Editing Osage language

{{short description|Siouan language}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Osage
| altname          = 
| nativename       = {{Script|Osge|𐓏𐒰𐓓𐒰𐓓𐒷 𐒻𐒷}} {{lang|osa-Latn|Wažáže ie}}
| states           = [[United States]]
| region           = [[Oklahoma]]
| ethnicity        = [[Osage Nation|Osage]]
| extinct          = 2005, with the death of [[Lucille Robedeaux]]
| revived          = As of 2009, 15-20 [[Second language|L2]] speakers, ongoing revival program
| familycolor      = American
| fam1             = [[Siouan languages|Siouan]]
| fam2             = [[Western Siouan languages|Western Siouan]]
| fam3             = Mississippi Valley
| fam4             = [[Dhegihan languages|Dhegihan]]
| fam5             = Kansa–Osage
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] (Osage alphabet), [[Osage script]]
| iso2             = osa
| iso3             = osa
| glotto           = osag1243
| glottorefname    = Osage
| linglist         = qlc
| lingname         = Kansa-Osage
| map              = Oklahoma Indian Languages.png
| mapcaption       = {{center|Map showing the distribution of [[Oklahoma]] [[Native American Languages|Indian Languages]]}}
| map2             = Lang Status 20-CR.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Osage is classified as Critically Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
}}
{{Contains special characters
| special    = Osage [[Unicode]] characters
| fix        = Help:Multilingual_support#Osage
| image      = Replacement character.svg
| link       = Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character
| alt        = <?>
| compact    = yes
}}

'''Osage''' ({{IPAc-en|oʊ|ˈ|s|eɪ|dʒ|,_|ˈ|oʊ|s|eɪ|dʒ}};<ref>{{OED|Osage}}</ref> Osage: {{Script|Osge|𐓏𐒰𐓓𐒰𐓓𐒷 𐒻𐒷}} ''Wažáže ie'') is a [[Siouan language]] that is spoken by the people of the [[Osage Nation]] in northern [[Oklahoma]]. Their original territory was in the present-day [[Ohio River Valley]], which they shared with other Siouan language nations. Slowly they migrated to present-day [[Missouri]] and [[Kansas]] areas (see [[Dhegihan migration]]), but they were gradually pushed west by pressure from invading colonial forces and settlement by other displaced Native American nations.

Osage has an inventory of sounds very similar to that of [[Dakota language|Dakota]], also a Siouan language, plus vowel length, [[preaspirated]] [[obstruent]]s and an [[interdental fricative]] (like "th" in English "then"). In contrast to Dakota, [[phoneme|phonemically]] [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] obstruents appear [[allophone|phonetically]] as [[affricate]]s, and the high back vowel *u has been fronted to {{IPA|[y]}}.

Osage is written primarily with two systems: one using the [[Latin script]] with [[diacritic]]s, and another derived [[Osage script]] created in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |title=Osage |url=https://www.endangeredalphabets.net/alphabets/osage/ |website=Atlas of Endangered Alphabets |date=29 November 2018 |access-date=26 October 2021}}</ref> Osage is among the few indigenous languages in the United States that has developed its own writing system.<!-- not counting diacritical Latin systems. "the final 2014 revision was included in [[Unicode]] version 9.0 in June 2016 in the [[Osage (Unicode block)|Osage block]].<ref>[http://unicode.org/versions/9.0.0.html Unicode version 9.0.0]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>" might be suited more for the Osage script entry instead -->

