Editing Operation Fortitude

{{Short description|Military deception operation}}
{{About|the World War II deception|the Australian immigration checking operation|Australian Border Force#Notable operations}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{EngvarB|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox military operation
| name        = 
| partof      = [[Operation Bodyguard]]
| image       = Map of Operation Bodyguard subordinate plans.png
| image_size  = 250px
| alt         = Grayscale map of Europe with the subordinate plans of Operation Bodyguard labelled
| caption     = Fortitude North and South constituted the main portion of the overall ''[[Operation Bodyguard|Bodyguard]]'' deception
| scope       = [[Military deception]]
| location    = United Kingdom
| planned     = December 1943 – March 1944
| planned_by  = [[London Controlling Section]], [[Ops (B)]], [[R Force]]
| target      = [[Axis powers]]
| date        = March–June 1944
| executed_by = 
| outcome     = 
}}
{{Campaignbox Normandy}}

'''Operation Fortitude''' was a [[military deception]] operation by the Allied nations as part of [[Operation Bodyguard]], an overall deception strategy during the buildup to the 1944 [[Normandy landings]]. Fortitude was divided into two subplans, North and South, and had the aim of misleading the [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht|German High Command]] as to the location of the invasion.

Fortitude had evolved from plans submitted by [[Noel Wild]], the head of [[Ops (B)]], and [[John Bevan (British Army officer)|John Bevan]], from the [[London Controlling Section]] in late 1943. Early revisions in January 1944 suggested a fictional buildup of troops in southern England with the hope of drawing German attention to the [[Calais]] region. Colonel [[David Strangeways]], head of Montgomery's [[R Force]] deception staff, was unimpressed with the approach. He was widely critical of the original plan and eventually rewrote the Fortitude deception with a focus on creating a more realistic threat.

Both Fortitude plans involved the creation of phantom [[field armies]] (based in [[Edinburgh]] and southern England), which threatened Norway ([[Fortitude North]]) and [[Pas de Calais]] ([[Fortitude South]]). The operation was intended to divert Axis attention away from Normandy and, after the invasion on 6 June 1944, to delay reinforcement by convincing the Germans that the landings had been purely a diversionary attack.

==Background==
Fortitude was one of the major elements of [[Operation Bodyguard]], the overall Allied deception stratagem for the Normandy landings. Bodyguard's main objectives were to ensure that the Germans would not increase troop presence in Normandy and to do so by promoting the appearance that the Allies would attack in other locations. It consisted of a wide range of deceptions ranging across the European front, with Operation Fortitude representing the main effort to misdirect the ''[[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht]]'' (German High Command) to believe in specific mainland invasion objectives.

The problem facing the Allies was that France was the most logical choice for an invasion into mainland Europe. Therefore, the Allied high command had only a small geographical area across which to mislead the German defences. Montgomery, commanding the Allied landing forces, knew that the crucial aspect of any invasion was the ability to enlarge a beachhead into a full front. He also had only 37 divisions at his command, compared to around 60 German formations. That meant that any deception would have to convince the German high command that the Allies were not committing their full forces into Normandy, but holding many of those formations in reserve.<ref name="LatimerFortitudeSouth"/> After the landings, there would then need to be some way to delay the movement of German reserves to the Normandy beachhead to prevent a potentially disastrous counterattack.<ref name=Jablonsky>Jablonsky 1991</ref><ref name=BrownPrologue>Brown 1975, pp. 1–10</ref>

Operation Fortitude focused on creating invasion threats from the United Kingdom into various parts of Western Europe. The plan was eventually split into two parts, North and South. Fortitude South focused on creating confusion about the Allied Channel crossing, and Fortitude North, staged out of Scotland, introduced a threat to [[German occupation of Norway|occupied Norway]].<ref name=Jablonsky/> Planning for Bodyguard overall came under the auspices of the [[London Controlling Section]] (LCS), a secret body that was set up to manage Allied deception strategy during the war. However, the execution of individual plans fell to the various [[theater (warfare)|theatre]] commanders. In the case of Fortitude, it was [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force]] (SHAEF), under General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and specifically [[21st Army Group]], the invasion force, under the command of General [[Bernard Montgomery]]. A special section, [[Ops (B)]], was established at SHAEF to handle Fortitude, and Montgomery formed [[R Force]] under his command to handle the tactical elements of deception.<ref group="note">The London Controlling Section retained central responsibility for the use of diplomatic channels and double agents.</ref><ref name=BrownPrologue/>

