Editing Oreopithecus

{{Short description|Extinct genus of hominid from the Miocene}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = <br/>9–7 Million years ago
| image = Oreopithecus bambolii 1.JPG
| image_caption = ''Oreopithecus bambolii'' fossil
| taxon = Oreopithecus
| authority = [[Paul Gervais|Gervais]], 1872
| type_species = '''''Oreopithecus bambolii'''''
| type_species_authority = Gervais, 1872
}}

'''''Oreopithecus''''' (from the Greek {{lang|grc|[[wikt:ὄρος|ὄρος]]}}, {{transliteration|grc|oros}} and {{lang|grc|[[wikt:πίθηκος|πίθηκος]]}}, {{transliteration|grc|pithekos}}, meaning "hill-ape") is an [[extinction|extinct]]  genus of [[ape]] from the [[Miocene]] epoch whose [[fossil]]s have been found in today's [[Tuscany]] and [[Sardinia]] in [[Italy]].<ref name="NSW-20191223">{{cite news |last=Osbourne |first=Hannah |title=Strange swamp-dwelling prehistroic ape that counldn't walk on two legs or climb trees poses evolutionary puzzle |url=https://www.newsweek.com/strange-swamp-dwelling-prehistoric-ape-that-couldnt-walk-two-legs-climb-trees-poses-evolutionary-1478852 |date=December 23, 2019 |magazine=[[Newsweek]] |access-date=December 23, 2019 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> It existed 9–7 million years ago in the Tusco-Sardinian area when this region was an isolated island in a chain of islands stretching from [[central Europe]] to [[northern Africa]] in what was becoming the [[Mediterranean Sea]].{{efn|In what remained of the [[Tethys Sea]], or what was becoming the [[Mediterranean Sea]]; see [[Mediterranean Basin#Geology and paleoclimatology|Geology and paleoclimatology of the Mediterranean Basin]]; see also [[Messinian salinity crisis]].}}

''Oreopithecus'' was one of many European immigrants that settled this area in the [[Vallesian]]–[[Turolian]] transition and one of few hominoids, together with ''[[Sivapithecus]]'' in Asia, to survive the so-called [[Vallesian|Vallesian Crisis]].<ref name="Agustí">{{harvnb|Agustí|Antón|2002| pp=Prefix ''ix'', 174–175, 193, 197–199}}</ref> To date, dozens of individuals have been discovered at the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] localities of <!-- ref for localities -->[[Montebamboli]], [[Montemassi]], Casteani, [[Ribolla]], and, most notably, in the fossil-rich lignite mine in the [[Baccinello|Baccinello Basin]],<ref name="Agustí" /> making it one of the best-represented fossil [[ape]]s.

==Evolutionary history==
''Oreopithecus bambolii'' was first described by French paleontologist [[Paul Gervais]] in 1872,<ref>Paul Gervais, 1872, "Sur un singe fossile, d'espèce non encore décrite, qui a été decouvert au Monte-Bamboli (Italie)", ''Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences''. '''74''': 1217–1223</ref><ref>Gervais, P. 1872. "Coup d'oeil sur les mammifères d'Ialie, suivie de la description d'une espèce nouvelle de singe provenant des lignites du Monte Bamboli". ''Journal de Zoologie'' '''1''': 219-235</ref> after the discovery of a juvenile mandible in a lignite mine at Montebamboli in 1862 by Tito Nardi, who donate the specimen to Professor [[Igino Cocchi]].<ref>Cioppi, E., Sozzi, M., & Pieraccioli, R. (2024). 150 years of discoveries, research and debates on Oreopitechus bambolii Gervais, 1872. Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana, 63(2), 110.</ref> In 1890, nearly a dozen new specimens were reported by Guiseppe Ristori, among them an upper jaw.<ref>Ristori, G. 1890. "Le Scimmie fossile italiane". ''Bollettino del Reale Comitato geologico d'Italia''. '''21''': 178-196, 225-234</ref> In 1898, a left lower jaw was described by Felice Ottolenghi.<ref>Ottolenghi F. 1898. "Nota sopra una scimmia fossile italiana". ''Atti della Società Ligustica di Scienze Naturali e Geografiche'', '''9''': 399-403</ref> In 1907, Giuseppe Merciai reported four maxillae and a lower jaw from the Grosseto mine at Ribolla.<ref>Merciai G. 1907. "Sopra alcuni resti di vertebrati miocenici delle ligniti di Ribolla". ''Atti della Società Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Memorie, Serie A'', '''23''': 79-86</ref> During this period there was no consensus whether ''Oreopithecus'' was a monkey or an ape.<ref>Delson, E. 1986. "An anthropoid enigma: historical introduction to the study of ''Oreopithecus bambolii''". ''Journal of Human Evolution'' '''15''': 523–531</ref>

