Editing Norwegian dialects

{{Short description|None}}
{{distinguish|text=[[Bokmål]] and [[Nynorsk]], the two official '''written''' variations of the [[Norwegian language]]}}
{{refimprove|date=June 2015}}
[[File:Norske Målgreiner.png|thumb|The map shows the division of the Norwegian dialects within the main groups.{{imagefact|date=November 2022}}]]
'''Norwegian dialects''' ({{lang|no|dialekter/ar}}) are commonly divided into four main groups, 'Northern Norwegian' ({{Lang|no|nordnorsk}}), 'Central Norwegian' ({{lang|no|[[trøndersk]]}}), 'Western Norwegian' ({{lang|no|[[vestlandsk]]}}), and 'Eastern Norwegian' ({{Lang|no|østnorsk}}). Sometimes 'Midland Norwegian' ({{Lang|no|midlandsmål}}) and/or 'South Norwegian' ({{Lang|no|sørlandsk}}) are considered fifth or sixth groups.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=   https://snl.no/dialekter_i_Norge|title=dialekter i Norge|publisher = Store norske leksikon|author=     Martin Skjekkeland|access-date= February 1, 2017 }}</ref>

The dialects are generally [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]], but differ significantly with regard to [[Accent (dialect)|accent]], [[grammar]], [[syntax]], and [[vocabulary]]. If not accustomed to a particular dialect, even a native Norwegian speaker may have difficulty understanding it. Dialects can be as local as farm clusters, but many linguists note an ongoing regionalization, diminishing, or even elimination of local variations.<ref name=":0" />

Spoken Norwegian typically does not exactly follow the written languages ''[[Bokmål]]'' and ''[[Nynorsk]]'' or the more [[conservative (language)|conservative]] ''[[Riksmål]]'' and ''[[Høgnorsk]]'', except in parts of [[Finnmark]] (where the original [[Sami people|Sami]] population learned Norwegian as a second language). Rather, most people speak in their own local dialect. There is no "standard" spoken Norwegian.

== Dialect groups ==
{{Unreferenced|section|date=June 2023}}
* West and South Norwegian
** South Norwegian (most of [[Agder]] county plus [[Fyresdal Municipality|Fyresdal]], [[Nissedal Municipality|Nissedal]], [[Drangedal Municipality|Drangedal]], and [[Kragerø Municipality|Kragerø]] in [[Telemark]] county)
** South-West Norwegian (the inland parts of [[Sogn]], most of [[Hordaland]] (except the city of [[Bergen (city)|Bergen]]), [[Rogaland]] county, and western parts of [[Agder]] county)
** Bergen Norwegian or [[Bergensk]] (the city of [[Bergen (city)|Bergen]] and immediate surroundings)
** North-West Norwegian (the districts of [[Romsdal]], [[Sunnmøre]], [[Nordfjord]], [[Sunnfjord]] and outer parts of [[Sogn]])
* North Norwegian
**[[Helgeland]] Norwegian ([[Nordland]] county south of [[Saltfjellet]], except for [[Bindal Municipality]])
** Nordland Norwegian (Nordland county north of Saltfjellet)
** Troms Norwegian ([[Troms]] county, except for [[Bardu Municipality]] and [[Målselv Municipality]])
** Finnmark Norwegian [[Finnmark]] county, except for northern [[Kautokeino Municipality|Kautokeino]], northern [[Karasjok Municipality|Karasjok]], [[Tana Municipality|Tana]] and [[Nesseby Municipality|Nesseby]].
* East Norwegian
** [[Østlandet|Vikvær]] Norwegian ([[Vestfold]] county, [[Østfold]] county, [[Bohuslän]] in Sweden, adjacent lowland parts of [[Telemark]] county, [[Buskerud]] county, and [[Akershus]] county)
** Middle East Norwegian ([[Ringerike Municipality|Ringerike]], [[Modum Municipality|Modum]], [[Oslo]] and [[Romerike]])
** Oppland Norwegian (southern [[Hedmark]] and south-eastern [[Oppland]])
** [[Østerdalen|Østerdal]] Norwegian (northern [[Hedmark]] and [[Bardu Municipality]] in northern Norway)
* Midland Norwegian
** [[Gudbrandsdal]] Norwegian (northern [[Oppland]])
** [[Valdres]] and [[Hallingdal]] Norwegian (south-west [[Oppland]] and western [[Buskerud]])
** Western Telemark Norwegian ([[Vinje Municipality]], [[Tokke Municipality]] and [[Kviteseid Municipality]])
** Eastern Telemark Norwegian ([[Tinn Municipality]], [[Hjartdal Municipality]], [[Midt-Telemark Municipality]], [[Notodden Municipality]] and upper [[Numedal]])
* [[Trøndersk|Trøndelag Norwegian]]
** Outer Trøndelag Norwegian ([[Nordmøre]], outer [[Sør-Trøndelag]], and [[Fosen]])
** Inner Trøndelag Norwegian (inner [[Sør-Trøndelag]], [[Innherad]], [[Lierne Municipality]], and [[Snåsa Municipality]])
** Trondheim Norwegian ([[Trondheim Municipality]])
** Namdal Norwegian ([[Namdalen]] and surrounding coastal areas)
** South-eastern Trøndersk ([[Røros Municipality]], [[Selbu Municipality]], [[Tydal Municipality]], [[Holtålen Municipality]], [[Oppdal Municipality]])
** [[Jämtlandic]] ([[Jämtland]] in Sweden)
* [[American Norwegian]]

