Editing Old Saxon

{{short description|Germanic language spoken from the 8th to 12th centuries}}
{{More citations needed |date=May 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling |date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates |date=December 2024}}
{{Use shortened footnotes |date=December 2024}}
{{About|the ancient language of the continental Saxons|the Anglo-Saxon language|Old English|the ancient Saxon people who spoke the language|Saxons|all other uses|Saxon (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Old Saxon
|altname=Old Low German
|nativename={{lang|osx|Sahsisk}}
|region= Northwest [[Germany]], Northeast [[Netherlands]], Southern [[Denmark]] (North Schleswig)
|ethnicity=[[Saxons]]
|era= 8th–12th centuries; mostly developed into [[Middle Low German]] at the end of the 12th century
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[North Sea Germanic]]
|script=[[Runic]]{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}, later [[Latin script|Latin]]
|iso3=osx
|glotto=olds1250
|map=File:OldSaxonArea.png
|mapcaption=Area in which Old Saxon was spoken in yellow
|glottorefname=Old Saxon
|linglist=osx
|notice=IPA
}}

'''Old Saxon''' ({{langx|de|altsächsische Sprache}}), also known as '''Old Low German''' ({{langx|de|altniederdeutsche Sprache}}), was a [[Germanic language]] and the earliest recorded form of [[Low German]] (spoken nowadays in [[Northern Germany]], the northeastern Netherlands, southern Denmark, the [[Americas]] and parts of [[Eastern Europe]]). It is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] language, closely related to the [[Anglo-Frisian]] languages.{{sfn |Britannica |2024 |loc=Old Saxon language}} It is documented from the 8th century until the 12th century, when it gradually evolved into [[Middle Low German]]. It was spoken throughout modern northwestern Germany, primarily in the coastal regions and in the eastern [[Netherlands]] by [[Saxon people|Saxons]], a Germanic tribe that inhabited the region of [[Old Saxony|Saxony]]. It partially shares [[Anglo-Frisian]]'s ([[Old Frisian]], [[Old English]]) [[Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law]] which sets it apart from [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] and [[Irminonic languages|Irminonic]] languages, such as [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Luxembourgish Language|Luxembourgish]] and [[German language|German]].

The grammar of Old Saxon was fully [[inflection|inflected]] with five [[grammatical case]]s ([[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]], [[dative case|dative]], and [[instrumental case|instrumental]]), three [[grammatical number]]s ([[wikt:singular|singular]], [[plural]], and [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]]), and three [[grammatical gender]]s ([[masculine]], [[feminine]], and [[neuter gender|neuter]]). The [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]] forms occurred in the first and second persons only.

==Characteristics==

===Relation with other West Germanic languages===
In the early [[Middle Ages]], a [[dialect continuum]] existed between [[Old Dutch]] and Old Saxon, a continuum which has since been interrupted by the simultaneous dissemination of standard languages within each nation and the dissolution of folk dialects. Although they share some features, a number of differences separate Old Saxon, [[Old English]], and Old Dutch. One such difference is the Old Dutch utilization of ''-a'' as its plural a-stem noun ending, while Old Saxon and Old English employ ''-as'' or ''-os''. However, it seems that [[Middle Dutch]] took the Old Saxon a-stem ending from some [[Middle Low German]] dialects, as modern Dutch includes the plural ending ''-s'' added to certain words. Another difference is the so-called "unified plural": Old Saxon, like Old Frisian and Old English, has one verb form for all three persons in the plural, whereas Old Dutch retained three distinct forms (reduced to two in Middle Dutch).

Old Saxon (or Old Low German) probably evolved primarily from [[Ingvaeonic]] dialects in the [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] branch of [[Proto-Germanic]] in the 5th century. However, Old Saxon, even considered as an Ingvaeonic language, is not a pure Ingvaeonic dialect like [[Old Frisian]] and Old English, the latter two sharing some other Ingvaeonic characteristics, which Old Saxon lacked.

===Relation to Middle Low German===
Old Saxon naturally evolved into Middle Low German over the course of the 11th and 12th centuries, with a great shift from [[Latin]] to Low German writing happening around 1150, so that the development of the language can be traced from that period.

The most striking difference between Middle Low German and Old Saxon is in a feature of speech known as [[vowel reduction]], which took place in most other [[West Germanic languages]] and some Scandinavian dialects such as [[Danish language|Danish]], reducing all unstressed vowels to [[schwa]]. Thus, such Old Saxon words like {{lang|osx|gisprekan}} ({{gloss|spoken}}) or {{lang|osx|dagō}} ({{gloss|days'}}&nbsp;– gen. pl.) became {{lang|gml|gesprēken}} and {{lang|gml|dāge}}.