==Language revitalization==
As of 2009, about 15–20 elders were second-language speakers of Osage. The Osage Language Program, created in 2003, provides audio and video learning materials on its website.<ref>{{Cite web
 |title        = Osage Nation Language Welcome Page
 |work         = Osage Nation
 |access-date   = 2012-09-22
 |url          = http://www.osagetribe.com/language/welcome_sub_page.aspx?subpage_id=1
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20121018151553/http://www.osagetribe.com/language/welcome_sub_page.aspx?subpage_id=1
 |archive-date = 2012-10-18
 |url-status     = dead
}}</ref> The 2nd Annual Dhegiha Gathering in 2012 brought Osage, [[Kansa language|Kaw]], [[Quapaw language|Quapaw]], [[Ponca language|Ponca]] and [[Omaha language|Omaha]] speakers together to share best practices in language revitalization.<ref>{{Cite web
 |title       = Dhegiha Gathering Agenda, 2012
 |access-date  = 2012-09-22
 |url         = http://www.osagetribe.com/language/uploads/2ndAnnual-Agenda20120724.pdf
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130606080511/http://www.osagetribe.com/language/uploads/2ndAnnual-Agenda20120724.pdf
 |archive-date = 2013-06-06
}}</ref> In early 2015, Osage Nation Chief Geoffrey Standing Bear announced he would make Osage language immersion a priority.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Fluent Osage Speakers are a Priority for Osage Nation|url = http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2015/03/02/fluent-osage-speakers-are-priority-osage-nation-159428|website = Indian Country Today Media Network.com|access-date = 2015-10-05|last = HorseChief-Hamilton|first = Geneva|date = 2015-03-02|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150512232819/http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2015/03/02/fluent-osage-speakers-are-priority-osage-nation-159428|archive-date = 2015-05-12|url-status = dead}}</ref>

==Phonology==
Osage [[phonology]] is quite similar to that of [[Kansa language|Kansa]]. But, it preserves many historical alternations that have been leveled out in Kansa; for example, Kansa *u has merged with *i, whereas it is still largely distinct in Osage.

===Vowels===

====Basic vowels====
Osage has five plain [[vowel]]s:

{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |[[Front vowel|Front]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Central vowel|Central]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Unrounded vowel|<small>Unrounded</small>]]!![[Rounded vowel|<small>Rounded</small>]]
|- align="center"
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}} || colspan="2" |{{IPA link|y}} ~ {{IPA link|ʉ}}||
|- align="center"
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|ɛ}}|| ||{{IPA link|o}}
|- align="center"
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="2" | || colspan="2" |{{IPA link|ə}} ~ {{IPA link|ɑ}}
|}
These are written {{angle bracket|i u e o a}}. 

{{IPA|/u/}} varies between central and front, {{IPA|[ʉ ~ y]}}, and frequently unrounds to {{IPA|/i/}}. It is especially far front {{IPA|[y]}} following a velar obstruent and when it is near a front vowel with no intervening obstruent. It most commonly conflates with {{IPA|/i/}} following ''ð'' and ''n''.

Usually in fast speech, unstressed /a/ is pronounced {{IPA|[ə]}}.<ref>Quintero, 2009, p.xv</ref> This occurs after a stressed syllable, or at the end of a word. For example: {{IPA|céska [tsɛ́skə]}} 'cow', {{IPA|tóa [tóə]}} 'this one'.

====Nasalized vowels====
There are three vowels that carry this feature: {{IPA|[ɑ̃] [ĩ] [õ]}}. It is quite common for nasalized {{IPA|[ɑ̃]}} to become a nasal {{IPA|[õ]}} and vice versa. Non-nasalized vowels can be heard as nasalized as well. In general, vowels tend to become nasalized adjacent to another nasal vowel or consonant when there is no intervening obstruent. On the other hand, final nasal vowels tend to become oral. However, nasal vowels are always short, regardless of their position. 
Examples: {{IPA|[ʃímĩʒɛ]}} 'girl' and {{IPA|[paˑɣõ]}} 'mountain'

====Vowel clusters and long vowels====
According to Hans Wolff<ref name=article>{{cite journal|last=Wolff|first=Hans|title=Osage I: Phonemes and Historical Phonology|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|date=April 1952|volume=18|issue=2|pages=63–68|doi=10.1086/464151|s2cid=145019201}}</ref> (65), common Osage vowel clusters are:
*iu {{IPA|[iü]}} for example: niuʒõ 'Neosho River'
*íe {{IPA|[íɛ]~[íi]}} for example: wíe 'I'
*íĩ {{IPA|[íĩ]}} for example: kasíĩte 'tomorrow'
*iuĩ {{IPA|[üĩ]}} for example: ékiuĩka 'don't'
*éa {{IPA|[ɛ́a]~[ɛ́ə]}} for example: cʼéaðe 'I killed him'
*aĩ {{IPA|[ɛ̃]}} for example: hówaĩke 'where?'
*óa {{IPA|[óə]}} for example: tóa 'this one'

Vowel length is important in Osage, but it is hard to perceive and has a good deal of variation. For example, long vowels are often reduced to short ones when they are not accented.<ref name="Quintero, 2009, p.xvi">Quintero, 2009, p.xvi</ref> Quintero took long vowels to be the underlying form in such situations. There is not enough information to specify exactly how the accent system works in Osage, and there is still uncertainty about Osage vowel length.

