Editing Nutrient

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{{Short description|Substance that an organism uses to live}}
{{Redirect|Nutrients|nutrition in humans|Human nutrition|nutrition in animals|Animal nutrition|nutrition in plants|Plant nutrition|the journal|Nutrients (journal){{!}}''Nutrients'' (journal)}}
A '''nutrient''' is a [[Chemical substance|substance]] used by an organism to survive, grow and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s, [[fungus|fungi]] and [[protist]]s. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for [[metabolism|metabolic purposes]] or [[excretion|excreted]] by cells to create non-cellular structures such as [[hair]], [[scale (anatomy)|scales]], [[feather]]s, or [[exoskeleton]]s. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted into smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy such as for [[carbohydrate]]s, [[lipid]]s, [[protein (nutrient)|protein]]s and [[fermentation]] products ([[ethanol]] or [[vinegar]]) leading to end-products of water and [[carbon dioxide]]. All organisms require water. Essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the [[amino acid]]s that are combined to create [[protein]]s, a subset of [[fatty acid]]s, [[vitamin]]s and certain [[mineral (nutrient)|minerals]]. Plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. [[fungus|Fungi]] live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host.

Different types of organisms have different essential nutrients. Ascorbic acid ([[vitamin C]]) is essential to humans and some animal species but most other animals and many plants are able to synthesize it. Nutrients may be [[organic compound|organic]] or inorganic: organic compounds include most compounds containing carbon, while all other chemicals are inorganic. Inorganic nutrients include nutrients such as [[iron]], [[selenium]], and [[zinc]], while organic nutrients include, protein, fats, sugars and vitamins.

A classification used primarily to describe nutrient needs of animals divides nutrients into [[list of macronutrients|macronutrients]] and [[micronutrient]]s. Consumed in relatively large amounts ([[gram]]s or [[ounce]]s), macronutrients (carbohydrates, [[fat]]s, proteins, water) are primarily used to generate energy or to incorporate into tissues for growth and repair. Micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts ([[milligram]]s or [[microgram]]s); they have subtle [[biochemistry|biochemical]] and [[physiology|physiological]] roles in cellular processes, like [[vascular smooth muscle|vascular functions]] or [[action potential|nerve conduction]]. Inadequate amounts of essential nutrients or diseases that interfere with absorption, result in a deficiency state that compromises growth, survival and reproduction. Consumer advisories for dietary nutrient intakes such as the United States [[Dietary Reference Intake]], are based on the amount required to prevent deficiency and provide macronutrient and micronutrient guides for both lower and [[Tolerable upper intake levels|upper limits]] of intake. In many countries, regulations require that food product labels display information about the amount of any macronutrients and micronutrients present in the food in significant quantities. Nutrients in larger quantities than the body needs may have harmful effects.<ref name="Ensminger1994">{{cite book| first = Audrey H. | last = Ensminger | name-list-style = vanc |title=Foods & nutrition encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XMA9gYIj-C4C&pg=PA527|access-date=12 October 2010|year=1994|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8493-8980-1|pages=527–}}</ref> Edible plants also contain thousands of compounds generally called [[phytochemical]]s which have unknown effects on disease or health including a diverse class with non-nutrient status called [[polyphenol]]s which remain poorly understood as of 2024.

== Types ==
{{Main|Nutrition}}{{More citations needed|section|date=December 2022}}

=== Macronutrients ===
Macronutrients are defined in several ways.<ref name="Kern2005">{{cite book| first = Mark | last = Kern | name-list-style = vanc |title=CRC desk reference on sports nutrition|url=https://archive.org/details/crcdeskreference0000kern|url-access=registration|access-date=12 October 2010|date=12 May 2005|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8493-2273-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crcdeskreference0000kern/page/117 117]–}}</ref>
* The [[chemical element]]s humans consume in the largest quantities are [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], [[phosphorus]], and [[sulphur]], summarized as [[CHNOPS]].
* The chemical compounds that humans consume in the largest quantities and provide bulk energy are classified as [[carbohydrate]]s, [[protein]]s, and [[fat]]s. Water must be also consumed in large quantities but does not provide caloric value.
* [[Calcium]], [[sodium]], [[potassium]], [[magnesium]], and [[chloride]] ions, along with phosphorus and sulfur, are listed with [[list of macronutrients|macronutrients]] because they are required in large quantities compared to [[micronutrient]]s, i.e., vitamins and other minerals, the latter often described as trace or ultratrace minerals.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-07-16|title=31.1C: Essential Nutrients for Plants|url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/31%3A_Soil_and_Plant_Nutrition/31.1%3A_Nutritional_Requirements_of_Plants/31.1C%3A_Essential_Nutrients_for_Plants|access-date=2020-08-16|website=Biology LibreTexts|language=en}}</ref>