===Deception techniques===
[[File:Joan_pujol_garcia.jpg|thumb|Juan Pujol Garcia, or agent Garbo, was a key part of the Fortitude deception]]

The idea of creating fake formations as a method of deception had been pioneered in Cairo by [[Dudley Clarke]]'s [[Advanced Headquarters 'A' Force|'A' Force]] earlier in the war. Fortitude made heavy use of Clarke's techniques for inflating the size of an army and used a number of methodologies which had come to be referred to as "special means." They included combinations of physical deception, fake wireless (radio) activity, leaks through diplomatic channels or double agents and the usage of notable officers in fake formations.

One of the main deception channels for the Allies was the use of double agents. B1A, the Counter-Intelligence Division of [[MI5]], had done a good job in intercepting numerous German agents in Britain. Many of them were recruited as double agents under the [[Double Cross System]]. For Fortitude, the intelligence agencies made particular use of three agents:

* [[Juan Pujol García]] (Garbo), a Spanish citizen who volunteered to set himself up as a double agent. Garbo was a key agent for the Fortitude deception. His fictional network of 27 agents across Britain was an excellent way to create the impression of additional formations. He was so trusted he was awarded the [[Iron Cross]] (for his efforts on [[D-Day]], he was awarded an [[Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire|MBE]]).
* [[Roman Czerniawski]] (Brutus), a Polish officer who ran an intelligence network for the Allies in occupied France. Captured by the Germans, he was offered a chance to work for them as a spy. On his arrival in Britain, he turned himself in to British intelligence.
* [[Dušan Popov]] (Tricycle), a Yugoslav lawyer, whose flamboyant lifestyle covered his intelligence activities.

==Planning==
Detailed planning ostensibly sat with [[Noel Wild]] and his Ops (B) staff. In practice, it was a collaboration between Wild and the heads of the London Controlling Section and B1a. Work began in December 1943 under the codename Mespot. Wild's first version of the Fortitude plan was socialised in early January 1943 with SHAEF, political leaders and the staff officers of the 21st Army Group.<ref name=Levine202/> That iteration aimed to take advantage of the likelihood that the Germans would notice invasion preparations in southern England.<ref name=Holt531/> Wild wanted to create the impression that an invasion was aimed at the Pas-de-Calais slightly later in the year (July, instead of June). Once the real invasion had landed, six fictional divisions would then keep the threat to Calais alive.<ref name=Levine203/>

Colonel [[David Strangeways]], head of Montgomery's [[R Force]], raised concerns about the entire plan.<ref name=Levine202/> Strangeways argued that the plan aimed to cover the Allies' real intentions, instead of creating a realistic threat to Calais to which Axis forces would be forced respond in defence.<ref name=Levine203/><ref name=Holt532/> He was concerned the Germans might well be aware of the Allied readiness in southern England and so they would be alert to the risk of an invasion in early June. However, that would realise this gave them several weeks to defeat any bridgehead and return to defend Calais.<ref name=Holt532/> On 25 January, Montgomery's Chief of Staff, [[Freddie de Guingand|Francis de Guingand]], sent a letter to the deception planners that asked them to focus on Pas-de-Calais as the main assault and was almost certainly sent at the behest of Strangeways.<ref name=Holt533/>

With those criticisms in hand, Wild produced his final draft for Fortitude. In the revised plan, which was issued on 30 January and approved by the Allied chiefs on 18 February, fifty divisions would be positioned in Southern England to attack Pas de Calais.<ref name=Levine203/><ref name=Holt533/> After the real invasion had landed, the story would change to suggest to the Germans that several assault divisions remained in England that were ready to conduct a cross-Channel attack once the Normandy beachhead had drawn German defences away from Calais. The plan still retained some of its initial form, most notably since the first part of the story still aimed to suggest an invasion date of mid-July.<ref name=Holt534/> At that point, [[Winston Churchill]] judged 'Mespot' to be an unsuitable name and so 'Fortitude' was adopted from an alternative list on 18 February.<ref group=note>SHAEF was offered a list of names to choose from; Bulldog, Axehead, Swordhilt, Fortitude and Ignite</ref><ref name=Levine202/>