== Dialect branches ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2023}}
{{Expand list|date=October 2018}}
* National [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]
**{{ill|Nordnorsk|no|Nordnorsk}} ([[Northern Norway]])
*** {{ill|Bodø dialect|no|Bodødialekt}} ([[Bodø Municipality|Bodø]])
*** [[Brønnøy dialect]] ([[Brønnøy Municipality|Brønnøy]])
*** {{ill|Helgeland dialect|no|Helgelandsk}} ([[Helgeland]])
*** ''other dialects''
** [[Trøndersk]] ([[Trøndelag]])
*** [[Trondheimsk|Trondheim dialect]] ([[Trondheim (city)|Trondheim]])
*** {{ill|Fosen dialect|no|Fosendialekt}} ([[Fosen]])
*** {{ill|Härjedal dialect|sv|Härjedalska}} ([[Härjedalen]])
*** [[Jämtland dialects]] ([[Jämtland|Jämtland province]])
*** [[Meldal dialect]] ([[Meldal Municipality|Meldal]])
*** {{ill|Tydal dialect|no|Tydalsdialekt}} ([[Tydal Municipality|Tydal]])
*** ''other dialects''
** [[Vestlandsk]] ([[Western Norway|Western]] and [[Southern Norway]])
*** West ''(Vestlandet)''
**** [[Bergensk|Bergen dialect]] ([[Bergen (city)|Bergen]])
**** {{ill|Haugesund dialect|no|Haugesund-dialekt}} ([[Haugesund Municipality|Haugesund]])
**** {{ill|Jærsk dialect|no|Jærsk}} ([[Jæren|Jæren district]])
**** {{ill|Karmøy dialect|no|Karmøydialekt}} ([[Karmøy (island)|Karmøy]])
**** {{ill|Nordmøre dialects|no|Nordmørsdialekt}} ([[Nordmøre]])
***** {{ill|Kristiansunds dialect|no|Kristiansundsdialekt}}
***** {{ill|Sunndalsøra dialect|no|Sunndalsøramål}} ([[Sunndalsøra]])
**** {{ill|Romsdal dialect|no|Romsdalsdialekt}} ([[Romsdal]])
**** [[Sandnes-mål|Sandnes dialect]] ([[Sandnes Municipality|Sandnes]])
**** [[Sognamål|Sogn dialect]] ([[Sogn|Sogn district]])
**** {{ill|Sunnmøre dialect|no|Sunnmørsdialekt}} ([[Sunnmøre]])
**** [[Stavangersk|Stavanger dialect]] ([[Stavanger (city)|Stavanger]])
**** {{ill|Strilar dialect|no|Strilamål}} ([[Midhordland|Midhordland district]])
*** South ''(Sørlandet)''
**** [[Arendalsk|Arendal dialect]] ([[Arendal Municipality|Arendal region]])
**** {{ill|Valle-Setesdalsk dialect|no|Setesdalsk}} (Upper [[Setesdal]], [[Valle Municipality|Valle]])
*** ''other dialects''
** {{ill|Østlandsk|no|Østlandsk}} ([[Eastern Norway]])
***{{ill|Flatbygd dialects|no|Flatbygdmål}} (Lowland districts)
****Vikværsk dialects ([[Viken, Norway|Viken district]])
***** Drammen dialect ([[Drammen Municipality|Drammen region]])
***** Follo dialect ([[Follo, Norway|Follo]])
***** {{ill|Vestfold dialects|no|Vestfoldmål}} ([[Vestfold]])
****** Tønsberg dialect ([[Tønsberg Municipality|Tønsberg]] and [[Færder Municipality|Færder]])
****** {{ill|Andebu dialect|no|Andebumål}} ([[Andebu]])
****** {{ill|Revetal dialect|no|Revetalsmål}} ([[Re Municipality|Re]])
***** Østfold dialects ([[Østfold]])
****** Fredrikstad dialect ([[Fredrikstad|Fredrikstad region]])
****** Inner Østfold dialect ([[Indre Østfold Municipality|Inner Østfold]])
***** {{ill|Bohuslän dialect|sv|Bohuslänska}} ([[Bohuslän|Bohuslän province]])
***** {{ill|Grenland dialect|no|Grenlandsmål}} ([[Grenland|Grenland district]])
**** {{ill|Midtøstland dialects|no|Midtøstlandsmål}} (Mid-east districts)
*****[[Urban East Norwegian]] ({{ill|Metropolitan area of Oslo|no|Oslo (tettsted)}})
******[[Oslo dialect]] ([[Oslo]])
******Asker and Bærum dialect ([[Asker Municipality|Asker]] and [[Bærum]])
******Romerike dialect ([[Romerike]])
*****{{ill|Ringerike dialects|no|Ringeriksmål}} ([[Ringerike (traditional district)|Ringerike district]])
******{{ill|Hønefoss dialect|no|Hønefossdialekt}} ([[Hønefoss]])
******{{ill|Ådal dialect|no|Ådalsmål}} ([[Ådal]])
******{{ill|Moing dialects|no}} ([[Modum Municipality|Modum]])
****{{ill|Oppland dialect|no|Opplandsmål}} ([[Opplandene|Opplandene district]])
***** Hedmark dialects ([[Hedmark]])
****** {{ill|Solung dialect|no|Solung}} ([[Solør]])
**** {{ill|Hadeland dialect|no|Hadelandsdialekt}} ([[Hadeland|Hadeland district]])
**** {{ill|Østerdal dialect|no|Østerdalsmål}} ([[Viken, Norway|Viken district]])
***** [[Särna-Idremål|Särna-Idre dialect]] ([[Särna]] and [[Idre]])
*** {{ill|Midland dialects (Norway)|lt=Midland dialects|no|Midlandsmål}} (Midland districts)
**** [[Gudbrandsdalsmål|Gudbrandsdal dialect]] ([[Gudbrandsdalen]], [[Oppland]] and Upper [[Folldal Municipality|Folldal]], [[Hedmark]])
**** [[Hallingmål-Valdris|Hallingdal-Valdres dialects]] ([[Hallingdal]], [[Valdres]])
***** {{ill|Hallingdal dialect|no|Hallingdialekt}}
***** [[Valdris|Valdris dialect]] ([[Valdres|Valdres district]])
**** Telemark-Numedal dialects ([[Telemark]] and [[Numedal]])
***** {{ill|Bø dialect|no|Bøhering (dialekt)}}
*** ''other dialects''