Macronutrients provide energy:
* [[Carbohydrate]]s are compounds made up of types of [[sugar]]. Carbohydrates are classified according to their number of sugar units: [[monosaccharide]]s (such as [[glucose]] and [[fructose]]), [[disaccharide]]s (such as [[sucrose]] and [[lactose]]), [[oligosaccharide]]s, and [[polysaccharide]]s (such as [[starch]], [[glycogen]], and [[cellulose]]).
* [[Protein]]s are [[organic compound]]s that consist of [[amino acid]]s joined by [[peptide bond]]s. Since the body cannot manufacture some of the amino acids (termed [[essential amino acid]]s), the diet must supply them. Through digestion, [[protein]]s are [[protein catabolism|broken down]] by [[protease]]s back into free amino acids.
* [[Fat]]s consist of a [[glycerin]] molecule with three [[fatty acid]]s attached. Fatty acid molecules contain a -COOH group attached to unbranched [[hydrocarbon]] chains connected by single bonds alone ([[Saturated fat|saturated fatty acids]]) or by both double and single bonds ([[Unsaturated fat|unsaturated fatty acids]]). Fats are needed for construction and maintenance of [[cell membrane]]s, to maintain a stable body temperature, and to sustain the health of skin and hair. Because the body does not manufacture certain fatty acids (termed [[essential fatty acid]]s), they must be obtained through one's diet.
* [[Alcoholic drink|Ethanol]] is not an essential nutrient, but it does provide calories. The [[United States Department of Agriculture]] uses a figure of {{convert|6.93|kcal|lk=in|}} per gram of alcohol ({{convert|5.47|kcal|disp=or|abbr=on}} per [[millilitre|ml]]) for calculating food energy.<ref name=USDA>{{cite web|title=Composition of Foods Raw, Processed, Prepared USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26 Documentation and User Guide|url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/sp2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Data/SR26/sr26_doc.pdf|publisher=[[USDA]]|page=14|date=August 2013}}</ref> For [[distilled spirit]]s, a standard serving in the U.S. is {{cvt|1.5|USoz|order=flip}}, which at 40% ethanol (80 [[Alcohol proof|proof]]) would be 14 grams and 98 calories.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Biomolecule
!Kilocalories per 1 gram<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y5022E/y5022e04.htm|title=Chapter 3: Calculation Of The Energy Content Of Foods – Energy Conversion Factors|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=30 March 2017}}</ref>
|-
|Protein
|4
|-
|Carbohydrate
|4
|-
|Ethanol
|7<ref name=USDA/>
|-
|Fat
|9
|}

=== Micronutrients ===
[[Micronutrient|Micronutrients]] are essential dietary elements required in varying quantities throughout life to serve [[metabolism|metabolic]] and [[physiology|physiological functions]].<ref name="natrev">{{cite journal|pmc=4927329|year=2016|last1=Gernand|first1=A. D|title=Micronutrient deficiencies in pregnancy worldwide: Health effects and prevention|journal=Nature Reviews Endocrinology|volume=12|issue=5|pages=274–289|last2=Schulze|first2=K. J|last3=Stewart|first3=C. P|last4=West Jr|first4=K. P|last5=Christian|first5=P|doi=10.1038/nrendo.2016.37|pmid=27032981}}</ref><ref name="tucker">{{cite journal|pmid=27116240|year=2016|last1=Tucker|first1=K. L|title=Nutrient intake, nutritional status, and cognitive function with aging|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1367|issue=1|pages=38–49|doi=10.1111/nyas.13062|bibcode=2016NYASA1367...38T|doi-access=free}}</ref>

* [[Dietary mineral]]s, such as [[potassium in biology|potassium]], [[sodium in biology|sodium]], and [[iron in biology|iron]], are elements native to [[Earth]], and cannot be synthesized. They are required in the diet in [[microgram]] or [[milligram]] amounts. As plants obtain minerals from the soil, dietary minerals derive directly from plants consumed or indirectly from edible animal sources.<ref name="lpimin">{{cite web|title=Minerals|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals|publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University|access-date=18 May 2023|location=Corvallis, OR|date=2023}}</ref>
* [[Vitamin]]s are organic compounds required in [[microgram]] or [[milligram]] amounts.<ref name="lpivit">{{cite web|title=Vitamins|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins|publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University|location=Corvallis, OR|access-date=18 May 2023|date=2023}}</ref> The importance of each dietary vitamin was first established when it was determined that a disease would develop if that vitamin was absent from the diet.<ref name=lpivit/>