From 1949 onwards, Swiss paleontologist [[Johannes Hürzeler]] began to restudy the known material.<ref>Hürzeler J. 1949. "Neubeschreibung von ''Oreopithecus bambolii'' Gervais". ''Schweizerische Paläontologische Abhandlungen'', '''66''': 1-20</ref><ref>Hürzeler, J. 1952. "Contribution à l'étude de la dentition de lait d' ''Oreopithecus bambolii'' Gervais". ''Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae'' '''44''': 404-411</ref> In 1954, 1955, 1956, and 1958, he claimed ''Oreopithecus'' were a true hominin—based on its premolars, short jaws and reduced [[Canine tooth|canines]], at the time considered diagnostic of the hominin family.<ref>Hürzeler J. 1954. "Zur systematischen Stellung von ''Oreopithecus''". ''Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft (Basel)'' '''65''': 88–95</ref><ref>Hürzeler, J. 1956. "''Oreopithecus'', un point de repère pour l'histoire de l'humanité a l'ère Tertiare". ''Problèmes Actuels de Paléontologie'', pp. 115-121. Paris: CNRS</ref><ref>Johannes Hürzeler, 1958, "''Oreopithecus bambolii'' Gervais: a preliminary report", ''Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft Basel''. '''69''': 1–47</ref> This hypothesis immediately became a hotly discussed topic among his fellow paleontolgists.<ref>Koenigswald, G.H.R. von, I955, "Remarks on ''Oreopithecus''". ''Rivista di Scienze Preistoriche''. '''10''': 1-11</ref><ref>Viret, J. 1955. "A propos de l'Oreopithèque". ''Mammalia'' '''19''': 320-324</ref><ref>Remane, A. 1955. "Ist ''Oreopithecus'' ein Hominide?" ''Abhandlungen der Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur zu Mainz'' '''12''': 467-497</ref><ref>Loren C. Eiseley, 1956, "Oreopithecus: Humunculus or Monkey?", ''Scientific American'' '''194'''(6): 91-104</ref><ref>Straus W.L. Jr. 1957. "''Oreopithecus bambolii''". ''Science'' '''126''': 345-346</ref> When he toured the world to give a series of lectures, his views generated an enormous press coverage, often being presented as a challenge to the Darwinian descent of man from apes.<ref>Clara Florensa, 2016, "‘Darwin was Wrong.’ The International Media Coverage of the ''Oreopithecus''’ Reinterpretation (1956–1959)", ''Centaurus'' '''58'''(3): 219-238</ref> After Hürzeler was invited to give a lecture in [[New York (state)|New York]] in March 1956, the [[Wenner-Gren Foundation]] decided to finance excavations in Italy, with the cooperation of the Italian paleontologist [[Alberto Carlo Blanc]]. On 2 August 1958, Hürzeler's views seemed to be confirmed when he discovered a complete skeleton in [[Baccinello]],<ref>Straus W.L. Jr. 1958. "A new ''Oreopithecus'' skeleton". ''Science'' '''128''': 523</ref> which in 1960 he interpreted as a [[Bipedalism|biped]] because of the short [[pelvis]] was closer to those of hominins than those of [[chimpanzee]]s and [[gorilla]]s.<ref>Hürzeler, J. 1960. "The significance of ''Oreopithecus'' in the genealogy of man". ''Triangle'' '''4''': 164-175</ref> Hominin affinities claimed for ''Oreopithecus'' remained controversial for decades until new analyses in the 1990s reasserted that ''Oreopithecus'' was directly related to ''[[Dryopithecus]]''. The peculiar cranial and dental features were explained as consequences of [[Island|insular]] isolation.