==Phonology==
{{Main|Old Saxon phonology}}

===Early developments===
Old Saxon did not participate in the [[High German consonant shift]], and thus preserves stop consonants ''p'', ''t'', ''k'' that have been shifted in [[Old High German]] to various [[fricative]]s and [[affricate]]s. The Germanic diphthongs ''ai'', ''au'' consistently develop into long vowels ''ē'', ''ō'', whereas in Old High German they appear either as ''ei'', ''ou'' or ''ē'', ''ō'' depending on the following consonant.

Old Saxon, alone of the West Germanic languages except for Frisian, consistently preserves Germanic {{IPAslink|j}} after a consonant, e.g. {{lang|osx|hēliand}} {{gloss|savior}} ({{langx|goh|heilant}}, {{langx|ang|hǣlend}}, but {{langx|got|háiljands}}). [[Germanic umlaut]], when it occurs with short ''a'', is inconsistent, e.g. {{lang|osx|hebbean}} or {{lang|osx|habbian}} "to have" ({{langx|ang|habban}}). This feature was carried over into the descendant-language of Old Saxon, Middle Low German, where e.g. the adjective {{lang|gml|krank}} ({{gloss|sick, ill}}) had the comparative forms {{lang|gml|krenker}} and {{lang|gml|kranker}}. Apart from the ''e'', however, the umlaut is not marked in writing.

===Consonants===
The table below lists the consonants of Old Saxon. Phonemes written in parentheses represent [[allophone]]s and are not independent phonemes.
{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Old Saxon consonant phonemes
!colspan=2|
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br/>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
!{{small|[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
|
|-
!{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɣ}} ({{IPA link|x}})
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!{{small|[[Sibilant consonant|sibilant]]}}
|
| {{IPA link|s̺}} ({{IPA link|z}})
|
|
|
|-
!{{small|non-sibilant}}
| {{IPA link|f}} ({{IPA link|v}})
| {{IPA link|θ}} ({{IPA link|ð}})
|
|
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
!colspan=2| [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|}

Notes:

* The voiceless spirants {{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/θ/}}, and {{IPA|/s/}} gain voiced allophones ({{IPA|[v]}}, {{IPA|[ð]}}, and {{IPA|[z]}}) when between vowels. This change is only faithfully reflected in writing for {{IPA|[v]}} (represented with letters such as {{angbr|ƀ}} and {{angbr|u}}). The other two allophones continued to be written as before.
*Fricatives were devoiced again word-finally. Beginning in the later Old Saxon period, [[stop consonant|stops]] became devoiced word-finally as well.
* Most consonants could be [[Gemination|geminated]]. Notably, geminated {{IPA|/v/}} gave {{IPA|/bː/}}, and geminated {{IPA|/ɣ/}} probably gave {{IPA|/ɡː/}}; Geminated {{IPA|/h/}} resulted in {{IPA|/xː/}}.
* Germanic ''*h'' is retained as {{IPA|[x]}} in these positions and thus merges with devoiced {{IPA|/ɣ/}}.

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Old Saxon monophthongs
!rowspan=3|
!colspan=4| [[Front vowel|Front]]
!colspan=2| [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-class=small
!colspan=2| [[Roundedness|unrounded]]
!colspan=4| [[Roundedness|rounded]]
|-class=small
! [[Short vowel|short]]
! [[Long vowel|long]]
! short
! long
! short
! long
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA|ɪ}}
| {{IPA|iː}}
| ({{IPA|ʏ}})
| ({{IPA|yː}})
| {{IPA|ʊ}}
| {{IPA|uː}}
|-
! [[Near-close vowel|Close-mid]]
| ({{IPA|e}})
| {{IPA|eː}}
|
| ({{IPA|øː}})
|
| {{IPA|oː}}
|-
! [[Open-mid]]
| {{IPA|ɛ}}
| {{IPA|ɛː}}
| ({{IPA|œ}})
| ({{IPA|œː}})
| {{IPA|ɔ}}
| {{IPA|ɔː}}
|-
! [[Near-open vowel|Near-open]]
| ({{IPA|æ}})
| ({{IPA|æː}})
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA|ɑ}}
| {{IPA|ɑː}}
|
|
|
|
|}

Notes:

* Long vowels were rare in unstressed syllables and mostly occurred due to suffixation or compounding.

