Editing Oscan language

{{Short description|Extinct language of southern Italy}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Old Norse]] or Old Scandinavian, sometimes abbreviated "OScan"}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Oscan
| region           = south and south-central [[Italy]]
| states           = [[Samnium]], [[Campania]], [[Lucania]], [[Calabria]] and [[Abruzzo]]
| era              = attested 5th century BCE–1st century CE<ref name="ancientscript">{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientscripts.com/oscan.html |title=Oscan |publisher=Ancient Scripts |access-date=4 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025161323/http://www.ancientscripts.com/oscan.html |archive-date=25 October 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| extinct          = >79 AD<ref name=Schrijver2/>
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3             = [[Osco-Umbrian languages|Osco-Umbrian]] (Sabellic)
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
| ancestor2        = [[Proto-Italic language|Proto-Italic]]
| script           = [[Old Italic alphabet]]
| iso3             = osc
| linglist         = osc
| glotto           = osca1245
| glottorefname    = Oscan
| imagecaption     = Oscan inscription from around 300–100 BCE
| image            = OsqueBritishMuseum.jpg
| imagescale       = 
| map              = Iron_Age_Italy.png
| mapcaption       = Approximate distribution of languages in Iron Age [[Italy]] in the sixth century BCE
| notice           = IPA
| dia1             = [[Hernici#Language|Hernican]]
| dia2             = [[Marrucini#Language|Marrucinian]]
| dia3             = Oscan proper
| dia4             = [[Paeligni#Language|Paelignian]]
| dia5             = [[Vestinian language|Vestinian]]?
}}
'''Oscan''' is an extinct [[Indo-European language]] of southern [[Italy]]. The language is in the [[Osco-Umbrian]] or Sabellic branch of the [[Italic languages]]. Oscan is therefore a close relative of [[Umbrian language|Umbrian]] and [[South Picene]]. 

Oscan was spoken by a number of tribes, including the [[Samnium|Samnites]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Monaco |first=Davide |date=4 November 2011 |title=Samnites the People |url=http://www.sanniti.info/smpeople.html |access-date=4 November 2011 |website=Samniti.info}}</ref> the [[Lucanians|Lucani]], the [[Aurunci]] ([[Ausones]]), and the [[Sidicini]]. The latter two tribes were often grouped under the name "[[Osci]]". The Oscan group is part of the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic family, and includes the Oscan language and three variants ([[Hernici#Language|Hernican]], [[Marrucini#Language|Marrucinian]] and [[Paeligni#Language|Paelignian]]) known only from inscriptions left by the [[Hernici]], [[Marrucini]] and [[Paeligni]], minor tribes of eastern central Italy. Adapted from the [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] alphabet, the Central Oscan alphabet was used to write Oscan in [[Campania]] and surrounding territories from the 5th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BCE until at least the 1st&nbsp;century&nbsp;CE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lejeune |first=Michel |date=1970 |title=Phonologie osque et graphie grecque |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_1970_num_72_3_3871 |journal=Revue des Études Anciennes |language=fr |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=271–316 |doi=10.3406/rea.1970.3871 |issn=0035-2004}}</ref>

==Evidence==
[[Image:Osco diffusione.gif|290px|thumb|The Oscan language in the 5th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BCE|alt=]]
Oscan is known from [[inscription]]s dating as far back as the 5th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BCE. The most important Oscan inscriptions are the [[Tabula Bantina]], the [[Oscan Tablet]] or Tabula Osca,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sanniti.info/smagnony.html|title = Samnites Oscan Tablet of Agnone}}</ref> and the [[Cippus Abellanus]]. In [[Apulia]], there is evidence that ancient currency was inscribed in Oscan (dating to before 300&nbsp;BCE)<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/teano-apulo_%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/|title=Teano Apulo|website=[[Treccani]]|language=it}}</ref> at [[Teanum Apulum]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Salvemini Biagio, Massafra Angelo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DT-ODAAAQBAJ&q=osco+messapico+puglia&pg=PT23|title=Storia della Puglia. Dalle origini al Seicento|date = May 2014|publisher=Laterza|isbn=978-88-581-1388-2|language=it}}</ref> Oscan [[graffiti]] on the walls of [[Pompeii]] indicate its persistence in at least one urban environment well into the 1st&nbsp;century of the [[common era]].<ref>Freeman, Philip (1999). [https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1033&context=etruscan_studies The Survival of Etruscan]. Page 82: "Oscan graffiti on the walls of Pompeii show that non-Latin languages could thrive in urban locations in Italy well into the 1st century CE."</ref>