This new evidence confirmed that ''Oreopithecus'' was bipedal but also revealed that its peculiar form of bipedalism was much different from that of ''[[Australopithecus]]''. The [[hallux]] formed a 100°&nbsp;angle with the other toes, which enabled the foot to act as a tripod in erect posture, but prevented ''Oreopithecus'' from developing a fast bipedal stride. When a land bridge broke the isolation of the Tusco-Sardinian area {{mya|6.5}}, large predators such as ''[[Machairodus]]'' and ''[[Metailurus]]'' were present among the new generation of European immigrants and ''Oreopithecus'' faced quick extinction together with other endemic genera.<ref name="Agustí"/><!-- ref for para, mostly pp. 197–199 -->{{efn|A parallel to the [[Great American Interchange]] two million years later.}}

===Taxonomic classification===
Known as the "enigmatic [[hominoid]]", ''Oreopithecus'' can dramatically rewrite the palaeontological map depending on whether it is a descendant of the European ape ''[[Dryopithecus]]'' or an African [[Anthropoidea|anthropoid]].<ref name="Agustí"/> Some have suggested the unique locomotory behavior of ''Oreopithecus'' requires a revision of the current consensus on the timing of bipedality in human developmental history, but there is limited agreement on this point among [[paleontologist]]s.

Simons (1960) considered ''Oreopithecus'' closely related to the early Oligocene ''[[Apidium]]'', a small arboreal anthropoid that lived nearly 34&nbsp;million years ago in Egypt.<ref name="Simons-1960">{{harvnb|Simons|1960}}</ref> ''Oreopithecus'' shows strong links to modern apes in its [[postcranium]] and, in this respect, it is the most modern Miocene ape below the neck, with closest similarities to the postcranial elements of ''[[Dryopithecus]]'', but its dentition is adapted to a leafy diet and a close link is uncertain. Others claim it to be either the sister taxon to [[Cercopithecoidea]] or an even direct human ancestor, but it is usually placed in its own subfamily within [[Hominidae]]. It could instead be added to the same subfamily as ''Dryopithecus'', perhaps as a distinct tribe (Oreopithecini).<ref name="Delson-2000">{{harvnb|Delson|Tattersall|Van Couvering|2000| p=465}}</ref> A cladistic analysis of ''Nyanzapithecus alesi'' recovers ''Oreopithecus'' as a member of the proconsulid subfamily [[Nyanzapithecinae]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Isaiah |last1=Nengo |first2=Paul |last2=Tafforeau |first3=Christopher C. |last3=Gilbert |first4=John G. |last4=Fleagle |first5=Ellen R. |last5=Miller |first6=Craig |last6=Feibel |first7=David L. |last7=Fox |first8=Josh |last8=Feinberg |first9=Kelsey D. |last9=Pugh |first10=Camille |last10=Berruyer |first11=Sara |last11=Mana |first12=Zachary |last12=Engle |first13=Fred |last13=Spoor |display-authors=6 |year=2017 |title=New infant cranium from the African Miocene sheds light on ape evolution |journal=Nature |volume=548 |issue=7666 |pages=169–174 |doi=10.1038/nature23456|pmid=28796200 |bibcode=2017Natur.548..169N |s2cid=4397839 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1570349/1/Spoor_Nengo-et-al_text.pdf }}</ref> A 2023 phylogenetic analysis suggested found a close relationship with [[gibbon]]s, though the author suggested that this was likely due to having a similar climbing lifestyle and retained plesiomorphies, rather than a real close relationship, but suggested that it was unlikely that ''Oreopithecus'' was a member of Hominidae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Kelsey D. |date=April 2022 |title=Phylogenetic analysis of Middle-Late Miocene apes |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |language=en |volume=165 |pages=103140 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.103140|doi-access=free |pmid=35272113 |bibcode=2022JHumE.16503140P }}</ref>

==Physical characteristics==
{{Human timeline}}

''Oreopithecus bambolii'' is estimated to have weighed {{convert|30|–|35|kg|abbr=on}}. It possessed a relatively short snout, elevated nasal bones, small and globular [[neurocranium]], vertical [[Maxilla|orbital plane]], and [[Gracility|gracile]] facial bones. The shearing crests on its [[molar teeth|molars]] suggest a diet specializing in plant leaves. The very robust lower face, with a large attachment surface for the [[masseter muscle]] and a [[sagittal crest]] for attachment of the [[temporal muscle]], indicates a heavy [[Mastication|masticatory]] apparatus.