===Diphthongs===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Old Saxon diphthongs
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! Opening
| {{IPA|io}}&nbsp;&nbsp;({{IPA|ia}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ie}})
|(uo)
|-
! Height-harmonic
| {{IPA|iu}}
|
|-
!Closing
|{{IPA|aːi}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ɛi}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ɛu}}
|{{IPA|ɑu}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ɔːi}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|oːi}}
|}

Notes:

* The closing diphthongs {{IPA|/ei/}} and {{IPA|/ou/}} sometimes occur in texts (especially in [[Old Saxon Genesis|Genesis]]), probably under the influence of [[Franconian languages|Franconian]] or [[High German dialect]]s, where they replace Old Saxon developments {{IPA|/ɛː/}} and {{IPA|/ɔː/}} (which evolved from [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] {{IPA|/ai/}} and {{IPA|/au/}}).
* The situation for the front opening diphthongs is somewhat unclear in some texts. Words written with {{angbr IPA|io}} in the [[Heliand]], the most extensive record of Old Saxon writing, are often found written variably with {{angbr IPA|ia}} or even {{angbr IPA|ie}} in most other texts, notably the later ones. The diphthong eventually merges into {{IPA|/eː/}} in almost every Middle Low German dialect.
* There also existed 'long' diphthongs {{IPA|/oːu/}}, {{IPA|/aːu/}} and {{IPA|/eːu/}}. These were, however, treated as two-syllable sequences of a long vowel followed by a short one, not proper diphthongs.

==Grammar==
{{Main|Old Saxon grammar}}

===Morphology===
Unlike modern English, Old Saxon was an [[inflected language]] rich in [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] diversity. It kept five out of the  six distinct cases of [[Proto-Germanic]]: the [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], [[dative case|dative]] and (Vestigially in the oldest texts) [[instrumental case|instrumental]].

Old Saxon also had three [[grammatical number]]s ([[wikt:singular|singular]], and [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]], and [[plural]]) and three [[grammatical gender]]s ([[masculine]], [[feminine]], and [[neuter gender|neuter]]). The dual forms occurred in the first and second persons only and referred to groups of exactly two.

===Nouns===
Old Saxon nouns were inflected in very different ways following their classes. Here are the endings for {{Lang|osx|dag}}, {{gloss|day}} an a-stem masculine noun:

{| border=1 width=30% style="text-align:center; margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:1px #999 solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
| colspan="3" style="background:#afefef;" |'''{{lang|osx|dag}}''' 'day' ''m.''
|-
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|Case
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|Singular
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|Plural
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''Nominative,  Accusative''' || {{lang|osx|dag}} || {{lang|osx|dagos}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''Genitive''' || {{lang|osx|dages, -as}} || {{lang|osx|dago}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''Dative''' || {{lang|osx|dage, -a}} || {{lang|osx|dagum, -un}}
|}

At the end of the Old Saxon period, distinctions between noun classes began to disappear, and endings from one were often transferred to the other declension, and vice versa. This happened to be a large process, and the most common noun classes started to cause the least represented to disappear. As a result, in Middle Low German, only the former weak n-stem and strong a-stem classes remained. These two noun inflection classes started being added to words not only following the historical belonging of this word, but also following the root of the word.

===Verbs===
The Old Saxon verb inflection system reflects an intermediate stage between Old English and Old Dutch, and further Old High German. Unlike Old High German and Old Dutch, but similarly to Old English, it did not preserve the three different verb endings in the plural, all featured as ''-ad'' (also ''-iad'' or ''-iod'' following the different verb inflection classes). Like Old Dutch, it had only two classes of weak verb, with only a few relic verbs of the third weak class (namely four verbs: ''[[wikt:libbian#Old Saxon|libbian]]'', ''[[wikt:seggian#Old Saxon|seggian]]'', ''[[wikt:huggian#Old Saxon|huggian]]'' and ''[[wikt:hebbian#Old Saxon|hebbian]]'').

This table sums up all seven Old Saxon strong verb classes and the three weak verb classes:

