Editing Operant conditioning chamber

{{Short description|Laboratory apparatus used to study animal behavior}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Redirect|Skinner box|the ska band|Skinnerbox}}
[[File:Skinner box scheme 01.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|Skinner box]]

An '''operant conditioning chamber''' (also known as a '''Skinner box''') is a [[laboratory equipment|laboratory apparatus]] used to study [[Animal Behavior|animal behavior]]. The operant conditioning chamber was created by [[B. F. Skinner]] while he was a graduate student at [[Harvard University]]. The chamber can be used to study both [[operant conditioning]] and [[classical conditioning]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Carlson NR |title=Psychology-the science of behavior|year=2009|publisher=Pearson Education Canada; 4th edition|location=U.S|isbn=978-0-205-64524-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc0004unse/page/207 207]|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc0004unse/page/207}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krebs JR | title = Animal behaviour. From Skinner box to the field | journal = Nature | volume = 304 | issue = 5922 | pages = 117 | year = 1983 | pmid = 6866102 | doi = 10.1038/304117a0 | s2cid = 5360836 | bibcode = 1983Natur.304..117K | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Skinner created the operant conditioning chamber as a variation of the [[Edward Thorndike#Connectionism|puzzle box]] originally created by [[Edward Thorndike]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM, Nock MK |chapter=B. F. Skinner: The Role of Reinforcement and Punishment |pages=278–80 |title=Psychology |date=January 2, 2014 |edition=3rd |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4641-5528-4 }}</ref> While Skinner's early studies were done using [[Rat|rats]], he later moved on to study [[Columbidae|pigeons]].<ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Kazdin A |title=Encyclopedia of Psychology, Vol. 5|publisher=American Psychological Association|year=2000}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sakagami T, Lattal KA | title = The Other Shoe: An Early Operant Conditioning Chamber for Pigeons | journal = The Behavior Analyst | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 25–39 | date = May 2016 | pmid = 27606188 | pmc = 4883506 | doi = 10.1007/s40614-016-0055-8 }}</ref> The operant conditioning chamber may be used to observe or manipulate behaviour. An animal is placed in the box where it must learn to activate levers or respond to light or sound stimuli for [[reinforcement|reward]]. The reward may be food or the removal of [[Noxious stimulus|noxious stimuli]] such as a loud alarm. The chamber is used to test specific [[Hypothesis|hypotheses]] in a controlled setting.

== Name ==
[[File:UNMSM PsiExperimental 1998 2.jpg|250px|thumb|Students using a Skinner box]]Skinner was noted to have expressed his distaste for becoming an [[eponym]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Skinner BF | date = 1959 | title = Cumulative record | edition = 1999 | location = Cambridge, MA | publisher = B.F. Skinner Foundation | page = 620 }}</ref> It is believed that psychologist [[Clark L. Hull|Clark Hull]] and his [[Yale University|Yale]] students coined the expression "Skinner box". Skinner said that he did not use the term himself; he went so far as to ask [[E. Howard Hunt|Howard Hunt]] to use "lever box" instead of "Skinner box" in a published document.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Skinner BF | date = 1983 | title = A Matter of Consequences. | location = New York, NY | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. | pages = 116, 164 }}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Original "Puzzle Box" Apparatus Design.png|alt=An old black and white drawing of a puzzle box used by Edward Thorndike. The box looks similar to a cage with an opening at the front. The front door is connected to wiring which connects to a lever.|thumb|Original puzzle box designed by [[Edward Thorndike]]]]
In 1898, American psychologist, [[Edward Thorndike]] proposed the '[[law of effect]]', which formed the basis of operant conditioning.<ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Gray P |title=Psychology|publisher=Worth Publishers|year=2007|location=New York|pages=108–109|language=English}}</ref> Thorndike conducted experiments to discover how cats learn new behaviors. His work involved monitoring cats as they attempted to escape from puzzle boxes. The puzzle box trapped the animals until they moved a lever or performed an action which triggered their release.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Edward Thorndike – Law of Effect {{!}} Simply Psychology|url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html|access-date=November 14, 2021|website=www.simplypsychology.org}}</ref> Thorndike ran several trials and recorded the time it took for them to perform the actions necessary to escape. He discovered that the cats seemed to learn from a trial-and-error process rather than insightful inspections of their environment. The animals learned that their actions led to an effect, and the type of effect influenced whether the behavior would be repeated. Thorndike's 'law of effect' contained the core elements of what would become known as [[operant conditioning]]. B. F. Skinner expanded upon Thorndike's existing work.<ref name=":0" /> Skinner theorized that if a behavior is followed by a reward, that behavior is more likely to be repeated, but added that if it is followed by some sort of punishment, it is less likely to be repeated. He introduced the word reinforcement into Thorndike's law of effect.<ref name=":4" /> Through his experiments, Skinner discovered the [[Operant learning|law of operant learning]] which included extinction, punishment and generalization.<ref name=":4" />