Its teeth were small relative to body size. The lack of a diastema (gap) between the second [[incisor]] and first [[premolar]] of the [[mandible]] indicates that ''Oreopithecus'' had [[canine teeth|canines]] of size comparable to the rest of its dentition. In many primates, small canines correlate with reduced inter-male competition for access to mates and less [[sexual dimorphism]].

===Positional behavior===
Its habitat appears to have been [[swamp]]y, and not [[savanna]] or [[forest]]. The postcranial anatomy of ''Oreopithecus'' features adaptations for suspensory arborealism. Functional traits related to suspensory locomotion include its broad thorax, short trunk, high [[intermembral index]], long and slender digits, and extensive mobility in virtually all joints. Its fingers and arms seem to show adaptations for climbing and swinging.

Its foot has been described as chimp-like, but is different from those of extant primates. The habitual line of leverage of the primate foot is parallel to the third [[metatarsal bone]]. In ''Oreopithecus'', the [[Anatomical terms of location#Left and right (lateral), and medial|lateral]] metatarsals are permanently [[Abduction (kinesiology)|abducted]] so that this line falls between the first and second metatarsals instead. Furthermore, the shape of the [[tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] indicate loads on the foot were transmitted to the medial side of the foot instead of the lateral, like in other primates.<ref name="Köhler-1997">{{harvnb|Köhler|Moyà-Solà|1997}}</ref> The metatarsals are short and straight, but have a lateral orientation increase. Its foot proportions are close to the unusual proportions of ''Gorilla'' and ''Homo'' but are distinct from those found in specialized climbers. The lack of predators and the limitation of space and resources in ''Oreopithecus''{{'}} insular environment favored a locomotor system optimized for low energy expenditure rather than speed and mobility.<ref name="Köhler-1997"/>

''Oreopithecus'' has been claimed to exhibit features that are adaptations to upright walking, such as the presence of a [[lumbar]] curve, in distinction to otherwise similar species known from the same period. Since the fossils have been dated to about 8 [[million years ago]], this would represent an unusually early appearance of upright posture.<ref name="Köhler-1997"/> However, a reevaluation of the spine from a skeleton of ''Oreopithecus'' has led to the conclusion that it lacked adaptations for habitual [[biped]]ality.<ref name="Ghose_2013">{{cite web |last=Ghose |first=Tia |title=Strange ancient ape walked on all fours |website=LiveScience.Com |publisher=TechMedia Network |date=2013-08-05 |url=http://www.livescience.com/38643-ancient-ape-walked-on-all-fours.html |access-date=2013-08-07 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="RussoShapiro2013">{{cite journal |last1=Russo |first1=G.A. |last2=Shapiro |first2=L.J. |title=Reevaluation of the lumbosacral region of ''Oreopithecus bambolii'' |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |date=2013-07-23 |df=dmy-all |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.05.004 |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=253–265 |pmid=23891006|bibcode=2013JHumE..65..253R }}</ref>

====Semicircular canals====
The [[semicircular canal]]s of the inner ear serves as a sense organ for balance and controls the reflex for gaze stabilization. The inner ear has three canals on each side of the head, and each of the six canals encloses a membranous duct that forms an [[endolymph]]-filled circuit. Hair cells in the duct's [[auditory ampulla]] pick up endolymph disturbances caused by movement, which register as rotatory head movement. They respond to body sway of frequencies greater than 0.1&nbsp;Hz and trigger the vestibulocollic (neck) reflex and vestibuloocular (eye) reflex to recover balance and gaze stability. The bony semicircular canals allow estimates of duct arc length and orientation with respect to the sagittal plane.

Across species, the semicircular canals of agile animals have larger arcs than those of slower ones. For example, the rapid leaper ''[[Tarsius bancanus]]'' has semicircular canals much bigger than the slow-climbing ''[[Nycticebus coucang]]''. The semicircular canals of brachiating [[gibbon]]s are bigger than those of arboreal and terrestrial quadrupedal [[great ape]]s. As a rule of thumb, arc size of the ducts ''decreases'' with body mass and consequently slower angular head motions. Arc size ''increases'' with greater agility and thus more rapid head motions. Modern [[human]]s have bigger arcs on their anterior and posterior canals, which reflect greater angular motion along the sagittal plane. The lateral canal has a smaller arc size, corresponding to reduced head movement from side to side.
<ref name="Spoor-2003-p96">{{harvnb|Spoor|2003|pp=96–97}}</ref><!-- ref for para -->