{| border=1 width=100% style="text-align:center; margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:1px #999 solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
! style="background:#afefef;" colspan="2"|
! style="background:#afefef;" colspan="7"|Strong verbs
! style="background:#afefef;" colspan="3"|Weak verbs
|-
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'''Conjugation''' 
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'''Pronoun''' 
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to ride'
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to fly'
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to help'
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to break'
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to speak'
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to travel'
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to wield'
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to deem'
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to declare'
! style="background:#FBEC5D;"|'to say'
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;" colspan="2"|'''[[Infinitive]]''' || ''[[wikt:ridan#Old Saxon|rīdan]]'' || ''[[wikt:fliogan#Old Saxon|fliogan]]'' || ''[[wikt:helpan#Old Saxon|helpan]]'' || ''[[wikt:brekan#Old Saxon|brekan]]'' || ''[[wikt:sprekan#Old Saxon|sprekan]]'' || ''[[wikt:faran#Old Saxon|faran]]'' || ''[[wikt:waldan#Old Saxon|waldan]]'' || ''[[wikt:domian#Old Saxon|dōmian]]'' || ''[[wikt:mahlon#Old Saxon|mahlon]]'' || ''[[wikt:seggian#Old Saxon|seggian]]''
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="5"|'''[[Indicative|Present indicative]]'''
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|ik}}''' || {{lang|osx|rīdu}} || {{lang|osx|fliugu}} || {{lang|osx|hilpu}} || {{lang|osx|briku}} || {{lang|osx|spriku}} || {{lang|osx|faru}} || {{lang|osx|waldu}} || {{lang|osx|dōmiu}} || {{lang|osx|mahlo(n)}} || {{lang|osx|seggiu}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|thū}}''' || {{lang|osx|rīdis}} || {{lang|osx|fliugis}} || {{lang|osx|hilpis}} || {{lang|osx|brikis}} || {{lang|osx|sprikis}} || {{lang|osx|feris}} || {{lang|osx|weldis}} || {{lang|osx|dōmis}} || {{lang|osx|mahlos}} || {{lang|osx|sages}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|hē/it/siu}}''' || {{lang|osx|rīdid}} || {{lang|osx|fliugid}} || {{lang|osx|hilpid}} || {{lang|osx|brikid}} || {{lang|osx|sprikid}} || {{lang|osx|ferid}} || {{lang|osx|weldid}} || {{lang|osx|dōmid}} || {{lang|osx|mahlod}} || {{lang|osx|saged}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|wī/gī/sia}}''' || {{lang|osx|rīdad}} || {{lang|osx|fliogad}} || {{lang|osx|helpad}} || {{lang|osx|brekad}} || {{lang|osx|sprekad}} || {{lang|osx|farad}} || {{lang|osx|waldad}} || {{lang|osx|dōmiad}} || {{lang|osx|mahliod}} || {{lang|osx|seggiad}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="5"|'''[[Indicative|Past indicative]]'''
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|ik}}''' || {{lang|osx|rēd}} || {{lang|osx|flōg}} || {{lang|osx|halp}} || {{lang|osx|brak}} || {{lang|osx|sprak}} || {{lang|osx|fōr}} || {{lang|osx|wēld}} || {{lang|osx|dōmda}} || {{lang|osx|mahloda}} || {{lang|osx|sagda}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|thū}}''' || {{lang|osx|ridi}} || {{lang|osx|flugi}} || {{lang|osx|hulpi}} || {{lang|osx|brāki}} || {{lang|osx|sprāki}} || {{lang|osx|fōri}} || {{lang|osx|wēldi}} || {{lang|osx|dōmdes}} || {{lang|osx|mahlodes}} || {{lang|osx|sagdes}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|hē/it/siu}}''' || {{lang|osx|rēd}} || {{lang|osx|flōg}} || {{lang|osx|halp}} || {{lang|osx|brak}} || {{lang|osx|sprak}} || {{lang|osx|fōr}} || {{lang|osx|wēld}} || {{lang|osx|dōmda}} || {{lang|osx|mahloda}} || {{lang|osx|sagda}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|wī/gī/sia}}''' || {{lang|osx|ridun}} || {{lang|osx|flugun}} || {{lang|osx|hulpun}} || {{lang|osx|brākun}} || {{lang|osx|sprākun}} || {{lang|osx|fōrun}} || {{lang|osx|wēldun}} || {{lang|osx|dōmdun}} || {{lang|osx|mahlodun}} || {{lang|osx|sagdun}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="5"|'''[[Subjunctive|Present subjunctive]]'''