== Essentiality ==

=== Essential nutrients ===
{{anchor|Essential nutrients}}
An '''essential nutrient''' is a nutrient required for normal physiological function that cannot be synthesized in the body&nbsp;– either at all or in sufficient quantities&nbsp;– and thus must be obtained from a [[Diet (nutrition)|dietary]] source.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://library.med.utah.edu/NetBiochem/nutrition/lect1/2_1.html | title = What is an essential nutrient? | publisher = NetBiochem Nutrition, [[University of Utah]]}}</ref><ref name="VaughanGeissler2009">{{cite book| first1 = John Griffith | last1 = Vaughan | first2 = Catherine | last2 = Geissler| first3 = Barbara | last3 = Nicholson | first4 = Elisabeth | last4 = Dowle | first5 = Elizabeth | last5 = Rice | name-list-style = vanc |title=The new Oxford book of food plants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdKxFcen8zgC&pg=PA212|access-date=13 October 2010|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press US|isbn=978-0-19-954946-7|pages=212–}}</ref> Apart from [[water]], which is universally required for the maintenance of [[homeostasis]] in mammals,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jéquier E, Constant F | title = Water as an essential nutrient: the physiological basis of hydration | journal = European Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 64 | issue = 2 | pages = 115–23 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 19724292 | doi = 10.1038/ejcn.2009.111 | s2cid = 205129670 | url = http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/v64/n2/pdf/ejcn2009111a.pdf | doi-access = free }}</ref> essential nutrients are indispensable for various cellular [[metabolic process]]es and for the maintenance and function of tissues and organs.<ref name="AJCN">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chipponi JX, Bleier JC, Santi MT, Rudman D | title = Deficiencies of essential and conditionally essential nutrients | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 35 | issue = 5 Suppl | pages = 1112–6 | date = May 1982 | pmid = 6805293 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/35.5.1112 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The nutrients considered essential for humans comprise nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen [[vitamin]]s, fifteen [[Mineral (nutrient)|minerals]] and [[choline]].<ref name="AJCN" /> In addition, there are several molecules that are considered conditionally essential nutrients since they are indispensable in certain developmental and pathological states.<ref name="AJCN" /><ref name="Carver">{{cite book |last1=Carver |first1=Jane | name-list-style = vanc |chapter=Conditionally essential nutrients: choline, inositol, taurine, arginine, glutamine and nucleotides |editor1-first=Patti J |editor1-last=Thureen |editor2-first=William W |editor2-last=Hay |title=Neonatal Nutrition and Metabolism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK|pages=299–311|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511544712.020|isbn=9780511544712}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kendler BS | title = Supplemental conditionally essential nutrients in cardiovascular disease therapy | journal = The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–16 | date = 2006 | pmid = 16407731 | doi = 10.1097/00005082-200601000-00004 | s2cid = 28748412 }}</ref>

====Amino acids====
{{Main|Essential amino acid}}
An essential amino acid is an amino acid that is required by an organism but cannot be synthesized ''[[de novo synthesis|de novo]]'' by it, and therefore must be supplied in its diet. Out of the twenty standard protein-producing amino acids, nine cannot be [[endogenous]]ly synthesized by humans: [[phenylalanine]], [[valine]], [[threonine]], [[tryptophan]], [[methionine]], [[leucine]], [[isoleucine]], [[lysine]], and [[histidine]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Young VR | title = Adult amino acid requirements: the case for a major revision in current recommendations | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 124 | issue = 8 Suppl | pages = 1517S–1523S | date = August 1994 | pmid = 8064412 | doi = 10.1093/jn/124.suppl_8.1517S | url = http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/124/8_Suppl/1517S.pdf }}</ref><ref name="DRI">{{cite web | title = Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements | publisher = Institute of Medicine's Food and Nutrition Board | url = http://fnic.nal.usda.gov/dietary-guidance/dietary-reference-intakes/dri-reports |access-date=14 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705140516/http://fnic.nal.usda.gov/dietary-guidance/dietary-reference-intakes/dri-reports |archive-date=5 July 2014 }}</ref>

====Fatty acids====
{{Main|Essential fatty acid}}
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are [[fatty acid]]s that humans and other animals must ingest because the body requires them for good health but cannot [[Biosynthesis|synthesize]] them.<ref>{{cite book | title = Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease | edition = 6th | year = 1980 | first1 = Robert S. | last1 = Goodhart | first2 = Maurice E. | last2 = Shils | name-list-style = vanc | publisher = Lea and Febinger | location = Philadelphia | isbn = 978-0-8121-0645-9 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/modernnutritionie6shil/page/134 134–138] | url = https://archive.org/details/modernnutritionie6shil/page/134 }}</ref> Only two fatty acids are known to be essential for humans: [[alpha-linolenic acid]] (an [[omega-3 fatty acid]]) and [[linoleic acid]] (an [[omega-6 fatty acid]]).<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Ellie W, Rolfes SR | title = Understanding Nutrition | edition = 11th | location = California | publisher = Thomson Wadsworth | year = 2008 | pages = 154}}</ref>