== Evolution ==
Owing to geography and climate, Norwegian communities were often isolated from each other until the early 20th century.  As a result, local dialects had a tendency to be influenced by each other in singular ways while developing their own idiosyncrasies.  [[Oppdal Municipality]], for example, has characteristics in common with coastal dialects to the west, the dialects of northern Gudbrandsdalen to the south, and other dialects in Sør-Trøndelag from the north. The linguist [[Einar Haugen]] documented the particulars of the Oppdal dialect, and the writer [[Inge Krokann]] used it as a [[literary device]]. Other transitional dialects include the dialects of Romsdal and Arendal.

On the other hand, newly industrialized communities near sources of hydroelectric power have developed dialects consistent with the region but in many ways unique. Studies in such places as [[Høyanger (village)|Høyanger]], [[Odda (town)|Odda]], [[Tyssedal]], [[Rjukan]], [[Notodden (town)|Notodden]], [[Sauda (town)|Sauda]], and others show that [[koineization]] has effected the formation of new dialects in these areas.

Similarly, in the early 20th century a dialect closely approximating standard Bokmål arose in and around railway stations.  This was known as {{Lang|no|stasjonsspråk}} ("station language") and may have contributed to changes in dialect around these centers.

== Social dynamics ==
{{See also|Norwegian language struggle}}
Until the 20th century, upward social mobility in a city like Oslo could in some cases require conforming speech to standard [[Riksmål]]. Studies show that even today, speakers of rural dialects may tend to change their usage in formal settings to approximate the formal written language. This has led to various countercultural movements ranging from the adoption of traditional forms of Oslo dialects among political radicals in Oslo, to movements preserving local dialects. There is widespread and growing acceptance that Norwegian linguistic diversity is worth preserving.

The trend today is a regionalisation of the dialects causing smaller dialectal traits to disappear and rural dialects to merge with their nearest larger dialectal variety.

There is no standard dialect for the Norwegian language as a whole, and all dialects are by now mutually intelligible. Hence, widely different dialects are used frequently and alongside each other, in almost every aspect of society. Criticism of a dialect may be considered criticism of someone's personal identity and place of upbringing, and is considered impolite. Not using one's proper dialect would be bordering on awkward in many situations, as it may signal a wish to take on an identity or a background which one does not have. Dialects are also an area from which to derive humour both in professional and household situations.

== Distinctions ==
There are many ways to distinguish among Norwegian dialects.  These criteria are drawn from the work ''Vårt Eget Språk/Talemålet'' (1987) by [[Egil Børre Johnsen]].  These criteria generally provide the analytical means for identifying most dialects, though most Norwegians rely on experience to tell them apart.