In total, as of 2017, there were 800 found Oscan texts, with a rapid expansion in recent decades.<ref name=McDonald_2017>{{cite web|last=McDonald |first=K. L. |date=2017 |url=https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10871/26433/McDonald%20K%20Fragmentary%20languages%20OA%20accepted%20version.pdf?sequence=1 |title=Fragmentary ancient languages as "bad data": towards a methodology for investigating multilingualism in epigraphic sources |pages=4–6}}</ref> Oscan was written in various scripts depending on time period and location, including the "native" Oscan script, the South Oscan script which was based on Greek, and the ultimately prevailing Roman Oscan script.<ref name=McDonald_2017/>

===Demise===
In coastal zones of Southern Italy, Oscan is thought to have survived three centuries of bilingualism with [[Greek language|Greek]] between 400 and 100&nbsp;BCE, making it "an unusual case of stable societal bilingualism" wherein neither language became dominant or caused the death of the other; however, over the course of the [[Roman Empire|Roman period]], both Oscan and Greek were progressively effaced from Southern Italy, excepting the controversial possibility of [[Griko language|Griko]] representing a continuation of ancient dialects of Greek.<ref name=McDonald_2017/>
Oscan's usage declined following the [[Social War (91–88 BC)|Social War]].<ref>Lomas, Kathryn, "The Hellenization of Italy", in Powell, Anton. [https://books.google.com/books?id=jW6GAgAAQBAJ&dq=Oscan+survival&pg=PA347 ''The Greek World'']. Page 354.</ref> Graffiti in towns across the Oscan speech area indicate it remained in colloquial usage.<ref name=Schrijver2>{{cite journal |last=Schrijver |first=Peter |title=Oscan love of Rome |journal=Glotta |date=2016 |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=223–226 |doi=10.13109/glot.2016.92.1.223 |url=https://www.academia.edu/38399969 |issn=0017-1298}} Page 2 in the online version.</ref> One piece of evidence that supports the colloquial usage of the language is the presence of Oscan graffiti on walls of [[Pompeii]] that were reconstructed after the [[62 Pompeii earthquake|earthquake of 62&nbsp;CE]],<ref>[[Alison E. Cooley|Cooley, Alison]] (2002)."The survival of Oscan in Roman Pompeii", in A.E. Cooley (ed.), ''Becoming Roman, Writing Latin? Literacy and Epigraphy in the Roman West'', Portsmouth (Journal of Roman Archaeology), 77–86. Page 84</ref><ref>Cooley (2014). ''Pompeii and Herculaneum: A Sourcebook''. New York – London (Routledge). Page 104.</ref> which must therefore have been written between 62 and 79&nbsp;CE.<ref name=Schrijver2/> Other scholars argue that this is not strong evidence for the survival of Oscan as an official language in the area, given the disappearance of public inscriptions in Oscan after Roman colonization.<ref name=McDonald_2012>{{cite journal |last=McDonald |first=Katherine |date=2012 |title=The Testament of Vibius Adiranus |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0075435812000044/type/journal_article |journal=Journal of Roman Studies |language=en |volume=102 |pages=40–55 |doi=10.1017/S0075435812000044 |s2cid=162821087 |issn=0075-4358|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is possible that both languages existed simultaneously under different conditions, in which Latin was given political, religious, and administrative importance while Oscan was considered a "low" language.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last1=Cooley |first1=Alison |last2=Burnett |first2=Andrew M. |title=Becoming Roman, writing Latin? : literacy and epigraphy in the Roman West |date=2002 |publisher=Journal of Roman Archaeology |isbn=1-887829-48-2 |oclc=54951998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vaänänen |first=Veikko |date=1959-12-31 |title=Le latin vulgaire des inscriptions pompéiennes |publisher=De Gruyter |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783112537206 |doi=10.1515/9783112537206|isbn=978-3-11-253720-6 |s2cid=246734111}}</ref> This phenomenon is referred to as [[diglossia]] with bilingualism.<ref>{{Citation|last=Fishman |first=Joshua A. |title=Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism |date=2003-08-27 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203461341-12 |work=The Bilingualism Reader |pages=87–94 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203461341-12 |isbn=978-0-203-46134-1 |access-date=2022-04-09|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some Oscan [[graffiti]] exists from the 1st century&nbsp;CE, but it is rare to find evidence from Italy of Latin-speaking Roman citizens representing themselves as having non–Latin-speaking ancestors.<ref name=McDonald_2012/>