Oral vowels are long before non-stop consonants and in final stressed position. When they are unstressed in final position, they are always short.

Lengthening of short vowels often occurs in questions.<ref name="Quintero, 2009, p.xvi">Quintero, 2009, p.xvi</ref>
:Example: {{IPA|/ʃkó̃ʃta/}} 'you want' becomes {{IPA|[ʃkó̃õʃta]}}?

Long vowels also arise when ð is omitted between identical vowels.<ref name="Quintero, 2009, p.xvi"/>

:Example: ðakʼéwaða 'be kind to them' may become ðakʼéwaa.

When e(e) changes to a(a), an immediately preceding c is often replaced by t (thought not always)<ref>Quintero, 2009, p.xvii</ref>

:Example: océ 'look for, hunt for' becomes otá 'look for it!'

====Diphthongs====

The vowel sequences {{IPA|/aĩ/}} {{IPA|/eĩ/}} {{IPA|/oĩ/}} and {{IPA|/ai/}} are almost certainly{{According to whom|date=February 2025}} diphthongs.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} The [[Osage script]] has letters to represent each of the diphthongs.

===Consonants===

There are thirty-one consonant phonemes in Osage,<ref name=":0" /> twenty-two of which are voiceless and nine are voiced. However, Osage has a rich system of stop sounds, known as the stop series, or the stop sequence. (See below)

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Dentalveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="5" | [[Stop consonant|Stops]]
! <small>[[Preaspirated|Preaspirated (fortis)]]</small>
| {{IPA link|ʰp}}~{{IPA link|pː}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ʰt}}~{{IPA link|tː}}, {{IPA link|ʰts}}~{{IPA link|tːs}}, {{IPA link|ʰtʃ}}~{{IPA link|tːʃ}}
| {{IPA link|ʰk}}~{{IPA link|kː}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Tenuis consonant|Tenuis (lenis)]]</small>
| {{IPA link|p}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|t}}, {{IPA link|ts}}, {{IPA link|tʃ}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
| ({{IPA link|ʔ}})
|-
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant|Aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA|px}}~{{IPA|pʃ}}
| {{IPA|tx}}~{{IPA link|tsʰ}}
|
| {{IPA link|kx}}~{{IPA|kʃ}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Ejective consonant|Ejective]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʼ}}
| {{IPA link|tsʼ}}
|
| {{IPA link|kʼ}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA|br}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative|Fricatives]]
|
| {{IPA link|s}}, {{IPA link|z}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}, {{IPA link|ʒ}}
| {{IPA link|x}}, {{IPA link|ɣ}}
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant|Approximants]]
|
| {{IPA link|ð}}, {{IPA link|l}}, ({{IPA link|r}})
|
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|}

====Stop series====

The stop series can be grouped according to five categories:

*Voiceless preaspirated or fortis: which may be pronounced as geminates or preaspirated. As in other Siouan languages they sometimes derive from h-C sequences, but not always.
*Voiceless plain or lenis: which are tenuis, and often lightly voiced.
*Postaspirated: which never appear as a surface form.<ref name="Quintero, 2004, p.19">Quintero, 2004, p.19</ref>
*Ejective {{IPA|/pʼ/, /t͡sʼ/, /kʼ/}}. They cannot appear as the second member of a consonant cluster. Historical *tʼ is {{IPA|/cʼ/}} in Osage.<ref>Quintero, 2004, p.24</ref>
*Voiced: with b being the only member in this category. The only environment this sound may appear in is in the cluster {{IPA|[br]}}. The cluster itself generally appears in the first verb form, otherwise it is somewhat infrequent.<ref name="Quintero, 2004, p.19"/>(see historical phonology section).
The ejective, fortis, and lenis series of the alphabet are not distinguished in Osage orthography.