[[Allometry|Allometric]] measurements on the [[bony labyrinth]] of BAC-208, a fragmentary cranium that preserves a complete, undeformed [[Petrous part of the temporal bone|petrosal bone]] suggest that ''Oreopithecus'' moved with agility comparable to extant [[great apes]]. Its anterior and lateral semicircular canal sizes fall within the range for great apes.
<ref name="Rook2004-p355">{{harvnb|Rook|Bondioli|Casali|Rossi|2004| p=355}}</ref>
Its relatively large posterior arc implies that ''Oreopithecus'' was more proficient at stabilizing angular head motion along the sagittal plane.

===Dexterity===
''Oreopithecus'' had hominin-like hand proportions that allowed a firm, pad-to-pad precision grip. Features present in the hands of neither non-human-extant nor fossil apes include hand length, relative thumb length, a deep and large insertion for the [[Flexor pollicis longus muscle|flexor pollicis longus]], and the shape of the [[carpometacarpal joint]] between the [[second metacarpal bone|metacarpal bone of the index finger]] and the [[capitate bone]].
<ref name="Moyà-Solà-1999">{{harvnb|Moyà-Solà|Köhler|Rook|1999}}</ref><!-- Abstract -->
At the base of the [[second metacarpal bone]], the facet for the [[Capitate bone|capitate]] is oriented transversally, as in hominins. The capitate, on the other hand, lacks the waisting associated with apes and climbing, and still present in ''[[Australopithecus]]''. ''Oreopithecus'' share the specialised orientation at the carpometacarpal joint with ''[[Australopithecus afarensis|A. afarenis]]'' and the marked groove for the flexor pollicis longus with ''[[Australopithecus africanus|A. africanus]]''. It is thus likely that the hand morphology of ''Oreopithecus'' is [[Synapomorphy|derived]] for apes and [[convergent evolution|convergent]] for early hominins.
<ref name="Moyà-Solà-1999"/><!-- pp 315–316 -->

==See also==
{{Portal|Paleontology}}
*[[List of fossil sites]]
* [[List of human evolution fossils]] ''(with images)''

==Explanations==
{{notelist|1}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|colwidth=25em}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Köhler |first1=Meike
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* {{cite journal |last1=Moyà-Solà |first1=Salvador
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* {{cite journal |last1=Rook |first1=Lorenzo
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* {{cite journal |last1=Rook |first1=L.
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* {{cite journal |last=Simons |first=Elwyn L.
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*{{cite book |last=Spoor |first=Fred <!-- see http://www.eva.mpg.de/evolution/staff/spoor/research.htm -->
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 |title=Walking Upright: Results of the 13th International Senckenberg Conference at the Werner Reimers Foundation
 |editor1-last=Franzen |editor1-first=Jens Lorenz
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{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
* {{cite web
 |last=Fitzpatrick-Matthews |first=Keith
 |title=A child's jaw in coal?
 |website=Bad Archaeology
 |url=http://www.badarchaeology.com/out-of-place-artefacts/anomalous-human-remains/oreopithecus/
 |access-date=16 December 2016
}} — A photo of an ''Oreopithecus bamboli'' jaw
* {{cite web
 |title       = †Oreopithecidae
 |publisher   = Mikko's Phylogeny Archive
 |url         = http://www.fmnh.helsinki.fi/users/haaramo/metazoa/Deuterostoma/Chordata/Synapsida/Eutheria/Primates/Parapithecoidea/Oreopithecidae.htm
 |access-date = 15 November 2010
 |url-status  = dead
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080111093450/http://www.fmnh.helsinki.fi/users/haaramo/Metazoa/Deuterostoma/Chordata/Synapsida/Eutheria/Primates/Parapithecoidea/Oreopithecidae.htm
 |archive-date = 2008-01-11 |df=dmy-all
}}

{{Haplorhini|Ho.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q131700}}
[[Category:Miocene primates of Europe]]<!-- for when it is considered an early catarrhine -->
[[Category:Prehistoric apes]] <!-- for when it is considered the precursor to the great apes -->
[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 1872]]
[[Category:Prehistoric mammals of Europe]]
[[Category:Monotypic prehistoric primate genera]]