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|ik}}''' || {{lang|osx|rīde}} || {{lang|osx|flioge}} || {{lang|osx|helpe}} || {{lang|osx|breke}} || {{lang|osx|spreke}} || {{lang|osx|fare}} || {{lang|osx|walde}} || {{lang|osx|dōmie}} || {{lang|osx|mahlo}} || {{lang|osx|seggie}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|thū}}''' || {{lang|osx|rīdes}} ||{{lang|osx|flioges}} || {{lang|osx|helpes}} || {{lang|osx|brekes}} || {{lang|osx|sprekes}} || {{lang|osx|fares}} || {{lang|osx|waldes}} || {{lang|osx|dōmies}} || {{lang|osx|mahlos}} || {{lang|osx|seggies}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|hē/it/siu}}''' || {{lang|osx|rīde}} || {{lang|osx|flioge}} || {{lang|osx|helpe}} || {{lang|osx|breke}} || {{lang|osx|spreke}} || {{lang|osx|fare}} || {{lang|osx|walde}} || {{lang|osx|dōmie}} || {{lang|osx|mahlo}} || {{lang|osx|seggie}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|wī/gī/sia}}''' || {{lang|osx|rīden}} || {{lang|osx|fliogen}} || {{lang|osx|helpen}} || {{lang|osx|breken}} || {{lang|osx|spreken}} || {{lang|osx|faren}} || {{lang|osx|walden}} || {{lang|osx|dōmien}} || {{lang|osx|mahlion}} || {{lang|osx|seggien}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="5"|'''[[Subjunctive|Past subjunctive]]'''
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|ik}}''' || {{lang|osx|ridi}} || {{lang|osx|flugi}} || {{lang|osx|hulpi}} || {{lang|osx|brāki}} || {{lang|osx|sprāki}} || {{lang|osx|fōri}} || {{lang|osx|wēldi}} || {{lang|osx|dōmdi}} || {{lang|osx|mahlodi}} || {{lang|osx|sagdi}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|thū}}''' || {{lang|osx|ridis}} || {{lang|osx|flugis}} || {{lang|osx|hulpis}} || {{lang|osx|brākis}} || {{lang|osx|sprākis}} || {{lang|osx|fōris}} || {{lang|osx|wēldis}} || {{lang|osx|dōmdis}} || {{lang|osx|mahlodis}} || {{lang|osx|sagdis}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|hē/it/siu}}''' || {{lang|osx|ridi}} || {{lang|osx|flugi}} || {{lang|osx|hulpi}} || {{lang|osx|brāki}} || {{lang|osx|sprāki}} || {{lang|osx|fōri}} || {{lang|osx|wēldi}} || {{lang|osx|dōmdi}} || {{lang|osx|mahlodi}} || {{lang|osx|sagdi}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''{{lang|osx|wī/gī/sia}}''' || {{lang|osx|ridin}} || {{lang|osx|flugin}} || {{lang|osx|hulpin}} || {{lang|osx|brākin}} || {{lang|osx|sprākin}} || {{lang|osx|fōrin}} || {{lang|osx|wēldin}} || {{lang|osx|dōmdin}} || {{lang|osx|mahlodin}} || {{lang|osx|sagdin}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="2" | '''[[Imperative mood|Imperative]]'''
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''Singular''' || {{lang|osx|rīd}} || {{lang|osx|fliog}} || {{lang|osx|help}} || {{lang|osx|brek}} || {{lang|osx|sprek}} || {{lang|osx|far}} || {{lang|osx|wald}} || {{lang|osx|dōmi}} || {{lang|osx|mahlo}} || {{lang|osx|sage}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;"|'''Plural''' || {{lang|osx|rīdad}} || {{lang|osx|fliogad}} || {{lang|osx|helpad}} || {{lang|osx|brekad}} || {{lang|osx|sprekad}} || {{lang|osx|farad}} || {{lang|osx|waldad}} || {{lang|osx|dōmiad}} || {{lang|osx|mahliod}} || {{lang|osx|seggiad}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;" colspan="2"| '''[[Present participle]]''' || {{lang|osx|rīdandi}} || {{lang|osx|fliogandi}} || {{lang|osx|helpandi}} || {{lang|osx|brekandi}} || {{lang|osx|sprekandi}} || {{lang|osx|farandi}} || {{lang|osx|waldandi}} || {{lang|osx|dōmiandi}} || {{lang|osx|mahlondi}} || {{lang|osx|seggiandi}}
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF;" colspan="2"|'''[[Past participle]]''' || {{lang|osx|(gi)ridan}} || {{lang|osx|(gi)flogan}} || {{lang|osx|(gi)holpan}} || {{lang|osx|(gi)brokan}} || {{lang|osx|(gi)sprekan}} || {{lang|osx|(gi)faran}} || {{lang|osx|(gi)waldan}} || {{lang|osx|(gi)dōmid}} || {{lang|osx|(gi)mahlod}} || {{lang|osx|(gi)sagd}}
|}