==General characteristics==
Oscan speakers came into close contact with the [[Latium]] population.<ref name="Clackson_2011">{{cite book |last1=Clackson |first1=James |title=The Blackwell history of the Latin language |date=2011 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |first2=Geoffrey C. |last2=Horrocks |isbn=978-1-4443-3920-8 |publication-place=Malden, MA |oclc=126227889}}</ref> Early Latin texts have been discovered nearby major Oscan settlements. For example, the [[Garigliano bowl|Garigliano Bowl]] was found close to [[Minturno|Minturnae]], less than 40 kilometers from [[Capua]], which was once a large Oscan settlement.<ref name="Clackson_2011" /> Oscan had much in common with [[Latin]], though there are also many striking differences, and many common word-groups in Latin were absent or represented by entirely different forms. For example, Latin ''volo'', ''velle'', ''volui'', and other such forms from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/welh₁-|*welh₁-]] ('to will') were represented by words derived from [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰer-|*ǵʰer-]] ('to desire'): Oscan ''herest'' ('(s)he shall want, (s)he shall desire', German cognate 'begehren', Dutch 'begeren', English cognate 'yearn') as opposed to Latin ''volent'' (id.). Latin ''locus'' (place) was absent and represented by the [[hapax]] ''slaagid'' (place), which Italian linguist Alberto Manco has linked to a surviving local toponym.<ref name="Manco">Alberto Manco, "Sull’osco *slagi-", [http://www.aionlinguistica.com/ AIΩN Linguistica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023032629/http://www.aionlinguistica.com/ |date=23 October 2016 }} 28, 2006.</ref>

In [[phonology]] too, Oscan exhibited a number of clear differences from Latin: thus, Oscan 'p' in place of Latin 'qu' (Osc. ''pis'', Lat. ''quis'') (compare the similar [[P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages|P-Celtic/Q-Celtic]] cleavage in the [[Celtic languages]]); 'b' in place of Latin 'v'; medial 'f' in contrast to Latin 'b' or 'd' (Osc. ''mefiai'', Lat. ''mediae'').{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=23}}

Oscan is considered to be the most conservative of all the known [[Italic languages]], and among attested Indo-European languages it is rivaled only by [[Greek language|Greek]] in the retention of the inherited vowel system with the [[diphthongs]] intact.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=18}}<ref name="Clackson_2011"/>

==Writing system==
[[File:Linguistic_Landscape_of_Central_Italy.png|thumb|400px|The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion]]

===Alphabet===

Oscan was originally written in a specific "Oscan alphabet", one of the [[Old Italic scripts]] derived from (or cognate with) the [[Etruscan alphabet]]. Later inscriptions are written in the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] [[alphabet]]s.{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=22–23}}

====The "Etruscan" alphabet====
The Osci probably adopted the archaic Etruscan alphabet during the 7th century BCE, but a recognizably Oscan variant of the alphabet is attested only from the 5th century BCE. At the beginning of the 3rd century BCE its sign inventory was extended over the classical Etruscan alphabet by the introduction of lowered variants of I and U, transcribed as Í and Ú. Ú came to be used to represent Oscan {{IPA|/o/}}, while U was used for {{IPA|/u/}} as well as historical long {{IPA|*/oː/}}, which had undergone a sound shift in Oscan to become {{IPA|~[uː]}}. Í was used to denote a higher-mid {{IPA|[ẹ]}}.{{sfn|Wallace|2007|p=6}}

<div style="background-color: white !important; color: black !important;">[[File:Oscan alphabet.svg|Français : Alphabet osque accompagné de la prononciation et des lettres latines équivalentes.]]</div>

The ''Z'' of the native alphabet is pronounced {{IPA|[ts]}}.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=22}} Doubling of vowels was used to denote length but a long ''I'' is written ''IÍ''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=23}}
[[File:Denarius-Marsic Federation-Syd 627-1-.jpg|thumb|[[Denarius]] of [[Marsi|Marsican Confederation]] with Oscan legend]]

====The "Greek" alphabet====
Oscan written with the Greek alphabet was identical to the standard alphabet with the addition of two letters: one for the native alphabet's ''H'': {{GrGl|Eta tack}}, and one for its ''V'': {{GrGl|Digamma angular}}.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=23}} The letters ''η'' and ''ω'' do not indicate quantity.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=23}} Sometimes, the clusters ''ηι'' and ''ωϝ'' denote the diphthongs {{IPA|/ei/}} and {{IPA|/ou/}} respectively while ''ει'' and ''oυ'' are saved to denote [[monophthong]]s {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}} of the native alphabet.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=23}} At other times, ''ει'' and ''oυ'' are used to denote diphthongs, in which case ''o'' denotes the {{IPA|/uː/}} sound.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=23}}