Listed below is some features and phonological alternations of Osage:

*{{IPA|[px], [tx], [kx]}} occur before back vowels, {{IPA|[pʃ], [tsʰ], [kʃ]}} (usually) before the other vowels.<ref name=":0">Quintero, 2004, p.16</ref>
*The voiceless unaspirated affricate {{IPA|/ts/}} has two allophones: {{IPA|[tʃ]}} after {{IPA|[ʃ]}}; elsewhere it is {{IPA|[ts]}}.<ref name="article"/>
:{{IPA|/ts/ → [tʃ]/_[ʃ]}}

:Examples:
::::íðotse 'be open'
::::ihtṍtse 'son-in-law'
::::ðekṍõce 'now'
::::{{IPA|[mɑ̃ʃtʃĩ́kɛ]}} 'rabbit'
::::{{IPA|[ʃtʃɛ́]}} 'you went'

*The glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}} appears in clusters only after p, c, k, and it is not considered a true consonant of Osage. It is best thought of as a phonetic device used occasionally at utterance level, and it is typically to separate vowels that would otherwise contract.<ref>Quintero, 2009, p.xviii</ref>
*{{IPA|/x/}} has two allophones, {{IPA|[x]}} and {{IPA|[ɣ]}}. {{IPA|[ɣ]}} occurs between vowels, elsewhere it is {{IPA|[x]}}.
:{{IPA|/x/ → [ɣ]/V__V}}

:Examples:
::::{{IPA|[hóxpe]}} 'cough'
::::{{IPA|[hpéɣe]}} 'gourd'
::::{{IPA|[nɑ̃́ɑ̃ɣe]}} 'spirit'
::::{{IPA|[hkáɣe]}} 'crow'

*The phoneme {{IPA|/h/}} is always voiceless.
*{{IPA|/ð/}} usually has a single allophone {{IPA|[ð]}}, but in the Hominy dialect it has two allophones: {{IPA|[d]}} initially before {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|[ð]}} elsewhere.<ref name="article"/>
:{{IPA|/ð/ → [d]/#__a}}
 
:Examples:
::::ðɑ̃lĩ {{IPA|[dɑ̃dlĩ]}} 'good'
::::ðɑ̃brĩ {{IPA|[dɑ̃bəðĩ]}} 'three'
::::ðĩe {{IPA|[ðĩɛ]}} 'you'
::::cʼéðe {{IPA|[tsʼɛˑðɛ]}} 'he killed it'

*The {{IPA|/br/}} cluster also depends on dialect. It is sometimes pronounced {{IPA|[bəl]}} or {{IPA|[bər]}}.<ref name="article"/>
*In some instances, due to morphologically complex formations, {{IPA|[r]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/ð/}}<ref name="Quintero, 2004, p.19"/>

:Examples:
:::: {{IPA|brĩiʃtɑ̃}} 'I'm finished'
:::: {{IPA|abrĩ}} 'I have'
:::: {{IPA|waabrṍ}} 'I am unable'
:

The dentalveolar obstruents are often fricated: the ejective always (though it has other sources as well), and the other series before the front vowels {{IPA|/i ĩ e u/}}. Exceptions occur due to compounding and other derivational processes. For example, from ''hką́ą́ce'' 'fruit' and ''oolá'' 'put in' is ''hkąącóla'' 'pie'. (The fricated allophone is written ''c''.)

''Č, hč'' are rare, and only found in diminutives: ''č'' only in two words, ''čóopa'' 'a little', ''čáahpa'' 'squat', and ''hč'' for ''hc'' in endearment forms of kin terms like ''wihčóšpa'' 'my grandchild'. In Hominy, ''šc'' is pronounced ''šč''.

====Consonant clusters====

Osage has a simple expanded CV syllabic template: (C(C)) V (V).<ref>Quintero, 2004, p.4</ref> All consonants occur initially and medially; they never occur in final position. Consonant clusters of the type CC only occur in initial and medial positions. Furthermore, only voiceless consonants form clusters, with the exception of {{IPA|[br]}}.<ref name="article"/> 
The initial clusters are {{IPA|[pʃ] [kʃ] [tsʼ] [st] [sts] [sk] [ʃt] [ʃk] [br]}}, excluding aspirated stops.