Skinner designed the operant conditioning chamber to allow for specific hypothesis testing and behavioural observation. He wanted to create a way to observe animals in a more controlled setting as [[observation]] of behaviour in nature can be unpredictable.<ref name=":1" />

== Purpose ==

[[File:Augustin Lignier rat selfie 1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|A rat presses a button in an operant conditioning chamber.]] An operant conditioning chamber allows researchers to study [[animal behaviour]] and response to [[Conditioning, operant|conditioning]]. They do this by teaching an animal to perform certain actions (like pressing a lever) in response to specific stimuli. When the correct action is performed the animal receives positive reinforcement in the form of food or other reward. In some cases, the chamber may deliver [[Positive_punishment#Positive|positive punishment]] to discourage incorrect responses. For example, researchers have tested certain [[invertebrate]]s' reaction to operant conditioning using a "heat box".<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brembs B | title = Operant conditioning in invertebrates | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 710–717 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 14662373 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2003.10.002 | s2cid = 2385291 | url = https://epub.uni-regensburg.de/28572/1/brembs.pdf }}</ref> The box has two walls used for manipulation; one wall can undergo temperature change while the other cannot. As soon as the invertebrate crosses over to the side which can undergo temperature change, the researcher will increase the temperature. Eventually, the invertebrate will be conditioned to stay on the side that does not undergo a temperature change. After conditioning, even when the temperature is turned to its lowest setting, the invertebrate will avoid that side of the box.<ref name=":3" />

Skinner's pigeon studies involved a series of levers. When the lever was pressed, the pigeon would receive a food reward.<ref name=":2" /> This was made more complex as researchers studied animal learning behaviours. A pigeon would be placed in the conditioning chamber and another one would be placed in an adjacent box separated by a [[Poly(methyl methacrylate)|plexiglass]] wall. The pigeon in the chamber would learn to press the lever to receive food as the other pigeon watched. The pigeons would then be switched, and researchers would observe them for signs of [[cultural learning]].

== Structure ==
[[File:Skinner box photo 02.jpg|right|thumb|300px|On the left are two mechanisms including two levers and light signals. There is a light source and speaker above the box and an electrified floor at the bottom.]]
The outside shell of an operant conditioning chamber is a large box big enough to easily accommodate the animal being used as a subject. Commonly used animals include [[rodent]]s (usually [[lab rat]]s), [[pigeon]]s, and [[primate]]s. The chamber is often [[soundproofing|sound-proof]] and light-proof to avoid distracting stimuli.

Operant conditioning chambers have at least one response mechanism that can automatically detect the occurrence of a [[behavior]]al response or action (i.e., [[pecking]], pressing, pushing, etc.). This may be a lever or series of lights which the animal will respond to in the presence of [[Stimulus (physiology)|stimulus]]. Typical mechanisms for primates and rats are response levers; if the subject presses the lever, the opposite end closes a switch that is monitored by a computer or other programmed device.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fernández-Lamo I, Delgado-García JM, Gruart A | title = When and Where Learning is Taking Place: Multisynaptic Changes in Strength During Different Behaviors Related to the Acquisition of an Operant Conditioning Task by Behaving Rats | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 28 | issue = 3 | pages = 1011–1023 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 28199479 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhx011 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Typical mechanisms for pigeons and other [[bird]]s are [[telegraph key|response keys]] with a switch that closes if the bird pecks at the key with sufficient [[force]].<ref name=":2" /> The other minimal requirement of an operant conditioning chamber is that it has a means of delivering a [[primary reinforcer]] such as a food reward.[[File:Operant Conditioning Involves Choice.png|alt=A pigeon is pecking at one of four lights which corresponds with the coloured stimuli presented. It correctly pecks the yellow light (was shown a yellow image) and is therefore, rewarded with food pellets.|thumb|A pigeon offering the correct response to stimuli is rewarded with food pellets.]]A simple configuration, such as one response mechanism and one feeder, may be used to investigate a variety of psychological [[Phenomenon|phenomena]]. Modern operant conditioning chambers may have multiple mechanisms, such as several response levers, two or more feeders, and a variety of devices capable of generating different [[stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]] including lights, sounds, music, figures, and drawings. Some configurations use an [[Liquid-crystal display|LCD]] panel for the computer generation of a variety of visual stimuli or a set of [[Light-emitting diode|LED]] lights to create patterns they wish to be replicated.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jackson K, Hackenberg TD | title = Token reinforcement, choice, and self-control in pigeons | journal = Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior | volume = 66 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–49 | date = July 1996 | pmid = 8755699 | pmc = 1284552 | doi = 10.1901/jeab.1996.66-29 }}</ref>