====The "Latin" alphabet====
When written in the Latin alphabet, the Oscan ''Z'' does not represent {{IPA|[ts]}} but instead {{IPA|[z]}}, which is not written differently from {{IPA|[s]}} in the native alphabet.{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=22–23}}

====Transliteration====
When Oscan inscriptions are quoted, it is conventional to transliterate those in the "Oscan" alphabet into Latin '''boldface''', those in the "Latin" alphabet into Latin ''italics'', and those in the "Greek" alphabet into the modern Greek alphabet.  Letters of all three alphabets are represented in lower case.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=xvii}}

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
Vowels are regularly lengthened before ''ns'' and ''nct'' (in the latter of which the ''n'' is lost) and possibly before ''nf'' and ''nx'' as well.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=47}}
[[Anaptyxis]], the development of a vowel between a [[Liquid consonant|liquid]] or [[Nasal consonant|nasal]] and another consonant, preceding or following, occurs frequently in Oscan; if the other (non-liquid/nasal) consonant precedes, the new vowel is the same as the preceding vowel. If the other consonant follows, the new vowel is the same as the following vowel.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=50}}

====Monophthongs====

=====A=====
Short ''a'' remains in most positions{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=29–30}}
Long ''ā'' remains in an initial or medial position. Final ''ā'' starts to sound similar to {{IPA|[ɔː]}} so that it is written ''ú'' or, rarely, ''u''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=30}}

=====E=====
Short ''e'' "generally remains unchanged;" before a labial in a medial syllable, it becomes ''u'' or ''i'', and before another vowel, ''e'' raises to higher-mid [ẹ], written ''í''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=31–32}}
Long ''ē'' similarly raises to higher-mid [ẹ], the sound of written ''í'' or ''íí''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=33}}

=====I=====
Short ''i'' becomes written ''í''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=34}}
Long ''ī'' is spelt with ''i'' but when written with doubling as a mark of length with ''ií''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=35}}

=====O=====
Short ''o'' remains mostly unchanged, written ''ú'';{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=36}} before a final ''-m'', ''o'' becomes more like ''u''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=37}}
Long ''ō'' becomes denoted by ''u'' or ''uu''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=38}}

=====U=====
Short ''u'' generally remains unchanged; after ''t'', ''d'', ''n'', the sound becomes that of ''iu''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=40}} 
Long ''ū'' generally remains unchanged; it changed to an ī sound in monosyllables, and may have changed to an ''ī'' sound for final syllables.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=41}}

====Diphthongs====

Oscan had the following diphthongs:{{sfn|Wallace|2007|p=13}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| /ay/ || /ey/ || /oy/
|-
| /aw/ || /ew/ || /ow/
|}

The sounds of [[diphthong]]s remain unchanged from the Proto-Indo-European origins.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=18}}

===Consonants=== 
The consonant inventory of Oscan is as follows:{{sfn|Wallace|2007|p=11}}

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- 
! rowspan="2"|[[Occlusive|Plosive]]
! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|p}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|t}}
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|k}}
| 
|- 
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|b}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|d}}
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|ɡ}}
| 
|- align="center"
! colspan="2"| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|f}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|s}}
| 
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|h}}
|- 
! colspan="2"| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|m}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|n}}
| 
| 
| 
|-
! colspan="2"| [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
| 
| colspan="2" style="font-size:larger;"| {{IPA link|l}}
| 
| 
|- 
! colspan="2"| [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
| 
| colspan="2" style="font-size:larger;"| {{IPA link|r}}
| 
|
|- 
! colspan="2"| [[Semivowel]]
|
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|j}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|w}}
|
|- 
|}

====S====
In Oscan, ''s'' between vowels did not undergo [[Rhotacism (sound change)|rhotacism]] as it did in Latin and Umbrian; but it was voiced, becoming the sound {{IPA|/z/}}. However, between vowels, the original cluster ''rs'' developed either to a simple ''r'' with lengthening on the preceding vowel, or to a long ''rr'' (as in Latin), and at the end of a word, original ''rs'' becomes ''r'' just as in Latin. Unlike in Latin, the s is not dropped, either Oscan or Umbrian, from the consonant clusters ''sm'', ''sn'', ''sl'': Umbrian ''`sesna'' "dinner,"  Oscan '''kersnu''' vs Latin ''cēna''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=73–76}}

== Morphology ==

===Noun declension===
Oscan nouns can have one of the seven cases: [[nominative]], [[vocative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], [[ablative]] and [[locative]] (the last being vestigial in classical Latin). Oscan nouns, like in Latin, are divided into multiple declension patterns.