===Strangeways rewrite===
{{blockquote
|quote = I rewrote it entirely. It was too complicated, and the people who made it had not never done it before. Now they did their best – but it didn't suit the operation that Monty was considering.... You see so much depended on the success of that deception plan.
|source = Strangeways, writing in 1996<ref name=Levine208/>}}

Strangeways was still unimpressed with the Fortitude outline, and, according to Ops (B)'s Christopher Harmer, in mid-February, he set out to ride "roughshod over the established deception organization".<ref name=Levine203/> Harmer writes that Strangeways displayed the same arrogance as his commanding officer. Montgomery was famously opinionated and held a low opinion of the London establishment of the "old boys'" of Ops (B) and the LCS. More importantly, however, he had worked under Dudley Clarke in Cairo during the beginning of the war and had extensive experience of deception operations.

In North Africa, he had learned Clarke's maxim that deception relied on getting the enemy to do something, not just to think something, and so his criticism focused on that.<ref name=Levine202/><ref name=Holt50/> He pointed out that convincing the Germans of so many fictional divisions would be difficult, and even more so would be convincing them of Montgomery's ability to manage two entire invasions at the same time.<ref name=Levine205/> Wild's plan outlined ten divisions for the Calais assault, six of them being fictional and the remainder being the real American V Corps and British I Corps. However, the corps would be part of the actual Normandy invasion and so it would be difficult to imply Calais as the main assault after D-Day.<ref name=Holt535/> Strangeways's final concerns related to the effort required for physical deception, as the plan called for large numbers of troop movements and dummy craft.<ref name=Levine205/>

[[File:1st Army Group.svg|thumb|Symbol of the fictional 1st US Army Group, a core element of Strangeway's plan]]

Strangeways's objections were strong, and having responsibility for the plan's implementation, he refused to undertake most of the physical deception. A power struggle ensued throughout February and early March between Ops (B) and Strangeways as to who had authority to implement each part of the deception plan.  Montgomery put his full support behind his head of deception and so Strangeways prevailed.<ref name=Holt536/><ref name=Levine206/> Finally, in a 23 February meeting between R Force and Ops (B), Strangeways tore up a copy of the plan, declared it useless, and announced that he would rewrite it from scratch.<ref name=Levine205/> The established deceivers were dubious about Strangeways's announcement and assumed that he would resubmit the existing plan with some modifications.<ref name=Levine206/> However, he duly submitted a rewritten operation that was met, in Harmer's words, with "astonishment".<ref name=Levine208/>

===Quicksilver===
Strangeways's revised Fortitude plan and an operational implementation, dubbed Quicksilver, invented an entire new field army but crucially without significant fictional forces. The skeleton of the new force already existed in the form of the [[First United States Army Group]] (FUSAG), commanded by [[Omar Bradley]]. It had been formed for administrative purposes but never used, but the Germans had discovered its existence through radio intercepts. Strangeways proposed activating the unit, with a series of fictional and real formations.<ref name=Levine206/> The order of battle for the army would be intended to represent the bulk of Allied forces in England and therefore the main Allied threat.<ref name=Holt578/> To add credence to the importance of FUSAG, Bradley was replaced by Lieutenant General [[George Patton]], whom the Germans held in high regard and who was known to be a competitor to Montgomery.<ref name=Holt541/>

The Fortitude South story would be that FUSAG was being prepared to invade [[Pas-de-Calais]] some weeks after an initial diversionary invasion. That would allow [[Operation Neptune]]'s landings to be passed off as a distraction from the later main invasion.<ref name=Levine207/> Pas-de-Calais offered a number of advantages over the real invasion site, such as by being the shortest crossing of the [[English Channel]] and the quickest route into Germany. As a result, [[Erwin Rommel]] had taken steps to fortify that area of coastline heavily. Strangeways felt that would help the deception seem realistic in the minds of German high command.<ref name=LatimerFortitudeSouth >Latimer 2001, pp. 218–232</ref>