=== Grammars and syntax ===

==== Infinitive forms ====
One of the most important differences among dialects is which ending, if any, verbs have in the infinitive form. In Old Norwegian, most verbs had an infinitive ending (-a), and likewise in a modern Norwegian dialect, most of the verbs of the dialect either have or would have had an infinitive ending. There are five varieties of the infinitive ending in Norwegian dialects, constituting two groups:

One ending (western dialects)
* Infinitive ending with -a, e.g., {{Lang|no|å vera}}, {{Lang|no|å bita}}, common in southwestern Norway, including the areas surrounding [[Bergen (city)|Bergen]] (although not in the city of Bergen itself) and [[Stavanger (city)]]
* Infinitive ending with -e, e.g., {{Lang|no|å være}}, {{Lang|no|å bite}}, common in [[Troms]], [[Finnmark]], areas of [[Sogn og Fjordane]] and [[Møre og Romsdal]], southern counties, and a few other areas.
* Apocopic infinitive, where no vowel is added to the infinitive form, e.g., {{Lang|no|å vær}}, {{Lang|no|å bit}}, common in certain areas of [[Nordland]]

Two different endings (eastern dialects)
* Split infinitive, in which some verbs end with -a while others end with -e; e.g. {{Lang|no|å væra}} versus {{Lang|no|å bite}}, common in Eastern Norway
* Split infinitive, with [[apocope]], e.g., {{Lang|no|å væra}} ({{Lang|no|værra}}/{{Lang|no|vårrå}}/{{Lang|no|varra}}) versus {{Lang|no|å bit}}, common in some areas in [[Sør-Trøndelag]] and [[Nord-Trøndelag]]

The split distribution of endings is related to the syllable length of the verb in Old Norse. "Short-syllable" ({{Lang|no|kortstava}}) verbs in Norse kept their endings. The "long-syllable" ({{Lang|no|langstava}}) verbs lost their (unstressed) endings or had them converted to -e.

==== Dative case ====
The original Germanic contextual difference between the [[dative]] and [[accusative]] cases, standardized in [[modern German]] and [[modern Icelandic|Icelandic]], has degenerated in spoken [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], a tendency which spread to Bokmål too. [[Ivar Aasen]] treated the dative case in detail in his work, ''[[Norsk Grammatik]]'' (1848), and use of Norwegian dative as a living grammatical case can be found in a few of the earliest [[Nynorsk#Ivar Aasen's work|Landsmål]] texts. However, the dative case has never been part of official Landsmål/Nynorsk.

It is, however, present in some spoken dialects north of Oslo, Romsdal, and south and northeast of Trondheim. The grammatical phenomenon is highly threatened in the mentioned areas, while most speakers of conservative varieties have been highly influenced by the national standard languages, using only the traditional accusative word form in both cases. Often, though not always, the difference in meaning between the dative and accusative word forms can thus be lost, requiring the speaker to add more words to specify what was actually meant, to avoid potential loss of information.

==== Future tense ====
There are regional variations in the use of future tense, for example, "He is going to travel.":
: {{Lang|no|Han kommer/kjem til å reise}}''.''
: {{Lang|no|Han blir å reise}}''.''
: {{Lang|no|Han blir reisan}}''.''
: {{Lang|no|Han skal reise}}''.''

==== Syntax ====
Syntax can vary greatly between dialects, and the tense is important for the listener to get the meaning. For instance, a question can be formed without the traditional "asking-words" (how, where, what, who..)

For example, the sentence {{Lang|no|Hvor mye er klokken}}''?'' (in Bokmål), {{Lang|no|Kor mykje er klokka}}''?'' (in Nynorsk), literally: "How much is the clock?" i.e. "What time is it?"  can be put in, among others, the following forms:
: {{Lang|no|E klokka mykje}}''?'' (Is '''the clock''' much?) (stress is on "the clock")
: {{Lang|no|E a mytti, klokka}}''?'' ('''Is''' it much, the clock?) (stress on "is")
: {{Lang|no|Ka e klokka}}''?'' (literally: "What is the clock?")
: {{Lang|no|Ka klokka e}}''?'' (literally: What the clock is?), or, using another word for clock, {{Lang|no|Ke ure' e}}''?''
: {{Lang|no|Å er 'o}}''?'' (literally: What is she?).

=== Pronunciation of vowels ===

==== Diphthongization of monophthongs ====
Old Norse had the [[diphthong]]s {{IPA|/au/}}, {{IPA|/ei/}}, and {{IPA|/øy/}}, but the Norwegian spoken in the area around [[Setesdal]] has shifted two of the traditional diphthongs and innovated four more from long vowels, and, in some cases, also short vowels.<ref name="setesdalsnl">{{cite web|title=dialekter i Setesdal - Store norske leksikon|url=https://snl.no/dialekter_i_Setesdal|access-date=4 January 2015}} Authors state that the Setesdal dialect is "perhaps the most distinctive and most difficult to understand" among all Norwegian dialects.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan=2 | Old Norse
! Modern Norwegian
|-
! Setesdal<ref>To hear them pronounced, go to {{cite web|title=Talemålet i Valle og Hylestad|url=http://www.vallemal.no/frames.jsp?menu=2|access-date=4 January 2015}} The section ''Uttale av vokalane'' needs to be selected manually.</ref>
|-
| {{IPA|[ei]}}
| {{IPA|[ai]}}<ref name="setesdalsnl"/>
|-
| {{IPA|[øy]}}
| {{IPA|[oy]}}<ref name="setesdalsnl"/>
|-
| {{IPA|[iː]}}
| {{IPA|[ei]}}<ref name="setesdalsnl"/>
|-
| {{IPA|[yː]}}
| {{IPA|[uy]}}
|-
| {{IPA|[uː]}}
| {{IPA|[eu]}}
|-
| {{IPA|[oː]}}
| {{IPA|[ou]}}<ref name="setesdalsnl"/>
|}