====Second-declension nouns====
The second declension in Oscan has a few features that distinguish it from its Latin counterpart.
* The nominative singular of masculines features the syncope of ''*-os'' to ''-s'', leading to further phonetic and orthographic consequences.
* The genitive singular '''-eís''' is taken from the ''i''-stems.
* The nominative plural '''-ús''' preserves the usual Indo-European nominative plural ending for animate thematic nouns, which Latin replaced with ''-ī'' < ''*-oi'' from pronominal declensions.

These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oscan second declension
|-
!
! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
|'''-s''' <small>(masculine)</small><ref group=*>If a cluster {{IPA|/ts/}} is formed by this ending, the cluster is spelled as '''-z''', for instance in '''húrz''' "enclosure" (< ''*hortos'').</ref> <br/> '''-úm''' <small>(neuter)</small>
|'''-ús''' <small>(masculine)</small> <br/> '''-ú''' <small>(neuter)</small>
|-
! Vocative
|'''-e'''
| ?
|-
! Accusative
|'''-úm'''<ref group=*>'''-im''' in ''io''-stem nouns like '''Pakis''' (personal name), accusative '''Pakim'''.</ref>
|'''-úss''' <small>(masculine)</small> <br/> '''-ú''' <small>(neuter)</small>
|-
! Genitive
|'''-eís'''
|'''-úm'''
|-
! Dative
|'''-úí'''
|rowspan=3|'''-úís'''
|-
! Ablative
|'''-úd'''
|-
! Locative
| '''-eí'''
|}

{{reflist|group=*}}

====Third-declension nouns====
Like in Latin, the third declension in Oscan is a merger of the ''i''-stem nouns with the consonant-stem nouns.

These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows. Neuters are not attested.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oscan third declension
|-
!
! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
|'''-s''' <ref group=*>Absorbs the stem-final consonant in some words and is outright absent in others.</ref>
|'''-s''' <ref group=*>If a cluster {{IPA|/ts/}} is formed by this ending, the cluster is spelled as '''-z''', for instance in '''deívúz''' (a class of deity).</ref>
|-
! Vocative
| ?
| ?
|-
! Accusative
|'''-úm''', '''-um'''
|'''-s'''
|-
! Genitive
|'''-eís'''
|'''-úm'''
|-
! Dative
|'''-eí'''
|rowspan=3|''-is''
|-
! Ablative
|'''-úd'''
|-
! Locative
| 
|}

{{reflist|group=*}}

=== Verbal system ===
Verbs in Oscan are inflected for the following categories:{{sfn|Wallace|2007|p=27}}
* [[Grammatical tense|Tense]] (present, imperfect, future, perfect, and future perfect), 
* [[Grammatical voice|Voice]] (active, deponent/passive)
* [[Grammatical mood|Mood]] (indicative, imperative, subjunctive)
* [[Grammatical person|Person]] (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
* [[Grammatical number|Number]] (singular, plural)

Present, future and future perfect forms in the active voice use the following set of personal endings:{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=151}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! 1st 
|| ''-ō'' || 
|-
! 2nd  
|| ''-s'' ||
|-
! 3rd 
|| ''-t'' || ''-nt''
|}

Imperfect, perfect indicative and all tenses of the subjunctive in the active voice use a different set of endings:{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=151}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! 1st 
|| ''-m'' || 
|-
! 2nd  
|| ''-s'' ||
|-
! 3rd 
|| ''-d'' || ''-ns''
|}

Passive endings are attested only for the 3rd person: singular ''-ter'', plural ''-nter''.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=154}}

Perfect stems are derived from the present stem in different ways. Latin ''-vī-'' and ''-s-'' perfects are not attested in Oscan.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=169}} Instead, Oscan uses its own set of forms, including reduplicated perfects such as '''deded''' 'gave',  ''-tt-'' suffix as in '''prúfa-tt-ed''' 'approved', ''-k-'' suffix as in '''kella-k-ed''' 'collected, and ''-f-'' suffix as in '''aíkda-f-ed''' 'rebuilt'. Some verbs also use suppletive forms.{{sfn|Wallace|2007|p=29}}