====Vitamins and vitamers====
{{Main|Vitamin}}
Vitamins occur in a variety of related forms known as [[vitamers]]. The vitamers of a given vitamin perform the functions of that vitamin and prevent symptoms of deficiency of that vitamin. Vitamins are those essential organic molecules that are not classified as amino acids or fatty acids. They commonly function as [[enzymatic cofactor]]s, metabolic regulators or [[antioxidant]]s. Humans require thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are actually groups of related molecules (e.g. [[vitamin E]] includes [[tocopherol]]s and [[tocotrienol]]s):<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brigelius-Flohé R, Traber MG | title = Vitamin E: function and metabolism | journal = FASEB Journal | volume = 13 | issue = 10 | pages = 1145–55 | date = July 1999 | pmid = 10385606 | doi = 10.1096/fasebj.13.10.1145 | s2cid = 7031925 | doi-access = free }}</ref> vitamins A, C, D, E, K, [[thiamine]] (B<sub>1</sub>), [[riboflavin]] (B<sub>2</sub>), [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]] (B<sub>3</sub>), [[pantothenic acid]] (B<sub>5</sub>), [[pyridoxine]] (B<sub>6</sub>), [[biotin]] (B<sub>7</sub>), [[folate]] (B<sub>9</sub>), and [[cobalamin]] (B<sub>12</sub>). The requirement for vitamin D is conditional, as people who get sufficient exposure to ultraviolet light, either from the sun or an artificial source, synthesize vitamin D in the skin.<ref name="lpi">{{cite web |title=Vitamin D |url=https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/vitamin-D |publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis |access-date=14 March 2022 |date=11 February 2021}}</ref>

====Minerals====
{{Main|Mineral (nutrient)}}
Minerals are the [[exogenous]] [[chemical element]]s indispensable for life. Although the four elements [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], [[oxygen]], and [[nitrogen]] ([[CHON]]) are essential for life, they are so plentiful in food and drink that these are not considered nutrients and there are no recommended intakes for these as minerals. The need for nitrogen is addressed by requirements set for protein, which is composed of nitrogen-containing amino acids. [[Sulfur]] is essential, but again does not have a recommended intake. Instead, recommended intakes are identified for the sulfur-containing amino acids [[methionine]] and [[cysteine]].

The essential nutrient [[trace elements]] for humans, listed in order of [[Reference Daily Intake|recommended dietary allowance]] (expressed as a mass), are [[potassium]], [[chloride]], [[sodium]], [[calcium]], [[phosphorus]], [[magnesium]], [[iron]], [[zinc]], [[manganese]], [[copper]], [[iodine]], [[chromium]], [[molybdenum]], and [[selenium]]. Additionally, [[cobalt]] is a component of vitamin B<sub>12</sub> which is essential. There are other minerals which are essential for some plants and animals, but may or may not be essential for humans, such as [[boron]] and [[silicon]].

====Choline====
{{Main|Choline}}
Choline is an essential nutrient.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dietary Intakes of Choline |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/dbrief/9_choline_intakes_0708.pdf |website=usda.gov |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=May 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Choline |url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Choline-HealthProfessional/#:~:text=Choline%20is%20an%20essential%20nutrient,phospholipids%20vital%20for%20cell%20membranes. |website=nih.gov |publisher=National Institutes of Health |access-date=May 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeisel |first1=Steven H |last2=da Costa |first2=Kerry-Ann |title=Choline: an essential nutrient for public health |journal=Nutrition Reviews |date=November 1, 2009 |volume=67 |issue=11 |pages=615–623 |doi=10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00246.x |pmid=19906248 |url= |pmc=2782876 }}</ref> The cholines are a family of water-soluble [[quaternary ammonium compound]]s.<ref name="Choline HMDB">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Choline|url=http://www.hmdb.ca/metabolites/hmdb00097|website=Human Metabolome Database|publisher=The Metabolomics Innovation Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada|access-date=13 September 2016|date=17 August 2016}}</ref><ref>Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "choline". Encyclopedia Britannica, 11 Dec. 2013, https://www.britannica.com/science/choline. Accessed 17 February 2022.</ref> Choline is the parent compound of the cholines class, consisting of ethanolamine having three methyl substituents attached to the amino function.<ref>National Center for Biotechnology Information (2022). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 305, Choline. Retrieved February 17, 2022 from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Choline.</ref> Healthy humans fed artificially composed diets that are deficient in choline develop fatty liver, liver damage, and muscle damage. Choline was not initially classified as essential because the human body can produce choline in small amounts through phosphatidylcholine metabolism.<ref>{{cite web |title=Choline |url=https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/other-nutrients/choline |website=Micronutrient Information Center |date=28 April 2014 |publisher=Oregon State University |access-date=May 8, 2021}}</ref>