It should be noticed that the third weak verb class includes only four verbs (namely ''[[wikt:libbian#Old Saxon|libbian]]'', ''[[wikt:seggian#Old Saxon|seggian]]'', ''[[wikt:huggian#Old Saxon|huggian]]'' and ''[[wikt:hebbian#Old Saxon|hebbian]]''); it is a remnant of an older and larger class that was kept in Old High German.

===Syntax===
Old Saxon syntax is mostly different from that of [[English language|modern English]]. Some were simply consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection&nbsp;– e.g., word order was generally freer.  In addition:
*The default [[word order]] was [[verb-second]], very close to that of [[Dutch language|modern Dutch]] or [[German language|modern German]].
*There was no [[do-support|''do''-support]] in questions and negatives.
*Multiple negatives could stack up in a sentence and intensify each other ([[negative concord]]), which is not always the case in modern English, modern [[Dutch language|Dutch]], or modern [[German language|German]].
*Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner.") did not use a ''wh-''type conjunction, but rather used a ''th-''type [[correlative conjunction]] (e.g. ''thô X, thô Y'' in place of "when X, Y").  The ''wh-''type conjunctions were used only as [[interrogative pronoun]]s and [[indefinite pronouns]].
*Similarly, ''wh-'' forms were not used as [[relative pronoun]]s (as in "the man who saw me" or "the car which I bought"). Instead, an indeclinable word ''the'' was used, often in conjunction with the [[definite article]] (which was declined for case, number and gender).

==Orthography==
Old Saxon comes down in a number of different manuscripts whose spelling systems sometimes differ markedly. In this section, only the letters used in normalized versions of the ''[[Heliand]]'' will be kept, and the sounds modern scholars have traditionally assigned to these letters. Where spelling deviations in other texts may point to significant pronunciation variants, this will be indicated.

In general, the spelling of Old Saxon corresponds quite well to that of the other ancient [[Germanic languages]], such as Old High German or [[Gothic language|Gothic]].

* {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|k}} were both used for {{IPA|[k]}}. However, it seems that, as in other [[West Germanic languages|West-Germanic]] dialects, when {{IPA|[k]}} was followed by {{angbr IPA|i}} or {{angbr IPA|e}}, it had the pronunciation {{IPA|/ts/}} or {{IPA|/kʲsʲ/}}.{{sfn |Lasch |1914 |p=339}} The letters {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|x}} were preferred for the [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalisations]], {{angbr IPA|k}} and even sometimes {{angbr IPA|ch}} being rather used before {{angbr IPA|u}}, {{angbr IPA|o}} or {{angbr IPA|a}} for {{IPA|/k/}} ({{lang|osx|kuning}} for {{IPA|[kʏnɪŋk]}} 'king', modern {{lang|de|köning}}; {{lang|osx|crûci}} for {{IPA|[kryːtsi]}} ; {{lang|osx|forsachistu}} for {{IPA|[forsakistuː]}}).
* {{angbr IPA|g}} represented {{IPA|[ɣ]}} or its allophone {{IPA|[ɡ]}}: {{lang|osx|brengian}} {{IPA|[brɛŋɡjan]}} 'to bring', {{lang|osx|seggian}} {{IPA|[sɛɡɡjan]}} 'to say', {{lang|osx|wege}} {{IPA|[wɛɣe]}} 'way' (dative).
* {{angbr IPA|g}} seems, at least in a few dialects, to have had the pronunciation {{IPA|[j]}} or {{IPA|[ʝ]}} at the beginning of a word, only when followed by {{angbr IPA|i}} or {{angbr IPA|e}}. Thus we find {{lang|osx|giār}} {{IPA|[jaːr]}} 'year' and even {{lang|osx|gēr}} {{IPA|[jeːr]}} 'year', the latter betraying a strong Old Frisian influence.
* {{angbr IPA|h}} represents {{IPA|[h]}} and its allophone {{IPA|[x]}}: {{lang|osx|holt}} {{IPA|[hɔlt]}} 'wood', {{lang|osx|naht}} {{IPA|[naxt]}} 'night' (mod. {{lang|de|nacht}}).
* {{angbr IPA|i}} is used for both the vowels {{IPA|[ɪ]}} and {{IPA|[iː]}} and the consonant {{IPA|[j]}}: {{lang|osx|ik}} {{IPA|[ɪk]}} 'I' (mod. {{lang|de|ich}}, {{lang|nl|ik}}), {{lang|osx|iār}} {{IPA|[jaːr]}} 'year'.
* {{angbr IPA|qu}} and {{angbr IPA|kw}} always represent {{IPA|[kw]}}: {{lang|osx|quāmun}} {{IPA|[kwaːmʊn]}} 'they came'.
* {{angbr IPA|s}} represented {{IPA|[s]}}, and between two vowels also {{IPA|[z]}}.
* {{angbr IPA|th}} is used to indicate {{IPA|[θ]}}: {{lang|osx|thōhtun}} {{IPA|[θoːxtun]}} 'they thought'. {{angbr IPA|ð}} is used for {{IPA|[ð]}}, occasionally also written {{angbr IPA|dh}}.
* {{angbr IPA|u}} represented the vowels {{IPA|[ʊ]}} and {{IPA|[uː]}}, or the consonant {{IPA|[β]}} ~ {{IPA|[v]}}, which was denoted sporadically across manuscripts by either {{angbr IPA|ƀ}}, {{angbr IPA|b}}, {{angbr IPA|u}}, {{angbr IPA|v}}, or {{angbr IPA|f}}'.{{sfn |Gallée |1910 |pp=126–128, 161}}
* {{angbr IPA|uu}} was normally used to represent {{IPA|[w]}}, predating the letter {{angbr IPA|w}}.
* {{angbr IPA|z}} only appeared in a few texts due to [[Old High German]] influence.