West Norwegian dialects have also innovated new diphthongs. In [[Midtre]]{{clarify|date=January 2015}} you can find the following:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan=2 | Old Norse
! Modern Norwegian
|-
! Midtre
|-
| {{IPA|[aː]}}
| {{IPA|[au]}}
|-
| {{IPA|[oː]}}
| {{IPA|[ou]}}
|-
| {{IPA|[uː]}}
| {{IPA|[eʉ]}}
|}

==== Monophthongization of diphthongs ====
The Old Norse diphthongs {{IPA|/au/}}, {{IPA|/ei/}}, and {{IPA|/øy/}} have experienced [[monophthongization]] in certain dialects of modern Norwegian.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan=2 | Old Norse
! colspan=2 | Modern Norwegian
|-
! [[Urban East Norwegian|Urban East]]
! Some dialects
|-
| {{IPA|[ei]}}
| {{IPA|[æɪ]}}
| {{IPA|[e ~ eː]}}
|-
| {{IPA|[øy]}}
| {{IPA|[œʏ]}}
| {{IPA|[ø ~ øː]}}
|-
| {{IPA|[au]}}
| {{IPA|[æʉ]}}
| {{IPA|[ø ~ øː]}}
|}

This shift originated in Old East Norse, which is reflected in the fact that Swedish and Danish overwhelmingly exhibit this change.  Monophthongization in Norway ends on the coast west of Trondheim and extends southeast in a triangle into central Sweden. Some Norwegian dialects, east of Molde, for example, have lost only {{IPA|/ei/}} and {{IPA|/øy/}}.

==== Leveling ====
({{Lang|no|Jamning}}/{{Lang|no|Jevning}} in Norwegian) This is a phenomenon in which the root vowel and end vowel in a word approximate each other. For example, the old Norse {{Lang|no|viku}} has become {{Lang|no|våkkå}} or {{Lang|no|vukku}} in certain dialects. There are two varieties in Norwegian dialects – one in which the two vowels become identical, the other where they are only similar. Leveling exists only in inland areas in Southern Norway, and areas around Trondheim.

==== Vowel shift in strong verbs ====
In all but Oslo and coastal areas just south of the capital, the present tense of certain verbs take on a new vowel (umlaut), e.g., {{Lang|no|å fare}} becomes {{Lang|no|fer}} (in Oslo, it becomes {{Lang|no|farer}}).

=== Pronunciation of consonants ===

==== Eliminating {{IPA|/r/}} in the plural indefinite form ====
In some areas, the {{IPA|/r/}} is not pronounced in all or some words in their plural indefinite form.  There are four categories:
* The {{IPA|/r/}} is retained – most of Eastern Norway, the South-Eastern coast, and across to areas north and east of Stavanger.
* The {{IPA|/r/}} disappears altogether – Southern tip of Norway, coastal areas north of Bergen, and inland almost to Trondheim.
* The {{IPA|/r/}} is retained in certain words but not in others – coastal areas around Trondheim, and most of Northern Norway
* The {{IPA|/r/}} is retained in certain words and in weak feminine nouns, but not in others – one coast area in Nordland.

==== Phonetic realization of {{IPA|/r/}} ====
Most dialects realize {{IPA|/r/}} as the [[alveolar tap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} or [[alveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r]}}. However, for the last 200 years the [[uvular approximant]] {{IPA|[ʁ]}} has been gaining ground in Western and Southern Norwegian dialects, with [[Kristiansand]], Stavanger, and Bergen as centers. The uvular R has also been adopted in aspiring patricians in and around Oslo, to the point that it was for some time fashionable to "import" governesses from the Kristiansand area. In certain regions, such as Oslo, the flap has become realized as a [[retroflex flap]] (generally called "thick L") {{IPA|/ɽ/}}, which exists only in Norway, a few regions in Sweden, and in completely unrelated languages.  The sound coexists with other [[Retroflex consonant|retroflexions]] in Norwegian dialects.  In some areas it also applies to words that end with "rd," for example with {{Lang|no|gard}} (farm) being pronounced {{IPA|/ɡɑːɽ/}}. The uvular R has gained less acceptance in eastern regions, and linguists speculate that dialects that use retroflexes have a "natural defense" against uvular R and thus will not adopt it. However, the dialect of [[Arendal]] retains the retroflexes, while featuring the uvular R in remaining positions, e.g. {{Lang|no|rart}} {{IPA|[ʁɑːʈ]}}.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