Other tenses are formed by suffixation:{{sfn|Wallace|2007|p=30}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Mood !! Tense !! Stem !! Suffix !! Example
|-
| rowspan=3 | Indicative || Imperfect || Present || ''-fā-'' || '''fu-fa-ns''' 'they were'
|-
| Future || Present || ''-(e)s-'' || ''deiua-s-t'' 'he will swear'
|-
| Future perfect || Perfect || ''-us-'' || '''tríbarakatt-us-et''' 'they will have built'
|-
| rowspan=3 | Subjunctive || Present || Present || ''-ī-'' (for a-stems), ''-ā-'' (for other stems) || ''deiua-i-d'' 'let him swear'
|-
| Imperfect || Present || ''-sē-'' || '''fu-sí-d''' 'should be'
|-
| Perfect || Perfect || ''-ē-'' || '''tríbarakatt-í-ns''' 'should build'
|}

The following non-finite forms are attested (all of them are based on the present stem):{{sfn|Wallace|2007|p=33}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Form !! Suffix !! Example
|-
| Present active participle || ''-nt-'' || ''praese-nt-id'' 'being at hand' (Abl.sg. fem.)
|-
| Past participle || ''-to-'' || '''teremna-tu''' 'widened' (Nom.sg. fem.)
|-
| Present active infinitive || ''-om'' || '''tríbarakav-úm''' 'to build'
|-
| Present passive infinitive || ''-fi''/''-fir'' || '''sakara-fír''' 'to be consecrated'
|-
| Gerundive || ''-nno-'' || ''úpsa-nna-m'' 'build' (Acc.sg. fem.) 
|}

== Examples of Oscan texts ==

===From the [[Cippus Abellanus]]===

{{quote|{{lang|osc|Ekkum svaí píd herieset trííbarak avúm tereí púd liímítúm pernúm púís herekleís fíísnú mefiú íst, ehtrad feíhúss pús herekleís fíísnam amfret, pert víam pússt íst paí íp íst, pústin slagím senateís suveís tanginúd tríbarakavúm líkítud. íním íúk tríbarakkiuf pam núvlanús tríbarakattuset íúk tríbarakkiuf íním úíttiuf abellanúm estud. avt púst feíhúís pús físnam amfret, eíseí tereí nep abellanús nep núvlanús pídum tríbarakattíns. avt thesavrúm púd eseí tereí íst, pún patensíns, múíníkad tanginúd patensíns, íním píd eíseí thesavreí púkkapíd eestit aíttíúm alttram alttrús herríns. avt anter slagím abellanam íním núvlanam súllad víú uruvú íst. pedú íst eísaí víaí mefiaí teremenniú staíet.}}

|author=|title=|source=}}
In [[Latin]]:
{{Quote|{{lang|la|Item si quid volent aedificare in territorio quod limitibus tenus quibus Herculis fanum medium est, extra muros, qui Herculis fanum ambiunt, [per] viam positum est, quae ibi est, pro finibus senatus sui sententia, aedificare liceto. Et id aedificium quam Nolani aedificaverint, id aedificium et usus Abellanorum esto. At post muros qui fanum ambiunt, in eo territorio nec Avellani nec Nolani quidquam aedificaverint. At thesaurum qui in eo territorio est, cum paterent, communi sententia paterent, et quidquid in eo thesauro quandoque extat, portionum alteram alteri caperent. At inter fines Abellanos et Nolanos ubique via curva est, [pedes] est in ea via media termina stant. }} 
|author=|title=|source=}}

In English: {{Quote|And if anyone shall want to build on the land within the boundaries where the temple of Hercules stands in the middle, may the senate allow him to build outside of the walls that encircle the sanctuary of Hercules, across the road leads there. And a building that a man from Nola builds, shall be of use by the people of Nola. And a building that a man from Abella builds, shall be of use by the people of Abella. But beyond the wall that encircle the sanctuary, in that territory neither the Abellans nor the Nolans may build anything. But the treasury that is in that territory, when it is opened it shall be opened following a shared decision, and whatever is in that treasury, they shall share equally amongst them. But the road that as between the borders of Abella and Nola is a communal road. The boundaries stand in the middle of this road.|author=|title=|source=}}

===From [[Tabula Bantina]]=== 

====First paragraph==== 

out of six paragraphs in total, lines 3-8 (the first couple lines are too damaged to be clearly legible):