:
:Examples:
::::          pʃĩta 'I'll come (to your house)'
::::          kʃí 'he reached home'
::::          ʰtséka 'crazy'
::::          stúʒa 'you wash it'
::::          stsétse 'long'
::::          skɑ̃ 'white'
::::          ʃtátɑ̃ 'you drank it'
::::          ʃkṍʃta 'you wanted it'
::::          bráze 'torn'
:
Medial clusters may be divided into two groups:

*Cluster whose first C is p, t, c, or k

:
:Examples:
::::          tapʼõkʼe 'he hit it'
::::          wécʼa 'snake'
::::          nɑ̃ḱṍ 'he heard it'
::::          aṍpha 'I understand it'
::::          áthɑ̃ 'he kicked it'
::::          áððikhɑ̃ 'he lay down'
::::          épʃe 'I spoke'
::::          ðacpé 'to eat'
::::          nĩ́kʃe 'you are here'
::::          nã́kwĩ 'both, we two'
:
*Cluster whose first C is s, ʃ, x, or h
:
:Examples:
::::          ĩ́spe 'ax'
::::          laská 'flower'
::::          ókisce 'half'
::::          ðaʃtú 'to bite'
::::          paʃpú 'to chip'
::::          iʃtá 'eyes'
::::          walúʃks 'bug'
::::          mɑ̃ʃcĩ́ke 'rabbit'
::::          mɑ̃xpú 'clouds'
::::          ðaxtáke 'to bite'
::::          mõĩ́xka 'soil/dirt'
::::          wĩ́xci 'one'
:

===Historical phonology===

The historically [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] series *pʰ *tʰ *kʰ is seldom realized with aspiration today. Before back vowels they are {{IPA|[px tx kx]}}, and before front vowels {{IPA|[pʃ tsʰ kʃ]}} (written ''pš ch kš''). Some speakers from Hominy assimilate ''tx'' to {{IPA|[tkx]}} or {{IPA|[kx]}}.

''Đ, n, r'' all derive from historic *r, and ''l'' from *kr and *xr. The latter is a recent phenomenon; in the 1930s words with modern ''l'' were transcribed ''xth'' and ''gth''. Historically *r became ''ð'' before oral vowels and ''n'' before nasal vowels, but since the nasalization has often been lost, there are minimal pairs and {{IPA|/l, n/}} are now separate phonemes. Nonetheless, intervocalic ''ð'' is optionally pronounced {{IPA|[n]}} in many words. It is also sometimes strongly palatalized intervocalically, to the point of becoming {{IPA|[j]}}.

In words with ''l'', this is sometimes pronounced {{IPA|[hl]}} or {{IPA|[dl]}}. The former derives from historic *xl, the latter from *kð and *gð; these sequences have largely merged with simple *l. This is productive; ''ð'' in verbs may become ''l'' when prefixed with ''k''.

The ''r'' is apparently an approximant like English {{IPA|[ɹ]}}. ''Br'' is most common in first-person forms of verbs beginning with ''ð'', where the {{gcl|1sg}} agent prefix ''w(a)-'' assimilates to {{IPA|[b]}} before the ''ð'', and indeed this was written ''bth'' in the 1930s. However, in rarer cases the origin of ''br'' is opaque.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* Quintero, Carolyn. ''The Osage Language''. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-8032-3803-7}}.
* Quintero, Carolyn. ''Osage Dictionary''. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-8061-3844-2}}.
* Wolff, Hans. "Osage I: Phonemes and Historical Phonology". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 18.2 (1952): 63–68.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.osageculture.com/language The Osage Nation's language homepage]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110929062451/http://www.osagetribe.com/language/welcome_sub_page.aspx?subpage_id=2 Audio clips of Osage phrases]
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_osa_vertxt-1|title=A Dictionary of the Osage Language|date=1932|last1=La Flesche|first1=Francis|location=Washington|publisher=US Government Printing Office|via=The [[Internet Archive]]}} (may require log-in access)

{{Languages of Oklahoma}}
{{Siouan languages}}
{{Portal bar|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Language}}
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[[Category:Osage language]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Native American language revitalization]]
[[Category:Endangered Indigenous languages of the Americas]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of North America]]
[[Category:Western Siouan languages]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 2000s]]
[[Category:Vulnerable languages]]