=== Conditionally essential ===
Conditionally essential nutrients are certain organic molecules that can normally be synthesized by an organism, but under certain conditions in insufficient quantities. In humans, such conditions include [[Preterm birth|premature birth]], limited nutrient intake, rapid growth, and certain disease states.<ref name="Carver" /> [[Inositol]], [[taurine]], [[arginine]], [[glutamine]] and [[nucleotides]] are classified as conditionally essential and are particularly important in neonatal diet and metabolism.<ref name="Carver" />

=== Non-essential ===
{{Main|Dietary fiber}}
Non-essential nutrients are substances within foods that can have a significant impact on health. [[Dietary fiber]] is not absorbed in the human digestive tract.<ref>{{Cite web|title=High-Fiber Diet - Colon & Rectal Surgery Associates|url=http://www.colonrectal.org/high_fiber.cfm|access-date=2020-08-16|website=www.colonrectal.org|archive-date=2020-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926091147/http://colonrectal.org/high_fiber.cfm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Soluble fiber]] is metabolized to butyrate and other short-chain fatty acids by bacteria residing in the large intestine.<ref name="Butyrate synthesis pathways">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vital M, Howe AC, Tiedje JM | title = Revealing the bacterial butyrate synthesis pathways by analyzing (meta)genomic data | journal = mBio | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = e00889 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24757212 | pmc = 3994512 | doi = 10.1128/mBio.00889-14 }}</ref><ref name="lupton">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lupton JR | title = Microbial degradation products influence colon cancer risk: the butyrate controversy | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 134 | issue = 2 | pages = 479–82 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14747692 | doi = 10.1093/jn/134.2.479 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Prebiotic digestion">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cummings JH, Macfarlane GT, Englyst HN | title = Prebiotic digestion and fermentation | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 73 | issue = 2 Suppl | pages = 415S–420S | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11157351 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/73.2.415s | doi-access = free }}</ref> Soluble fiber is marketed as serving a [[Prebiotic (nutrition)|prebiotic]] function with claims for promoting "healthy" intestinal bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brownawell AM, Caers W, Gibson GR, Kendall CW, Lewis KD, Ringel Y, Slavin JL | title = Prebiotics and the health benefits of fiber: current regulatory status, future research, and goals | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 142 | issue = 5 | pages = 962–74 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 22457389 | doi = 10.3945/jn.112.158147 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Non-nutrients===
[[Ethanol]] (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH) is not an essential nutrient, but it does supply approximately {{convert|7|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of food energy per gram.<ref name=Lieber>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lieber CS | title = Relationships between nutrition, alcohol use, and liver disease | journal = Alcohol Research & Health | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 220–31 | date = 29 September 2004 | pmid = 15535450 | pmc = 6668875 | url = https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-3/220-231.htm | access-date = 2 January 2020 }}</ref> For spirits (vodka, gin, rum, etc.) a standard serving in the United States is {{convert|1+1/2|USfloz|ml|order=flip|abbr=off}}, which at 40%{{nbsp}}ethanol (80{{nbsp}}proof) would be 14 grams and {{convert|98|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=on}}. At 50%{{nbsp}}alcohol, 17.5&nbsp;g and {{convert|122.5|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=on}}. Wine and beer contain a similar amount of ethanol in servings of {{convert|5|and|12|USfloz|mL|order=flip|abbr=on}}, respectively, but these beverages also contribute to food energy intake from components other than ethanol. A {{convert|5|USfloz|mL|order=flip|abbr=on}} serving of wine contains {{convert|100|to|130|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=on}}. A {{convert|12|USfloz|mL|order=flip|abbr=on}} serving of beer contains {{convert|95|to|200|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RECENT DATA ON ETHANOL CONTRIBUTION TO ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF NORMAL INDIVIDUALS. UPPER LIMIT OF ALCOHOL INTAKE |url=https://www.fao.org/4/M2834E/M2834E00.htm |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> 