In large parts of Northern Norway, especially in the northern parts of [[Nordland]] county and southern parts of [[Troms]] county, as well as several parts of [[Finnmark]] county, another variant is still common: the voiced post-alveolar sibilant fricative {{IPA|/ʒ/}}. In front of voiceless consonants, the realisation of this R is unvoiced as well, to {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. Thus, where one in the southern and Trøndelag dialects will get {{IPA|/sp̬ar̥k/}} or {{IPA|/sp̬aʀk/}} or {{IPA|/sp̬aʁ̥k/}}, in areas realising voiced R as {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, one will get {{IPA|/spaʃːk/}}.

==== Palatalization ====
In areas north of an isogloss running between Oslo and Bergen, [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] occurs for the n (IPA {{IPA|[nʲ]}}), l ({{IPA|[lʲ]}}), t ({{IPA|[tʲ]}}) and d ({{IPA|[dʲ]}}) sounds in varying degrees.  Areas just south and southwest of Trondheim palatalize both the main and subordinate syllable in words (e.g., {{IPA|[kɑlʲːɑnʲ]}}), but other areas only palatalize the main syllable ({{IPA|[bɑlʲ]}}).

==== Voicing of plosives ====
Voiceless stops ({{IPA|/p, t, k/}}) have become voiced ({{IPA|[b, d, ɡ]}}) intervocalically after long vowels ({{IPA|/ˈfløːdə/}}, {{IPA|/ˈkɑːɡə/}} vs. {{IPA|/ˈfløːtə/}}, {{IPA|/ˈkɑːkə/}}) on the extreme southern coast of Norway, including Kristiansand, Mandal and Stavanger.  The same phenomenon appears in Sør-Trøndelag{{fix|text=in which areas? The whole county?|date=January 2015}} and one area in Nordland.

==== Segmentation ====
The geminate {{IPA|/ll/}} in southwestern Norway has become {{IPA|[dl]}}, while just east in southcentral Norwegian the final {{IPA|[l]}} is lost, leaving {{IPA|[d]}}.  The same sequence has been palatalized in Northern Norway, leaving the palatal lateral {{IPA|[ʎ]}}.

==== Assimilation ====
The second consonant in the consonant clusters {{IPA|/nd/}}, {{IPA|/ld/}}, and {{IPA|/nɡ/}} has assimilated to the first across most of Norway, leaving {{IPA|[n]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}, and {{IPA|[ŋ]}} respectively.  Western Norway, though not in Bergen, retains the {{IPA|/ld/}} cluster.  In Northern Norway this same cluster is realized as the palatal lateral {{IPA|[ʎ]}}.

==== Consonant shift in conjugation of masculine nouns ====
Although used less frequently, a subtle shift takes place in conjugating a masculine noun from indefinitive to definitive, e.g., from {{Lang|no|bekk}} to {{Lang|no|bekkjen}} ({{IPA|[becːen], [becçen]}}, [beçːen] or {{IPA|[be:t͡ʃen]}}).  This is found in rural dialects along the coast from [[Farsund Municipality]] to the border between Troms and Finnmark.

==== The kj - sj merger ====
Many people, especially in the younger generation, have lost the differentiation between the {{IPA|/ç/}} (written {{angle bracket|kj}}) and {{IPA|/ʂ/}} (written {{angle bracket|sj}}) sounds, realizing both as {{IPAblink|ʂ}}. This is by many considered to be a normal development in language change (although as most language changes, the older generation and more conservative language users often lament the degradation of the language). The [[functional load]] is relatively low, and as often happens, similar sounds with low functional loads merge.

=== Tonemes and intonation ===
{{main|Norwegian language#Accent}}
There are great differences between the intonation systems of different Norwegian dialects.

=== Vocabulary ===
{{Confusing section|reason=all of the dialectal words should be transcribed in IPA|date=January 2015|small=no}}

==== First person pronoun, nominative plural ====
Three variations of the first person plural nominative pronoun exist in Norwegian dialects:
* {{Lang|non|Vi}}, (pronounced {{IPA|/viː/}}), common in parts of Eastern Norway, most of Northern Norway, coastal areas close to [[Trondheim (city)|Trondheim]], and one sliver of Western Norway
* {{Lang|no|Me}}, {{Lang|no|mø}} or {{Lang|no|mi}}, in Southern and most of Western Norway, areas inland of Trondheim, and a few smaller areas
* {{Lang|no|Oss}}, common in areas of [[Sør-Trøndelag]], [[Gudbrandsdalen]], [[Nordmøre]] and parts of [[Sunnmøre]].