A deception of such a size required significant organisation and input from many organisations, including [[MI5]], [[Secret Intelligence Service|MI6]], [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|SHAEF]] via Ops B, and the armed services. Information from the various deception agencies was organised by and channelled through the London Controlling Section. To help keep the approach well-organised, Strangeways divided the implementation stages into six subplans, codenamed Quicksilver.<ref name=Holt578/><ref name=Levine207/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Quicksilver Sub-Plans
! Plan !! Special Means !! Description
|-
| Quicksilver I || Leaks || The basic "story" of Fortitude South was to be leaked, under Quicksilver I, largely through the double agent network and some diplomatic channels.<ref name=Deuve231/>
|-
| Quicksilver II || Wireless traffic || Radio deception was used to simulate the movement of troops across the south of England, with German listening posts expected to pick up the traffic.<ref name=Deuve234/>
|-
| Quicksilver III || Physical deception || A display of dummy landing craft, including associated simulated wireless traffic, road signs, and restricted areas.<ref name=Deuve238/>
|-
| Quicksilver IV || Physical preparations || Any invasion target would have been prepared with attacks in advance of landings and so Quicksilver IV covered a number of air activities including bombing of the Pas-de-Calais beach area and tactical railway bombing immediately before D-Day.<ref name=Deuve239/>
|-
| Quicksilver V || Physical Deception || Overall increased activity around [[Dover]] (such as by giving impression of extra tunnelling and additional wireless stations) to suggest embarkation preparations.<ref name=Deuve242/>
|-
| Quicksilver VI || Physical Deception || Night lighting deception to simulate activity at night in places that dummy landing craft were situated.
|}
[[File:DecoyLCT.jpg|thumb|Dummy landing craft, used during Fortitude, at an unknown location in the South-East of England]]

The FUSAG deception was not implemented primarily with dummy tanks, aeroplanes, or other vehicles. At that stage of the war, the Germans were unable to fly reconnaissance planes over England and so Strangeways felt that such effort would have been wasted.<ref group=note>It has been suggested that the Army later encouraged the idea that the dummies were used to draw attention away from some of the other means of deception, such as double agents.</ref><ref name=Holt536/> However, temporary buildings were constructed and dummy landing craft were stationed at likely embarkation point in the East and the South-East of England.<ref name=Holt537/><ref name=Howard120/> As the FUSAG commander, Patton paid many of them a visit, along with a photographer, to ensure that their location was noted.<ref name=Gawne/> The landing craft, built from wood and canvas and nicknamed Bigbob's, suffered from being too light. Wind and rain flipped many of them over or ran them to ground during the operation.<ref name=Janeczko162/>

Instead of extensive physical measures, most of Strangeway's plan relied on radio signals and leaks through double agents. Managing that information flow had to be done with caution since leaking supposed top-secret invasion plans would have been very obvious. Instead, the deceivers used tactics developed by Clarke in Cairo. Agents were allowed to report minutiae such as insignia on soldiers' uniforms and unit markings on vehicles to allow the Germans to build up a picture. The observations in the south-central areas largely gave accurate information about the real invasion forces since Clarke had stressed that using as much real information as possible led to better outcomes. Reports from the South-West of England indicated few troop sightings, but in reality, many units were housed there in preparation for D-Day. Reports from the South-East depicted largely-notional Quicksilver forces. That approach aimed to convince German intelligence services of an [[order of battle]] for the Allied forces that placed the centre of gravity of the invasion force opposite Pas-de-Calais.<ref name=Masterman223/>

==Fortitude North==
[[File:EdinburghCastle.jpg|thumb|[[Edinburgh Castle]], the headquarters of the fictional British [[Fourth Army (United Kingdom)|Fourth Army]] during Operation Fortitude]]

Fortitude North was designed to mislead the Germans into expecting an invasion of [[Norway]]. By threatening any weakened Norwegian defence, the Allies hoped to prevent or to delay reinforcement of France after the Normandy invasion. The plan involved simulating a buildup of forces in northern England and political contact with Sweden.<ref name=Sexton>Sexton 1983, p. 112</ref>

During a similar operation in 1943, [[Operation Cockade|Operation Tindall]], a fictional field army ([[British Fourth Army#Second World War|British Fourth Army]]) had been created, headquartered in [[Edinburgh Castle]].<ref name=HoltTindall>Holt 2004, p. 486</ref> It was decided to continue to use the same force during Fortitude. Unlike its southern counterpart, the deception relied primarily on fake radio traffic since it was judged unlikely that German reconnaissance planes could reach Scotland without being intercepted.<ref name=Sexton/><ref name="BrownSkye">Cave Brown 1975</ref> False information about the arrival of troops in the area was reported by the double agents [[Mutt and Jeff (spies)|Mutt and Jeff]], who had surrendered following after their 1941 landing in the [[Moray Firth]], and the British media co-operated by broadcasting fake information, such as football scores or wedding announcements, to nonexistent troops.<ref name=BrownSkye>Cave Brown 1975</ref>{{rp|464–466}} Fortitude North was so successful that by late spring 1944, Hitler had positioned 13 army divisions in Norway.<ref name=Ambrose82>Ambrose 1994, p. 82</ref>