According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, based on [[NHANES]] 2013–2014 surveys, women ages 20 and up consume on average 6.8{{nbsp}}grams of alcohol per day and men consume on average 15.5 grams per day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/1314/Table_1_NIN_GEN_13.pdf|title="What We Eat in America, NHANES 2013-2014"}}</ref> Ignoring the non-alcohol contribution of those beverages, the average ethanol contributions to daily food energy intake are {{convert|48|and|108|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=on}}, respectively. Alcoholic beverages are considered [[empty calorie]] foods because, while providing energy, they contribute no essential nutrients.<ref name=Lieber/>

By definition, [[phytochemical]]s include all nutritional and non-nutritional components of edible plants.<ref name="lpi1">{{cite web|title=Phytochemicals|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals|publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR|access-date=31 December 2017|date=February 2016}}</ref> Included as nutritional constituents are [[provitamin]] A [[carotenoid]]s,<ref name="lpi2">{{cite web|title=Carotenoids|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/carotenoids|publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR|access-date=31 December 2017|date=August 2016}}</ref> whereas those without nutrient status are diverse [[polyphenol]]s, [[flavonoid]]s, [[resveratrol]], and [[lignan]]s that are present in numerous plant foods.<ref name="lpi3">{{cite web|title=Flavonoids|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/flavonoids|publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR|access-date=31 December 2017|date=February 2016}}</ref> Some phytochemical compounds are under preliminary research for their potential effects on human diseases and health.<ref name="lpi1" /><ref name="lpi2" /><ref name=lpi3/> However, the qualification for nutrient status of compounds with poorly defined properties ''[[in vivo]]'' is that they must first be defined with a [[Dietary Reference Intake]] level to enable accurate food labeling,<ref>{{cite web|title=Nutrient content claims--general principles; 21CFR101.13|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=101.13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030914054754/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?FR=101.13|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 14, 2003|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=31 December 2017|date=1 April 2017}}</ref> a condition not established for most phytochemicals that are claimed to provide antioxidant benefits.<ref name="nutra">{{cite web |title= New Roles for Polyphenols. A 3-Part Report on Current Regulations and the State of Science | last = Gross | first = Paul | name-list-style = vanc |date= 1 March 2009 |publisher= Nutraceuticals World |url= http://www.nutraceuticalsworld.com/issues/2009-03/view_features/new-roles-for-polyphenols/}}</ref>

==Deficiencies and toxicity==
''See [[Vitamin]], [[Mineral (nutrient)]], [[Protein (nutrient)]]''

An inadequate amount of a nutrient is a deficiency. Deficiencies can be due to several causes, including an inadequacy in nutrient intake, called a dietary deficiency, or any of several conditions that interfere with the utilization of a nutrient within an organism.<ref name="Ensminger1994"/> Some of the conditions that can interfere with nutrient utilization include problems with nutrient absorption, substances that cause a greater-than-normal need for a nutrient, conditions that cause nutrient destruction, and conditions that cause greater nutrient excretion.<ref name="Ensminger1994"/> Nutrient toxicity occurs when excess consumption of a nutrient does harm to an organism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Campbell TC, Allison RG, Fisher KD | title = Nutrient toxicity | journal = Nutrition Reviews | volume = 39 | issue = 6 | pages = 249–56 | date = June 1981 | pmid = 7312225 | doi = 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1981.tb07453.x }}</ref>

In the United States and Canada, recommended dietary intake levels of essential nutrients are based on the minimum level that "will maintain a defined level of nutriture in an individual", a definition somewhat different from that used by the [[World Health Organization]] and [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of a "basal requirement to indicate the level of intake needed to prevent pathologically relevant and clinically detectable signs of a dietary inadequacy".<ref>{{cite book | author = Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds | chapter = Introduction to Dietary Reference Intakes. What are dietary reference intakes? | pages = 21–22 | title = Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids | chapter-url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225465/ |publisher=Institute of Medicine, US National Academies of Science|access-date=31 December 2017|date=2017|doi=10.17226/9810|pmid=25077263|isbn=978-0-309-06935-9}}</ref>