==Literature==
[[File:Heliand Excerpt.jpg|thumb|[[Heliand]] excerpt from the [[German Historical Museum]] in Berlin]]
Only a few texts survive, predominantly baptismal vows the Saxons were required to perform at the behest of [[Charlemagne]]. The only literary texts preserved are  ''[[Heliand]]'' and fragments of the [[Old Saxon Genesis]]. There is also:

* [[Beda]] homily ({{lang|de|Homilie Bedas}})
* ''Credo'' ({{lang|la|Abrenunciatio diaboli et credo}}) → Old Saxon baptismal vow.
* {{lang|de|Essener Heberegister}}
* [[Old Saxon Baptismal Vow]] ({{langx|de|[[:de:Sächsisches Taufgelöbnis|Sächsisches Taufgelöbnis]]}})
* Penitentiary ({{lang|de|altsächsische Beichte, altwestfälische Beichte}})
* {{lang|de|Trierer Blutsegen}} ({{ws|[[:de:s:Ad catarrum dic|de]]}})
* ''Spurihalz'' ({{lang|de|Wiener Pferdsegen}}) ({{ws|[[:de:s:De hoc quod spurihalz dicunt|de]]}}) 
* ''Wurmsegen'' ({{lang|de|Wiener Wurmsegen}}) ({{ws |[[:de:s:Contra vermes|de)]]}} 
* Psalms commentary ({{lang|de|Gernroder Psalmenkommentar}})

==Text sample==
A poetic version of the [[Lord's Prayer]] in the form of the traditional Germanic [[alliterative verse]] is given in Old Saxon below as it appears in the ''Heliand''.
{| cellspacing="10"
|-
! Line || Original || Translation
|-
| [1600] || {{lang|osx|Fadar usa // firiho barno,}}
| Father our [our Father/Father of us], men's sons [the sons of men],
|-
| [1601] || {{lang|osx|thu bist an them hohon // himila rikea,}}
|  Thou art [You are] in the high heavenly domain [kingdom of the heavens],
|-
| [1602] || {{lang|osx|geuuihid si thin namo // uuordo gehuuilico,}}
| Hallowed be Thy [Your] name (with) every word,
|-
| [1603] || {{lang|osx|Cuma thin // craftag riki.}}
| May Thy [Your] mighty domain [kingdom] come.
|-
| [1604] || {{lang|osx|UUerða thin uuilleo // oƀar thesa werold alla,}}
| Worth [May] Thy [Your] will (be done) over all this world,
|-
| [1605] || {{lang|osx|so sama an erðo, // so thar uppa ist}}
| Just the same on earth, as (it) is up there
|-
| [1606] || {{lang|osx|an them hohon // himilo rikea.}}
| in the high heavenly domain [kingdom of the heavens].
|-
| [1607] || {{lang|osx|Gef us dag gehuuilikes rad, // drohtin the godo,}}
| Give us every day rede [advice/counsel], (oh) Drighten [Lord] the Good,
|-
| [1608] || {{lang|osx|thina helaga helpa, // endi alat us, heƀenes uuard,}}
| (and) Thy [Your] holy help, and deliver [set free/absolve] us, (oh) Heaven's Ward [Lord/Ruler of Heaven],
|-
| [1609] || {{lang|osx|managoro mensculdio, // al so uue oðrum mannum doan.}}
| (of our) many crimes, just as we (shall) do (to) other men [people].
|-
| [1610] || {{lang|osx|Ne lat us farledean // leða uuihti}}
| Do not let loath(some) wights forlead [mislead, seduce] us
|-
| [1611] || {{lang|osx|so forð an iro uuilleon, // so uui uuirðige sind,}}
| so forth in [to go on with] their will, so [given that] we are worthy,
|-
| [1612] || {{lang|osx|ac help us uuiðar allun // uƀilon dadiun.}}
| but (rather) help us wither [against] all evil deeds.
|}