==== First person pronoun, nominative singular ====
There is considerable variety in the way the first person singular nominative pronoun is pronounced in Norwegian dialects.  They appear to fall into three groups, within which there are also variations:
* {{Lang|no|E(g)}} and {{Lang|no|æ(i)(g)}}, in which the hard 'g' may or may not be included.  This is common in most of Southern and Western Norway, Trøndelag, and most of Northern Norway. In some areas of Western Norway, it is common to say {{Lang|no|ej}}.
* {{Lang|no|I}} (pronounced {{IPA|/iː/}}), in a few areas in Western Norway ([[Romsdal]]/[[Molde (town)|Molde]]) and [[Snåsa Municipality|Snåsa]] in [[Trøndelag]]
* {{Lang|no|Jé}} {{IPA|[je(ː)]}}, jè {{IPA|[jɛ(ː)]}}, or jei {{IPA|[jɛi(ː)]}}, in areas around Oslo, and north along the Swedish border, almost to Trondheim, as well as one region in Troms

==== Personal pronouns ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Regions || I || You || He || She || It || We || You (pl.) || They
|-
| Bokmål || Jeg|| Du || Han || Hun || Det || Vi || Dere || De, dem
|-
| Nynorsk || {{Not a typo|Eg}} || Du || Han || Ho || Det || Vi, me || De, dykk, dokker || Dei
|-
| South Eastern Norway || Jæ, jé, jè, jei|| Du, ru, u, dø  || Han, hæn, hænnom, hannem || Hun, ho, hu, ha, a, henne, henner  || De  || Vi, ve, mø, oss, øss, æss, vårs  || Dere, dø, de, di, døkk, dår(e), dør(e) || Dem, rem, 'rdem, em, døm, dom, di
|-
| Most of Western and Southern Norway || {{Not a typo|Eg}}, e, æ, æg, æi, æig, jei, ej, i || Du, dø, døø, døh  || Han, an, ha'an  || Hun, ho, hu, hau, hon, u  || De, da, d'  || Vi, me, mi, mø, åss  || Dere, då(k)ke, dåkkar, dåkk, de, derr, dåkki, dikko(n), deke, deko,  || De, dei, dæ, di, di'i
|-
| Trøndelag and most of Northern Norway || Æ, æg, i, eig, jæ, e, {{Not a typo|eg}} || Du, dæ, dø, u, dæ'æ   || Han, hanj, hin, hån  || Hun, hu, ho, a  || De, da, dæ, e, denj, ta  || Vi, åss, oss, åkke, me, mi  || Dåkk, dåkke, dåkker, dåkkæ, dere, ere, dykk, di || Dei, dem, dæm, 'em, di, r'ej, dåm
|}

==== Possessive pronouns ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Regions || My || Your || His || Her || Its || Our || Your (pl.) || Their
|-
| Bokmål || Min, mi, mitt || Din, di, ditt || Hans || Hennes || dens, dets || Vår || Deres || Deres
|-
| Nynorsk || Min, mi, mitt || Din, di, ditt || Hans || Hennar || Rarely used. When used: dess || Vår || Dykkar || Deira
|-
| South Eastern Norway || Min, mi, mitt, mø || Din, di, ditt  || Hans, hannes, hanns, hass  || Hennes, henners, hun sin, hos, hinnes  || Dets, det sitt  || Vårs, vørs, vår, 'år, våres  || Deres, døres,  || Dems, demmes, demma, demses, dem sitt, dommes, doms, døms
|-
| Most of Western and Southern Norway || Min, mi, mitt || Din, di, ditt  || Hans, hannes, hannas, høns, hønnes, ans  || Hennes,hons, hos, hosses, høvs, haus, hennar, hen(n)as, nas  || nonexistent or dens, dets || Vår, 'år, våres, våras, åkkas, åkka, aokan(s)  || Deres, dokkas, dokkar(s), dåkas, dekan, dekans   || Demmes, dies, dis, deisa, deis, daus, døvs, deira, 
deira(n)s
|-
| Trøndelag and most of Northern Norway || Min, mi, mitt, mæjn,  mett || Din, di, ditt, dij, dej'j  || Hans, hannjes, hanses, hannes, hanner, hånner  || Hennes, hennjes, hunnes, henna, hennar, huns  || Dets, det sitt, dess|| Vår, våkke, vår', våres, vårres  || Deres, dokkers, dokkes, 'eras  || Dems, demma, dæres, dæmmes, dæmmers, deira
|}

==== The word "not" ====
The Norwegian word for the English ''not'' exists in these main categories:
: {{Lang|no|ikke}} {{IPA|[ikːə]}} – Oslo, Kristiansand, Bergen, Ålesund, most of Finnmark, Vestfold and lowland parts of Telemark, and some cities in Nordland.
: {{Lang|no|ikkje}} {{IPA|[içːə/iːt͡ʃə]}} – most of Southern, Northern, Western Norway and high-land parts of Telemark.
: {{Lang|no|ittj}} {{IPA|[itʲː]}} – Trøndelag
: {{Lang|no|ikkj}} {{IPA|[içː]}} - parts of [[Salten|Salten District]], Nordland
: {{Lang|no|itte}} {{IPA|[iːtə]}} or ittje {{IPA|[itʲːə]}} – areas north of Oslo, along the Swedish border
: {{Lang|no|inte}} {{IPA|[intə]}}, ente {{IPA|[entə]}} or ette {{IPA|[etːə]}} – Mostly along the Swedish border south of Oslo in Østfold
: {{Lang|no|kje}}/{{Lang|no|e'kje}}
: {{Lang|no|isje}}/{{Lang|no|itsje}}