In the early spring of 1944, British commandos attacked targets in Norway to simulate preparations for invasion. They destroyed industrial targets, such as shipping and power infrastructure and military outposts. That coincided with an increase in naval activity in the northern seas and in political pressure on neutral Sweden.<ref name=BrownSkye/>{{rp|466–467}}

Similar to the operation in the south, Fortitude North had a subsidiary plan used to implement the extensive radio deceptions. Codenamed Operation Skye, it began on 22 March 1944, was overseen by Colonel R. M. McLeod, and became fully operational by 6 April.<ref name=BrownSkye /> Skye was split into four sections, relating to different divisions of the Fourth Army<ref group=note>Operation Skye: (I) Fourth Army headquarters, (II) British II Corps, (III) American XV Corps (a genuine formation but with fictional units added to its order of battle), (IV) British VII Corps.</ref>

==After invasion==
On 20 July, [[Ops (B)]] took over control of Fortitude South from R Force. The previous month, it had begun work to follow up the operation.<ref name=Holt584/> The new story centered on the idea that Eisenhower had decided to defeat the Germans through the existing beachhead. As a result, elements of FUSAG had been detached and sent to reinforce Normandy, and a second smaller Second American Army Group (SUSAG) would be formed to threaten the Pas-de-Calais.<ref name=Holt585/>

The plan again met criticism from Strangeways. Firstly, he opposed the creation of so many fictional US formations in the face of a known manpower shortage. Secondly, the new plan reduced the threat to Pas-de-Calais which might give the German command confidence to move the Fifteenth Army to reinforce Normandy. As before, in late June, Strangeways rewrote the operation to ensure that the focus remained on Calais.<ref name=Holt585/> In his version, the Normandy beachhead was struggling to succeed and so Eisenhower had taken elements of FUSAG to reinforce its efforts. FUSAG would then be rebuilt with newly-arrived US formations with the aim of landing in France toward the end of July.<ref name=Holt586/>

In order to explain Patton's appearance in Normandy, news was transmitted of a rumour that Patton had refused to transfer any of his units to Montgomery's 21st Army Group, and as a result had been demoted and given the lesser command of the [[Third United States Army]]. His replacement at FUSAG was Lieutenant General [[Lesley J. McNair]], but after touring Southeast England, he visited Normandy where he was accidentally killed on 24 July in an Allied air raid and was subsequently replaced by General [[John L. DeWitt]].<ref>Levine (2011), pp. 290-292</ref> 

Through the evolved plan, the Allies maintained the pretense of FUSAG and other forces threatening Pas-de-Calais for some considerable time after D-Day, possibly even as late as September 1944. That was vital to the success of the Allied plan by forcing the Germans to keep most of their reserves bottled up in wait for an attack on Calais that never came. That allowed the Allies to maintain and to build upon their foothold in Normandy.<ref name=Holt630/> Having served its purpose, on 28 September 1944, it was agreed to end the Fortitude deception and to move any remaining operational deceptions in the field to the overall charge of Ops (B).<ref name=Holt630/>

==Impact==
The Allies were able to judge how well Fortitude worked because of [[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]], the [[signals intelligence]] that was obtained by breaking German codes and ciphers. On 1 June, a decrypted transmission by [[Hiroshi Ōshima]], the Japanese ambassador, to his government recounted a recent conversation with Hitler and confirmed the effectiveness of Fortitude. When asked for Hitler's thoughts on the Allied battle plan, he had said, "I think that diversionary actions will take place in a number of places{{snd}} against Norway, Denmark, the southern part of western France, and the French Mediterranean coast".<ref name=HoltUltra>Holt 2004, pp. 565–566</ref> He added that he expected the Allies would then attack in force across the [[Strait of Dover]].<ref name=HoltUltra/>

The deception was also assisted by very high German assessments of Allied capabilities. In an appreciation of 8 May von Rundstedt said:{{sfn| Kenyon |2019|p=170}}