Some operant conditioning chambers can also have electrified nets or floors so that shocks can be given to the animals as a [[positive punishment]] or lights of different colors that give information about when the food is available as a [[Positive_reinforcement#Positive_reinforcement|positive reinforcement]].<ref>{{cite book
 |editor-last1=Craighead
 |editor-first1=W. Edward
 |editor-last2=Nemeroff
 |editor-first2=Charles B.
 |author-link=Charles Nemeroff
 |date=2004
 |title=The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science 3rd ed.
 |location=Hoboken, New Jersey
 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 |page=803
 |isbn=0-471-22036-1
}}
</ref>

== Research impact ==
Operant conditioning chambers have become common in a variety of research disciplines especially in animal learning. The chambers design allows for easy monitoring of the animal and provides a space to manipulate certain behaviours. This controlled environment may allow for research and experimentation which cannot be performed in the field.

There are a variety of applications for operant conditioning. For instance, shaping the behavior of a child is influenced by the compliments, comments, approval, and disapproval of one's behavior.<ref>{{Cite web| vauthors = Shrestha P |date=November 17, 2017|title=Operant Conditioning|url=https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/learning-memory/operant-conditioning|access-date=November 14, 2021|website=Psychestudy}}</ref> An important factor of operant conditioning is its ability to explain learning in real-life situations. From an early age, parents nurture their children's behavior by using reward and praise following an achievement (crawling or taking a first step) which reinforces such behavior. When a child misbehaves, punishment in the form of verbal discouragement or the removal of privileges are used to discourage them from repeating their actions.

Skinner's studies on animals and their behavior laid the framework needed for similar studies on human subjects. Based on his work, developmental psychologists were able to study the effect of positive and negative [[reinforcement]]. Skinner found that the environment influenced behavior and when that environment is manipulated, behaviour will change. From this, developmental psychologists proposed theories on operant learning in children. That research was applied to education and the treatment of illness in young children.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Schlinger H |date=January 17, 2021|title=The Impact of B. F. Skinner's Science of Operant Learning on Early Childhood Research, Theory, Treatment, and Care| doi = 10.1080/03004430.2020.1855155|journal=Early Child Development and Care|volume=191|issue=7–8|pages=1089–1106|s2cid=234206521|via=Routledge}}</ref> Skinner's theory of operant conditioning played a key role in helping psychologists understand how behavior is learned. It explains why reinforcement can be used so effectively in the learning process, and how schedules of reinforcement can affect the outcome of conditioning.

== Commercial applications ==
[[Slot machine]]s, [[Massively multiplayer online game|online games]], and dating apps are examples where sophisticated operant schedules of reinforcement are used to reinforce certain behaviors.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Hopson, J.|date=April 2001|title=Behavioral game design|journal=Gamasutra|url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/design/behavioral-game-design|access-date=April 27, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Psychology: A modular approach to mind and behavior| vauthors = Coon D |year=2005|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|isbn=0-534-60593-1|pages=278–279|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=018X76Gn_T0C&pg=PA278}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-07 |title=The science behind those apps you can't stop using |url=https://www.afr.com/technology/the-science--and-scientists--behind-the-most-addictive-apps-20161004-grufnk |access-date=2024-01-23 |website=Australian Financial Review |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The scientists who make apps addictive |url=https://www.economist.com/1843/2016/10/20/the-scientists-who-make-apps-addictive |access-date=2024-01-23 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

[[Gamification]], the technique of using game design elements in non-game contexts, has also been described as using operant conditioning and other behaviorist techniques to encourage desired user behaviors.<ref>{{cite web |title=Slot machines perfected addictive gaming. Now, tech wants their tricks | vauthors = Thompson A |date=May 6, 2015 |website=[[The Verge]] |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/5/6/8544303/casino-slot-machine-gambling-addiction-psychology-mobile-games}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Behaviorism]]
*[[Radical behaviorism]]
*[[Operant conditioning]]
*[[Punishment (psychology)]]
*[[Reinforcement]]
*[[Synchronicity]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.bfskinner.org/ B.F. Skinner Foundation]

[[Category:Laboratory equipment]]
[[Category:Behaviorism]]
[[Category:Behavioral neuroscience]]
[[Category:Learning]]
[[Category:Animal testing techniques]]