Examples of the sentence "I am not hungry," in Norwegian:
: {{Lang|no|ikke}}: {{Lang|no|Jeg er ikke sulten}}''.'' (Bokmål)
: {{Lang|no|ikkje}}: {{Lang|no|Eg er ikkje svolten}}''.'' (Nynorsk)
: {{Lang|no|ikkje}}: {{Lang|no|I e ikkje sulten}}''.'' (Romsdal)
: {{Lang|no|ittj}}: {{Lang|no|Æ e ittj sopin}}''.'' (Trøndelag)
: {{Lang|no|ikkj}}: {{Lang|no|E e ikkj sulten}}''.'' (Salten)
: {{Lang|no|ke}}: {{Lang|no|Æ e ke sulten}}''.'' (Narvik)
: {{Lang|no|ente}}: {{Lang|no|Je er'nte sulten}}''.'' (Hærland)

==== Interrogative words ====
Some common interrogative words take on forms such as:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Regions || who || what || where || which || how || why || when
|-
| Bokmål || hvem || hva || hvor || hvilken, hvilket, hvilke || hvordan, hvorledes, åssen || hvorfor || når
|-
| Nynorsk || kven || kva || kor, kvar || kva for ein/ei/eit || korleis, korso || kvifor, korfor || når, kva tid
|-
| South Eastern Norway || hvem, åkke, åkkjen, høkken, håkke || hva, å da, å, hø da, hå, hæ, hær || hvor, hvorhen, å hen, å henner, hen, hørt, hærre, håppæs, hæppæs || hvilken, hvilke, åkken, åssen, hvem, hva slags, hø slags, hæsse, håssen. håleis, hådan || hvordan, åssen, høssen, hæsse || hvorfor, åffer, å for, høffer, hæffer || ti, å ti, når, hærnér
|-
| Most of Western Norway || kven, ken, kin, kem, kim || kva, ka, ke, kæ, kå || kor, kest, korhen/korhenne, hen || kva, ka, kvaslags, kaslags, kasla, kallas, kalla, kass, kvafor, kafor, kaforein, keslags, kæslags, koffø en || kordan, korsn, korleis, karleis, koss, koss(e)n || korfor, koffor, kvifor, kafor, keffår, koffø ||når, ti, kati, korti, koti, kå ti
|-
| Trøndelag and most of Northern Norway || kæm, kem, kånn, kenn || ka, ke, kve, ker || kor, korhæn/korhænne, ker, karre, kehænn || kolles, koss, korsn, kossn, kasla, kass, kafor, kafør, kåfår, kersn, kess, kafla || kolles, koss, kess, korsn, kossn, kordan, korran, kelles || korfor, kafor, kafør, koffer, koffør, koffår, kåffår, keffer || når, ner, nå, når ti, ka ti, katti, kåtti
|}

== See also ==
* [[Standard East Norwegian]]
* [[Kebabnorsk]]
* [[Bokmål]] and [[Nynorsk]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
*Jahr, Ernst Håkon (1990) ''Den Store dialektboka'' (Oslo: Novus) {{ISBN|8270991678}}
*Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000) ''The Phonology of Norwegian'' (Oxford University Press) {{ISBN|978-0-19-823765-5}}
*Vanvik, Arne (1979) ''Norsk fonetikk'' (Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo) {{ISBN|82-990584-0-6}}

== Further reading ==
*Vikør, Lars S.  (2001) ''The Nordic languages. Their Status and Interrelations'' (Oslo: Novus Press)  {{ISBN|82-7099-336-0}}
*Johnsen, Egil Børre (1987) ''Vårt Eget Språk/Talemålet'' (H. Aschehoug & Co.)  {{ISBN|82-03-17092-7}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Om-oss/English-and-other-languages/English/Norwegian/ Norwegian Language Council]
* [http://www.let.rug.nl/~heeringa/dialectology/papers/lvc04.pdf Measuring the "distance" between the Norwegian dialects]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060204003605/http://www.ling.hf.ntnu.no/nos/nos_kart.html ''En norsk dialektprøvedatabase på nettet''], a Norwegian database of dialect samples.
* [https://www.scribd.com/document/414121542/Northern-Norwegian-An-Introduction-by-Claus-Torfinn], introduction to Northern Norwegian dialects written in English

{{Norwegian language}}
{{Language varieties}}

[[Category:Norwegian dialects| ]]
[[Category:Norwegian language]]
[[Category:Dialects by language|Norwegian]]