{{Quote|Observed tonnage of landing shipping could be taken as sufficient for 12 or 13 divisions (less heavy equipment and rear elements) for fairly short sea routes. In all (estimating the capacity of the other English ports not so far covered by visual and photo recce) probable employment of at least 20 and probably more divisions in first wave must be expected. To these must be added strong air-landing forces.}}

During the course of Fortitude, the almost-complete lack of German aerial reconnaissance, together with the absence of uncontrolled German agents in Britain, came to make physical deception almost irrelevant. The unreliability of "diplomatic leaks" resulted in their discontinuance. Most deception in the south was carried out by means of false wireless traffic and through German double agents. However, those methods had significantly less impact for Fortitude North. In his 2000 book, ''Fortitude: The D-Day Deception Campaign'', [[Roger Fleetwood-Hesketh]], a member of Ops (B), concluded that "no evidence has so far been found to show that wireless deception or visual misdirection made any contribution". It is thought that the Germans were not actually monitoring the radio traffic that was being simulated.<ref>Hesketh, p. 167</ref>

Overall, Fortitude was successful for several reasons:

* The long-term view taken by British Intelligence to cultivate double agents as channels of [[disinformation]] to the enemy.
* The use of Ultra decrypts of machine-encrypted messages between the [[Abwehr]] and the [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht|German High Command]], which quickly indicated the effectiveness of deception tactics. That is one of the early uses of a [[Control theory#Closed-loop transfer function|closed-loop]] deception system. The messages were usually encrypted by [[Fish (cryptography)|Fish]], rather than [[Enigma machine|Enigma]] machines.
* [[Reginald Victor Jones]], the Assistant Director Intelligence (Science) at the British [[Air Ministry]], insisted that for reasons of tactical deception, for every radar station attacked within the real invasion area, two were to be attacked outside it.
* The extensive nature of the German intelligence machinery and the rivalry among the various elements.
* [[General (United States)|General]] [[George Patton]] was the leader whom the Germans feared the most, and they considered him the Allies' best general.<ref name=Beevor571/> Therefore, the German High Command believed that he would lead the daring attack.

One author says that on 5 June before he gave the ''Go'' message for Overlord, Eisenhower received a message that was couriered from Bletchley Park and had been sent by Hitler to Rommel with battle orders that the invasion of Normandy was imminent but that it was a feint to draw troops away from the real invasion five days later against the Channel Ports, and Rommel was not to move any troops. That would mean that the Allies would have five days without determined opposition. It was sent in a ''Fish'' radio message and decrypted by Colossus, according to an account by Tommy Flowers.{{sfn|Abrutat |2019|p=173}} Another author doubts whether Hitler would have sent messages about the invasion at the time since the invasion fleet had sailed on 4 June but was then postponed for 24 hours, and even with Colossus, Fish decrypts could take days or weeks. He thinks that Flowers may have embellished or misremembered the story in later life. Hitler’s views on the real invasion are widely attributed to the message from the Japanese ambassador to Berlin, Ōshima, after a 27 May meeting. Anyway, during the first week of June 1944, Eisenhower was more concerned with the weather than whether the Germans had been misled about the invasion's location.{{sfn|Kenyon |2019|pp=59,60,175}}

==Fictional depictions==
Operation Fortitude was classified, along with all of the wartime deceptions, and initial accounts did not emerge until the 1970s. Once published, however, the story inspired a number of fictional accounts:

* ''[[Eye of the Needle (novel)|Eye of the Needle]]'' is a [[1978 in literature|1978]] novel by [[Ken Follett]] about a Nazi spy stationed in the south of England who discovers the Allied deception and races to inform the German leadership. It was subsequently adapted into a [[Eye of the Needle (film)|1981 film of the same name]], starring [[Donald Sutherland]].
* ''Fall from Grace'' is a [[1986 in literature|1986]] novel by [[Larry Collins (writer)|Larry Collins]] about a French agent, Catherine Pradier, who risks her life to deceive the Nazis as to where and when the Allies will invade the Continent of Europe and begin the end of World War II.
*[[Jack Higgins]]'s [[1991 in literature|1991]] novel ''[[The Eagle Has Flown]]'' ends with a conference between [[Adolf Hitler]] and two-high ranking German military intelligence officers, including ''[[Abwehr]]'' head [[Wilhelm Canaris]], who are solidly convinced that the Allies are planning to invade Normandy, but Hitler is unswayed from his belief that Calais is the intended target.
* ''[[The Unlikely Spy]]'' is a [[1996 in literature|1996]] novel by [[Daniel Silva (novelist)|Daniel Silva]] that likewise focuses on Allied attempts to carry out Fortitude as well as a German agent's race to discover the true plans.
* ''[[Goodnight Sweetheart (TV series)|Goodnight Sweetheart]]'' is a BBC TV comedy series that features a time-traveller, Gary Sparrow. In two episodes of [[List of Goodnight Sweetheart episodes#Series 5 (1998)|Series 5]] aired in 1998, Gary, when he returns to 1944, appears to be the double of one of General [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s aides. He is used in that guise by MI5 and is sent to Calais; he makes contact with the [[French Resistance]] but is captured by the [[Gestapo]]. All of that was planned to reinforce the Pas-de-Calais invasion deception. Luckily, Gary is able to escape and to return to England.
* ''[[Blackout/All Clear|Blackout]]'' and ''[[All Clear]]'', is a [[2010 in literature|2010]] two-volume novel by [[Connie Willis]], about time-travelling historians who study the events of the [[Battle of Britain]]. One of the historians, posing as an American journalist, ends up working for Operation Fortitude.
* In a lawsuit, aspiring screenwriter Simon Afram stated that he gave director [[Martin Scorsese]] $500,000 to develop his screenplay about the event, which was titled ''Operation Fortitude'', only for Scorsese to then do nothing.<ref name=lawsuitoperationfortitutde /><ref name=lawsuitoperationfortitude>{{cite news|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/martin-scorsese-lawsuit-settlement-1235858502/|title=Martin Scorsese Settles Lawsuit Over Claims He Reneged on Deal to Produce World War II Movie|first=Winston|last=Cho|publisher=The Hollywood Reporter|date=March 22, 2024|accessdate=August 1, 2024}}</ref> The lawsuit would be settled in March 2024.<ref name=lawsuitoperationfortitude /><ref name=lawsuitoperationfortitutde>{{cite news|url=https://variety.com/2024/film/news/martin-scorsese-lawsuit-settles-operation-fortitude-1235949718/|title=Martin Scorsese Settles Lawsuit with Screenwriter Who Accused Him of Taking $500,000 to Do Nothing|first=Gene|last=Maddaus|publisher=Variety|date=March 22, 2024|accessdate=August 1, 2024}}</ref>

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|20em|refs=
<!-- Beevor -->
<ref name=Beevor571>Beevor (2012), p. 571</ref>
<!-- Deuve -->
<ref name=Deuve231>Deuve (2011), pp. 231–233</ref>
<ref name=Deuve234>Deuve (2011), pp. 234–238</ref>
<ref name=Deuve238>Deuve (2011), pp. 238–239</ref>
<ref name=Deuve239>Deuve (2011), pp. 239–242</ref>
<ref name=Deuve242>Deuve (2011), pp. 242</ref>
<!-- Janeczko -->
<ref name=Janeczko162>Janeczko (2017), pp. 162–163</ref>
<!-- Holt -->
<ref name=Holt50>Holt (2004), pp. 50–51</ref>
<ref name=Holt531>Holt (2004), p. 531</ref>
<ref name=Holt532>Holt (2004), p. 532</ref>
<ref name=Holt533>Holt (2004), p. 533</ref>
<ref name=Holt534>Holt (2004), p. 534</ref>
<ref name=Holt535>Holt (2004), p. 535</ref>
<ref name=Holt536>Holt (2004), pp. 536–537</ref>
<ref name=Holt537>Holt (2004), p. 537</ref>
<ref name=Holt541>Holt (2004), p. 541</ref>
<ref name=Holt578>Holt (2004), pp. 578–579</ref>
<ref name=Holt584>Holt (2004), p. 584</ref>
<ref name=Holt585>Holt (2004), p. 585</ref>
<ref name=Holt586>Holt (2004), p. 586</ref>
<ref name=Holt630>Holt (2004), p. 630</ref>
<!-- Levine -->
<ref name=Levine202>Levine (2011), p. 202</ref>
<ref name=Levine203>Levine (2011), pp. 203–204</ref>
<ref name=Levine205>Levine (2011), pp. 205–206</ref>
<ref name=Levine206>Levine (2011), p. 206</ref>
<ref name=Levine207>Levine (2011), p. 207</ref>
<ref name=Levine208>Levine (2011), p. 208</ref>
<!-- Gawne -->
<ref name=Gawne>Gawne (2002), p.</ref>
<!-- Masterman -->
<ref name=Masterman223>Masterman (1972), p. 223</ref>
<!-- Howard -->
<ref name=Howard120>Howard (1990), p. 120</ref>
}}