{{quote|{{lang|osc|(3) …&nbsp;deiuast maimas carneis senateis tanginud am&nbsp;… (4) XL osiins, pon ioc egmo comparascuster. Suae pis pertemust, pruter pan&nbsp;… (5) deiuatud sipus  comenei, perum dolum malum, siom ioc comono mais egmas touti- (6)cas amnud pan pieisum brateis auti cadeis amnud; inim idic siom dat senates (7) tanginud maimas carneis pertumum. Piei ex comono pertemest, izic eizeic zicelei (8) comono ni hipid.}}{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=231}}|author=|title=|source=}}

In Latin: 
{{Quote|{{lang|la|(3) …&nbsp;iurabit maximae partis senatus sententia [dummodo non minus] (4) XL adsint, cum ea res consulta erit. Si quis peremerit, prius quam peremerit, (5) iurato sciens in committio sine dolo malo, se ea comitia magis rei publicae causa, (6) quam cuiuspiam gratiae aut inimicitiae causa; idque se de senatus (7) sententia maximae partis perimere. Cui sic comitia perimet (quisquam), is eo die (8) comitia non habuerit.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=231}}}}|author=|title=|source=}}

In English: 

{{Quote|(3) …&nbsp;he shall take oath with the assent of the majority of the senate, provided that not less than (4) 40 are present, when the matter is under advisement. If anyone by right of intercession shall prevent the assembly, before preventing it, (5) he shall swear wittingly in the assembly without guile, that he prevents this assembly rather for the sake of the public welfare, (6) rather than out of favor or malice toward anyone; and that too in accordance with the judgment of the majority of the senate. The presiding magistrate whose assembly is prevented in this way shall not hold the assembly on this day.{{sfn|Buck|1904|p=235}}
|author=|title=|source=}}

Notes: Oscan ''carn-'' “part, piece” is related to Latin ''carn-'' “meat” (seen in English ‘carnivore’), from an Indo-European root ''*ker-'' meaning ‘cut’―apparently the Latin word originally meant ‘piece (of meat).’<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/*sker-?ref=etymonline_crossreference#etymonline_v_52632|title = Etymonline: Proto-Indo-European *sker-}}</ref> Oscan ''tangin-'' "judgement, assent" is ultimately related to English 'think'. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=think|title = Etymonline: think}}</ref>

====Second paragraph==== 

<nowiki>=</nowiki> lines 8-13. In this and the following paragraph, the assembly is being discussed in its judiciary function as a court of appeals:

{{quote|{{lang|osc|(8) ...Pis pocapit post post exac comono hafies meddis dat castris loufir (9) en eituas, factud pous touto deiuatuns tanginom deicans, siom dateizasc idic tangineis (10) deicum, pod walaemom touticom tadait ezum. nep fefacid pod pis dat eizac egmad min[s] (11) deiuaid dolud malud. Suae pis contrud exeic fefacust auti comono hipust, molto etan- (12) -to estud: n. [[File:EtruscanPH-02.svg|x12px]] [[File:EtruscanPH-02.svg|x12px]]. In. suaepis ionc fortis meddis moltaum herest, ampert minstreis aeteis (13) aetuas moltas moltaum licitud.{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=231–232}}}}|author=|title=|source=}}

In Latin:

{{Quote|{{lang|la|(8) ...Quis quandoque post hac comitia habebit magistratus de capite (9) vel in pecunias, facito ut populus iuras sententiam dicant, se de iis id sententiae (10) deicum, quod optimum populum censeat esse, neve fecerit quo quis de ea re minus (11) iuret dolo malo. Si quis contra hoc fecerit aut comitia habuerit, multo tanta esto: n. MM. Et siquis eum potius magistratus multare volet, dumtaxat minoris partis (13) pecuniae multae multare liceto.{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=231–232}}}}
|author=|title=|source=}}

In English:

{{Quote|(8) ... Whatever magistrate shall hereafter hold an assembly in suit involving the death penalty (9) or a fine, let him make the people pronounce judgment, after having sworn that they will such judgment (10) render, as they believe to be for the best public good, and let him prevent anyone from, in this matter, (11) swearing with guile. If anyone shall act or hold a council contrary to this, let the fine be 2000 sesterces. And if any magistrate prefers to fix the fine, he may do so, provided it is less than half the property (13) of the guilty person.{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=236}}|author=|title=|source=}}

