP (31848).jpg|Male guarding its nest cavity
File:Northern-flicker-feeding.jpg|Adult feeding a juvenile at a nest cavity entrance
File:Northern Flicker (m) carrying Fecal Sac from nest (53009673598).jpg|Male carrying a [[fecal sac]] away from the nest
</gallery>

===Wintering and migration===
Northern flickers are partial migrants, in which some southern populations are completely non-migratory.<ref name="Gow-2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Gow |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Wiebe |first2=Karen L. |date=2014-12-01 |title=Males migrate farther than females in a differential migrant: an examination of the fasting endurance hypothesis |journal=Royal Society Open Science |language=en |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=140346 |doi=10.1098/rsos.140346 |issn=2054-5703 |pmc=4448777 |pmid=26064574|bibcode=2014RSOS....140346G }}</ref> Those that do migrate tend to begin their spring migration towards the beginning of April and make their return between September and October.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Wiebe |first1=K. L. |last2=Moore |first2=W. S. |date=2023-07-07 |title=Northern Flicker (Colaptes auratus), version 2.0 |url=https://birdsoftheworld-org.proxy3.library.mcgill.ca/bow/species/norfli/cur/movement#migroute |access-date=2023-10-11 |website=Birds of the World}}</ref> Individuals that breed farther north travel greater distances than their migratory southern conspecifics, often resulting in the convergence of northern and southern populations at wintering sites.<ref name="Gow-2014" /> This discrepancy likely arises from the northern flickers' ground foraging behavior, in which prey can only be found in snow-free locations.<ref name="Gow-2014" /> Furthermore, females tend to winter farther north than males, suggesting that parental investment and division of reproductive labour are key factors in determining individual migratory behavior.<ref name="Gow-2014" /> Rising temperatures resulting from anthropogenic climate change have been shown to trigger migration prematurely in Northern flickers, as well as many other migratory bird species as evidenced in Sherbrooke, Quebec.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Norman K. |last2=McCormick |first2=Gary A.F. |date=2021-08-17 |title=Bird-Arrival Dates and Climate Change, Sherbrooke, Quebec |url=https://bioone.org/journals/northeastern-naturalist/volume-28/issue-3/045.028.0310/Bird-Arrival-Dates-and-Climate-Change-Sherbrooke-Quebec/10.1656/045.028.0310.full |journal=Northeastern Naturalist |volume=28 |issue=3 |doi=10.1656/045.028.0310 |s2cid=237586675 |issn=1092-6194 |via=BioOne Digital Library|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[File:Rsos140346f02.jpg|thumb|Connections between breeding and wintering location of flickers]]
Northern flickers are divided into eastern and western populations by the Rocky Mountains, with each population having a unique migratory pathway.<ref name="Gow-2014" /> Individuals breeding in the prairie provinces of Canada, the Dakotas, and surrounding U.S. states winter in Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas.<ref name="Gow-2014" /> Those breeding in southern Ontario and Michigan to New England winter from east Texas to the Carolinas, whereas those breeding in British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest winter from central California to Baja Peninsula, Mexico.<ref name="Gow-2014" />

During migration, northern flickers may form flocks.<ref name="Gow-2014-2">{{Cite journal |last1=Gow |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Wiebe |first2=Karen L. |last3=Fox |first3=James W. |date=2014-09-14 |editor-last=Norris |editor-first=Ryan |title=Cavity use throughout the annual cycle of a migratory woodpecker revealed by geolocators |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ibi.12206 |journal=Ibis |language=en |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=167–170 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12206 |issn=0019-1019 |via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Additionally, the species' propensity for roosting in cavities is not mitigated during migration. On average, 75% of individuals spend their nights in a cavity during migration, even in completely unknown locations.<ref name="Gow-2014-2" /> Northern flickers demonstrate a high rate of nest cavity re-use, as opposed to excavating new cavities each year.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=Ryan J. |last2=Wiebe |first2=Karen L. |date=2006-06-26 |title=Breeding dispersal of Northern Flickers Colaptes auratus in relation to natural nest predation and experimentally increased perception of predation risk |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00582.x |journal=Ibis |language=en |volume=148 |issue=4 |pages=772–781 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00582.x |issn=0019-1019 |via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Furthermore, breeding individuals exhibit intense site fidelity, with pairs consistently returning to the specific nest cavity they used in the previous year.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=De Kiriline Lawrence |first=Louise |date=1967 |title=A Comparative Life-History Study of Four Species of Woodpeckers |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/10.2307/40166747 |journal=Ornithological Monographs |issue=5 |pages=1–156 |doi=10.2307/40166747 |jstor=40166747 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Northern Flicker on Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge (25906541634).jpg|A northern flicker at a tree in the [[Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge]]
File:Southeastern Yellow-shafted Flicker, Overton Park, TN, US imported from iNaturalist photo 3008122.jpg|''C. a. auratus''
File:'Colaptes mexicanus' by Edward Hargitt, 1889.jpg|Painting of "''Colaptes mexicanus''" by [[Edward Hargitt]], 1889
File:Northern Yellow-shafted Flicker, Powderhorn Park, Minneapolis, MN 55407, USA imported from iNaturalist photo 437335514.jpg|''C. a. luteus'', in Minnesota
File:Northern Yellow-shafted Flicker, Powderhorn Park, Minneapolis, MN 55407, USA imported from iNaturalist photo 437335534.jpg|''C. a. luteus'', in Minnesota
File:Grand Cayman Flicker, Cayman Islands, Cayman Islands, Cayman Islands, KY imported from iNaturalist photo 35488379.jpg|''C. a. gundlachi'', in Grand Cayman
File:Southwestern Red-shafted Flicker, Bernardo Waterfowl Area, Bosque, NM imported from iNaturalist photo 348461362 (cropped).jpg|''C. a. collaris'', in New Mexico
File:Northern Yellow-shafted Flicker, Yolo County, CA, USA imported from iNaturalist photo 341176313 (cropped).jpg|''C. a. luteus'', in California 
</gallery>

==References==<!-- BullAMNH48:1. BulletinOfTheBritishOrnithologistsClub101:339. Condor7:134. -->
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Colaptes auratus|Northern flicker}}
{{Wikispecies|Colaptes auratus}}
<!-- *[https://archive.today/20091025070930/http://ca.geocities.com/woodpeck2006/northernflicker.html Northern Flicker original page gone, maybe look at the maindomain http://ca.geocities.com/woodpeck2006], a bibliographic source -->
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612145435/http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/i4120id.html Northern Flicker - ''Colaptes auratus''] - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612145346/http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/Song/h4120so.mp3 A sample of the call of a Northern Flicker by the USGS] (mp3)
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20001026172001/http://www.bird-stamps.org/cspecies/10414800.htm Stamps]}} (for [[Antigua]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Cuba]], [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]], [[United States]]) (imperfect Range Map) at bird-stamps.org
*{{EBirdSpecies|norfli|Northern Flicker}}
* {{VIREO|northern+flicker|Northern flicker}}
*[https://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/sounds/Colaptes_auratus.html Calls of the northern flicker] at Animal Diversity Web
* [https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/birds/florida-bird-sounds/ Northern (Yellow-shafted) Flicker Bird Sound] at Florida Museum of Natural History

{{Taxonbar|from=Q16819}}

[[Category:Colaptes|northern flicker]]
[[Category:Birds of North America]]
[[Category:Birds of Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]<!--for the stamp issue(Located near Nova Scotia)-->
[[Category:Birds of Cuba]]
[[Category:Birds of the Cayman Islands]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758|northern flicker]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus|northern flicker]]
[[Category:Symbols of Alabama]]