=== General and cited references ===
* {{Cite book |last=Ambrose |first=Stephen E. |date=1994 |title=D-Day, June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0-671-88403-4 |oclc=29357128}}
* {{Cite book |last=Abrutat |first=David |year=2019 |title=Vanguard: The True Stories of the Reconnaissance and Intelligence Missions Behind D-Day |location=Annapolis, Maryland |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-1-912690-63-3 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |date=2012 |title=The Second World War |location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |isbn=978-0-297-84497-6 |oclc=795194477}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Anthony Cave  |date=1975|title=Bodyguard of Lies |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=0-06-010551-8 |oclc=1340409}}
* {{Cite book |last=Delmer |first=Sefton |date=1971 |title=The Counterfeit Spy |edition=1st U.S. |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=0-06-011019-8 |oclc=207065}}
* {{Cite book |last=Deuve |first=Jean |date=2010 |title=Tajna historia podstępu: w czasie II wojny światowej |others=Krystyna Szeżyńska-Maćkowiak |location=Warsaw |publisher=Muza |isbn=978-83-7495-858-5 |oclc=751107447}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gawne |first=Jonathan |date=2014 |title=Ghosts of the ETO: American Tactical Deception Units in the European Theater, 1944–1945 |location=Havertown, PA |publisher=Casemate |isbn=978-1-61200-250-7 |oclc=883514798}}
* {{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |date=1990 |title=Strategic Deception in the Second World War |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton |isbn=0-393-31293-3 |oclc=33807546}}
* {{Cite book |last=Holt |first=Thaddeus |date=2004 |title=The Deceivers: Allied Military Deception in the Second World War |location=New York |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-1-4391-0388-3 |oclc=893114283}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Tomás |title=Garbo: The Spy Who Saved D-Day |date=2000 |publisher=Public Record Office |location=Richmond, Surrey, UK |isbn=1-873162-81-2 |oclc=43879083}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hesketh |first=Roger |year=2000 |title=Fortitude: The D-Day Deception Campaign |url=https://archive.org/details/fortitudeddaydec00he |url-access=registration |location=Woodstock, NY |publisher=The Overlook Press |isbn=1-58567-075-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Paul |first=Janeczko |year=2017 |title=Double Cross: Deception Techniques in War |edition=First |location=Somerville, Massachusetts |publisher=Candlewick Press |isbn=9780763675714 |oclc=988027571}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kenyon |first=David |date=2019 |title=Bletchley Park and D-Day: The Untold Story of How the Battle for Normandy Was Won |location=New Haven and London |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24357-4 }}
* {{Cite book |author=Latimer, Jon |author-link=Jon Latimer |year=2001 |title=Deception in War |location=New York |publisher=Overlook Press |isbn=978-1-58567-381-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Levine |first=Joshua |date=2011 |title=Operation Fortitude: The Story of the Spy Operation That Saved D-Day |url=https://archive.org/details/operationfortitu0000levi_n0r7/mode/2up |url-access=registration |location=London |publisher=Collins |isbn=978-0-00-731353-2 |oclc=751685307}}
* {{Cite book |last=Marks |first=Leo |year=1998 |title=Between Silk and Cyanide: A Codemaker's War 1941–1945 |location=London |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-00-653063-X}}
* {{Cite book |last=Masterman |first=John C. |author-link=John Cecil Masterman |year=1972 |title=The Double-Cross System in the War of 1939 to 1945 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University Press |isbn=978-0-7081-0459-0 }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Sexton, Donal J. |year=1983 |title=Phantoms of the North: British Deceptions in Scandinavia, 1941–1944 |journal=Military Affairs |publisher=Society for Military History |volume=47 |number=3 |pages=109–114 |doi=10.2307/1988080 |issn=0026-3931 |jstor=1988080}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Battle of Normandy}}
{{Allied Military Deception in World War II}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fortitude}}
[[Category:Operation Fortitude| ]]
[[Category:World War II deception operations]]
[[Category:Operation Overlord]]