== See also ==
*[[Old Saxon Genesis]]
*[[Old Saxon Baptismal Vow]]
*[[Heliand]]
*[[Middle Low German]]
*[[Low German]]
*[[Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law]]

==References==
{{reflist |30em}}

==Bibliography==
===Sources===
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Old Saxon language |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |year=2024 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Old-Saxon-language |access-date=2024-12-29 |ref={{sfnref |Britannica |2024}}}}
* {{cite Q |Q131582014 |first=Johan Hendrik |last=Gallée |access-date=2024-12-29 |ref={{sfnref |Gallée |1910}} |mode=cs1}}
* {{cite Q |Q131355367 |first=Agathe |last=Lasch |author-link=Agathe Lasch |access-date=2024-12-29 |ref={{sfnref |Lasch |1914}} |mode=cs1}}

===General===
* Euler, Wolfram (2013). ''Das Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert – Analyse und Rekonstruktion'' (West Germanic – from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE – Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-9812110-7-8}}.
* {{cite book |last=Rauch |first=Irmengard |author-link=Irmengard Rauch |year=1992 |title=The Old Saxon Language |publisher=Peter Lang Publishing |location=New York |ol=OL1717740M |isbn=0820418935 |lccn=92020320 |oclc=26052698 }}
* [[Donald Ringe|Ringe, Donald R.]] and Taylor, Ann (2014). ''The Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II'', 632p. {{ISBN|978-0199207848}}. Oxford.
* {{cite book |last=Holthausen |first=Ferdinand |author-link=Ferdinand Holthausen |year=1923 |title=Altsächsisches Elementarbuch |publisher=Ulan Press}}

===Lexicons===
* {{cite book|last=Tiefenbach|first=Heinrich|author-link=Heinrich Tiefenbach|year=2010|title=Altsächsisches Handwörterbuch / A Concise Old Saxon Dictionary|publisher=De Gruyter}}
* {{cite Q |Q131593991 |last=Köbler |first=Gerhard |trans-title=Old Saxon Dictionary |mode=cs1}}

===External history===
* {{cite book |last=Ammon |first=Hermann |year=1922 |title=Repetitorium der deutschen Sprache. Gotisch, Althochdeutsch, Altsächsisch |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gruÿter |doi=10.1515/9783112431849 |isbn=9783112431832}}
* {{cite book |last=Helfenstein |first=Jacob |year=1870 |title=Comparative Grammar of the Teutonic languages |location=London |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://archive.org/details/comparativegramm00helfuoft/page/n6/mode/1up |access-date=2024-12-29 |ol=OL7706011W |oclc=456068779 }}
* {{cite book|last=Meidinger|first=Heinrich|year=1923|title=Vergleichendes Etymologisches Wörterbuch Der Gothisch-Teutonischen Mundarten|publisher=Ulan Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Orrin W. |author-link=Orrin W. Robinson (philologist) |year=1992 |title=Old English and its closest relatives |location=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishitsclo0000robi/page/n6/mode/1up |url-access=registration |access-date=2024-12-29 |lccn=90024700 |ol=OL1866584M |oclc=1150958619 |isbn=0804714541 }}
* {{cite book |last=Schade |first=Oskar |author-link=Oskar Schade |year=1923 |title=Altdeutsches Lesebuch |publisher=Ulan Press}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Old Saxon}}
{{Wiktionary category|category=Old Saxon language}}
* [http://www.indogermanistik.uni-jena.de/dokumente/PDF/Einf%C3%BChrung%20in%20das%20Alts%C3%A4chsische.pdf Einführung in das Altsächsische] (An Introduction to Old Saxon) by Roland Schuhmann (in German); [https://web.archive.org/web/20140308181018/http://www.indogermanistik.uni-jena.de/dokumente/PDF/Einf%C3%BChrung%20in%20das%20Alts%C3%A4chsische.pdf copy] at the [[Internet Archive]]
* {{cite Q |Q131582134 |first1=O. |last1=Behaghel |author-link=Otto Behaghel |first2=J. H. |last2=Gallée |editor-first=J. H. |editor-last=Gallée |access-date=2024-12-29 |ref={{sfnref |Behaghel |Gallée |1891}} |mode=cs1}}

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