In setting human nutrient guidelines, government organizations do not necessarily agree on amounts needed to avoid deficiency or maximum amounts to avoid the risk of toxicity.<ref name=DRITable>{{cite web | url = http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRI-Tables/5Summary%20TableTables%2014.pdf?la=en | title = Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180911225459/http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRI-Tables/5Summary%20TableTables%2014.pdf?la=en | archive-date = 11 September 2018 | publisher = Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies }}</ref><ref name=EFSA>{{citation| title = Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals| publisher = European Food Safety Authority| year = 2006| url = http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/efsa_rep/blobserver_assets/ndatolerableuil.pdf}}</ref><ref name=JapanDRI>[http://www.nibiohn.go.jp/eiken/info/pdf/dris2010en.pdf Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese (2010)] National Institute of Health and Nutrition, Japan</ref> For example, for [[vitamin C]], recommended intakes range from 40&nbsp;mg/day in India<ref name="NIN">{{cite web |url=http://icmr.nic.in/final/rda-2010.pdf |title=Nutrient Requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances for Indians: A Report of the Expert Group of the Indian Council of Medical Research. pp.283-295 (2009) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615094048/http://icmr.nic.in/final/RDA-2010.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2016  |access-date=31 December 2017 }}</ref> to 155&nbsp;mg/day for the European Union.<ref name=EFSA-Recommended>{{cite web |title=Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies |year=2017 |url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/assets/DRV_Summary_tables_jan_17.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828082247/https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/assets/DRV_Summary_tables_jan_17.pdf |archive-date=28 August 2017 }}</ref> The table below shows U.S. Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins and minerals, PRIs for the European Union (same concept as RDAs), followed by what three government organizations deem to be the safe upper intake. RDAs are set higher than EARs to cover people with higher-than-average needs. Adequate Intakes (AIs) are set when there is insufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs. Countries establish [[tolerable upper intake levels]], also referred to as upper limits (ULs), based on amounts that cause adverse effects. Governments are slow to revise information of this nature. For the U.S. values, except calcium and vitamin D, all data date from 1997 to 2004.<ref name="DRI" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"|Nutrient !! rowspan="2"|U.S. EAR<ref name=DRITable /> !! rowspan="2"|Highest U.S.<br>RDA or AI<ref name=DRITable /> !! rowspan="2"|Highest EU<br>PRI or AI<ref name=EFSA-Recommended />!! colspan="3"|Upper limit !! rowspan="2"|Unit
|-
! U.S.<ref name=DRITable /> !! EU <ref name=EFSA /> !! Japan<ref name=JapanDRI />
|-
| [[Vitamin A]] || 625 || 900 || 1300 || 3000 || 3000 || 2700 || μg
|-
| [[Vitamin C]] || 75 || 90 || 155 || 2000 || ND || ND || mg
|-
| [[Vitamin D]] || 10 || 15 || 15 || 100 || 100 || 100 || μg
|-
| [[Vitamin K]] || NE || 120 || 70 || ND || ND || ND || μg
|-
| [[Tocopherol|α-tocopherol]] (Vit E) || 12 || 15 || 13 || 1000 || 300 || 650–900 || mg
|-
| [[Thiamin]] (Vit B<sub>1</sub>) || 1.0 || 1.2 || 0.1&nbsp;mg/MJ || ND || ND || ND || mg
|-
| [[Riboflavin]] (Vit B<sub>2</sub>) || 1.1 || 1.3 || 2.0 || ND || ND || ND || mg
|-
| [[Niacin (nutrient)|Niacin]]* (Vit B<sub>3</sub>) || 12 || 16 || 1.6&nbsp;mg/MJ || 35 || 10 || 60-85 || mg
|-
| [[Pantothenic acid]] (Vit B<sub>5</sub>) || NE || 5 || 7 || ND || ND || ND || mg
|-
| [[Vitamin B6|Vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]] || 1.1 || 1.3 || 1.8 || 100 || 25 || 40-60 || mg
|-
| [[Biotin]] (Vit B<sub>7</sub>) || NE || 30 || 45 || ND || ND || ND || μg
|-
| [[Folate]] (Vit B<sub>9</sub>) || 320 || 400 || 600 || 1000 || 1000 || 900-1000 || μg
|-
| [[Cobalamin]] (Vit B<sub>12</sub>) || 2.0 || 2.4 || 5.0 || ND || ND || ND || μg
|-
| [[Choline]] || NE || 550 || 520 || 3500 || ND || ND || mg
|-
| [[Calcium]] || 800 || 1000 || 1000 || 2500 || 2500 || 2500 || mg
|-
| [[Chloride]] || NE || 2300 || NE || 3600 || ND || ND || mg
|-
| [[Chromium]] || NE || 35 || NE || ND || ND || ND || μg
|-
| [[Copper]] || 700 || 900 || 1600 || 10000 || 5000 || 10000 || μg
|-
| [[Fluoride]] || NE || 4 || 3.4 || 10 || 7 || ____ || mg
|-
| [[Iodine]] || 95 || 150 || 200 || 1100 || 600 || 3000 || μg
|-
| [[Iron]] || 6 || 18 <small>(females)</small><br>8<small> (males)</small> || 16 <small>(females)</small><br>11<small> (males)</small> || 45 || ND || 40-45 || mg
|-
| [[Magnesium]]* || 350 ||  420 || 350 || 350 || 250 || 350 || mg
|-
| [[Manganese]] || NE || 2.3 || 3.0 || 11 || ND || 11 || mg
|-
| [[Molybdenum]] || 34 || 45 || 65 || 2000 || 600 || 450-550 || μg
|-
| [[Phosphorus]] || 580 || 700 || 640 || 4000 || ND || 3000 || mg
|-
| [[Potassium]] || NE || 4700 || 4000 || ND || ND || 2700-3000 || mg
|-
| [[Selenium]] || 45 || 55 || 70 || 400 || 300 || 330-460 || μg
|-
| [[Sodium]] || NE || 1500 || NE || 2300 || ND || 3000-3600 || mg
|-
| [[Zinc]] || 9.4 || 11 || 16.3 || 40 || 25 || 35-45 || mg
|}

<nowiki>*</nowiki> The daily recommended amounts of niacin and magnesium are higher than the tolerable upper limit because, for both nutrients, the ULs identify the amounts that will not increase the risk of adverse effects when the nutrients are consumed as a serving of a dietary supplement. Magnesium supplementation above the UL may cause diarrhea. Supplementation with niacin above the UL may cause flushing of the face and a sensation of body warmth. Each country or regional regulatory agency decides on a safety margin below when symptoms occur so that the ULs may differ based on the source.<ref name=DRITable /><ref name=EFSA />

'''EAR''' U.S. Estimated Average Requirements.

'''RDA''' U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowances; higher for adults than children and may be even higher for pregnant or lactating women.

'''AI''' U.S. Adequate Intake; AIs are established when there is insufficient information to set EARs and RDAs.

'''PRI''' Population Reference Intake is the European Union equivalent of RDA; it is higher for adults than for children and maybe even higher for pregnant or lactating women. For Thiamin and Niacin, the PRIs are expressed as amounts per megajoule (239 kilocalories) of food energy consumed.

'''Upper Limit''' Tolerable upper intake levels.

'''ND''' ULs have not been determined.

'''NE''' EARs, PRIs, or AIs have not yet been established or will not be (EU does not consider chromium an essential nutrient).

==Plant==
{{Main|Plant nutrition|Fertilizer}}

Plants absorb carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from air and soil as [[carbon dioxide]] and water.<ref name="Jones1998">{{cite book| first = J. Benton | last = Jones | name-list-style = vanc |title=Plant nutrition manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNP2exwYMJIC&pg=PA34|access-date=14 October 2010|year=1998|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-884015-31-1|pages=34–}}</ref> Other nutrients are absorbed from soil (exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants). Counting these, there are 17 important nutrients for plants:<ref name="BarkerPilbeam2007">{{cite book| vauthors = Barker AV, Pilbeam DJ |title=Handbook of plant nutrition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWjLBQAAQBAJ|access-date=17 August 2010|year=2007|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8247-5904-9}}</ref> these are macronutrients; nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), magnesium (Mg), carbon (C), oxygen(O) and hydrogen (H), and the micronutrients; iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and nickel (Ni). In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, [[nitrogen]], [[phosphorus]], and [[sulfur]] are also needed in relatively large quantities. Together, these [[CHNOPS|six]] are the elemental macronutrients for all [[biological life|organisms]].<ref name=wsj20101203>
[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703377504575650840897300342?mod=ITP_pageone_1#printMode New Link in Chain of Life], ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'', 2010-12-03, accessed 5 December 2010. "Until now, however, they were all thought to share the same biochemistry, based on the Big Six, to build proteins, fats, and DNA."</ref>
They are sourced from inorganic matter (for example, carbon dioxide, water, [[nitrate]]s, [[phosphate]]s, [[sulfate]]s, and [[diatomic molecule]]s of nitrogen and, especially, oxygen) and organic compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins.

== See also ==<!-- Please respect alphabetical order -->
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Food composition]]
* [[Nutrient cycle]]
* [[Nutrient density]]
* [[Nutrition]]
* [[Nutritionism]]
* [[List of macronutrients]]
* [[List of micronutrients]]
* [[List of nutrition guides]]
* [[List of phytochemicals in food]]
* [[River Continuum Concept]]
* [[Table of food nutrients]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Nutrients}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161008111338/https://fnic.nal.usda.gov/sites/fnic.nal.usda.gov/files/uploads/recommended_intakes_individuals.pdf USDA. Dietary Reference Intakes]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Chemical oceanography]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Nutrients| ]]
[[Category:Edaphology]]
[[Category:Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Essential nutrients]]