====Third Paragraph====

<nowiki>=</nowiki> lines 13-18

{{quote|{{lang|osc|(13)...Suaepis pru meddixud altrei castrud auti eituas (14) zicolom dicust, izic comono ni hipid ne pon op toutad petirupert ururst sipus perum dolom (15) mallom in. trutum zico. touto peremust. Petiropert, neip mais pomptis, com preiuatud actud (16) pruter pam medicationom didest, in.pon posmom con preiuatud urust, eisucen zuculud (17) zicolom XXX nesimum comonom ni hipid. suae pid contrud exeic fefacust, ionc suaepist (18) herest licitud, ampert mistreis aeteis eituas{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=232}}}}|author=|title=|source=}}

In Latin:

{{Quote|{{lang|la|(13)... Siquis pro matistatu alteri capitis aut pecuniae (14) diem dixerit, is comitia ne habuerit nisi cum apud populum quater oraverit sciens sine dolo (15) malo et quartum diem populus perceperit. Quater, neque plus quinquens, reo agito (16) prius quam iudicationem dabit, et cum postremum cum reo oraverit, ab eo die (17) in diebus XXX proximis comitia non habuerit. Si quis contra hoc fecerit, eum siquis volet magistratus moltare, (18) liceto, dumtaxat minoris partis pecuniae liceto.{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=232}}}}|author=|title=|source=}}

In English: 

{{Quote| (13) ...If any magistrate, in a suit involving a death or a fine for another, (14) shall have appointed the day, he must not hold the assembly until he has brought the accusation four times in the presence of the people without (15) guile, and the people have been advised of the fourth day. Four times, and not more than five, must he argue the case with the defendant before he pronounces the indictment, and when he has argued for the last time with the defendant, he must not hold the assembly within thirty days from that day. And if anyone shall have done contrary to this, if any magistrate wishes to fix the fine, (18) he may, but only for less than half the property of the guilty person be permitted.{{sfn|Buck|1904|pp=237}}|author=|title=|source=}}

=== The Testament of Vibius Adiranus ===
In Oscan:

{{Quote|text=''v(iíbis). aadirans. v(iíbieís). eítiuvam. paam vereiiaí. púmpaiianaí. trístaamentud. deded. eísak. eítiuvad v(iíbis). viínikiís. m(a)r(aheis). kvaísstur. púmpaiians. trííbúm. ekak. kúmbennieís. tanginud. úpsannam deded. ísídum. prúfatted.''<ref name=McDonald_2012/>}}

In English:

{{Quote|text=Vibius Adiranus, son of Vibius, gave in his will money to the Pompeian vereiia-. With this money, Vibius Vinicius, son of Maras, Pompeian quaestor, dedicated the construction of this building by decision of the senate, and the same man approved it.<ref name=McDonald_2012/>}}

==See also==
* [[Ancient peoples of Italy]]

{{Clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|last=Buck |first=Carl Darling |date=1904 |title=A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian: with a Collection of Inscriptions and a Glossary |url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofoscanum00buckuoft |publication-place=Boston |publisher=Ginn & Company |oclc=1045590290}}
* {{cite book|last=Salvucci |first=Claudio R. |date=1999 |title=A Vocabulary of Oscan Including the Oscan and Samnite Glosses |publication-place=Southampton, Pennsylvania |publisher=Evolution Publishing and Manufacturing Co }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wallace |first1=Rex E. |title=The Sabellic Languages of Ancient Italy |date=2007 |publisher=LINCOM |location=Munich}}

==Further reading==
''Linguistic Outlines'':
* Prosdocimi, A.L. 1978. «L’osco». In ''Lingue e dialetti dell’Italia antica'', a cura di Aldo Luigi Prosdocimi, 825–912. Popoli e civiltà dell’Italia antica 6. Roma - Padova: Biblioteca di storia patria.
''Studies'':
* Planta, R. von 1892-1897.  ''Grammatik der oskisch-umbrischen Dialekte''. 2 voll. Strassburg: K. J. Trubner. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SnHRAAAAMAAJ Vol. 1]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=uFlNAQAAMAAJ Vol. 2]
* Conway, Robert Seymour  1897. ''The Italic Dialects: Edited with a Grammar and Glossary''. 2 voll. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=h9LUmVntJoMC Vol. 1]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=4TnRAAAAMAAJ Vol. 2]
* Cooley, Alison E. 2002. "The survival of Oscan in Roman Pompeii." ''Becoming Roman, writing Latin? : literacy and epigraphy in the Roman West.'' Journal of Roman Archaeology. {{ISBN|1-887829-48-2}}. {{OCLC| 54951998}}.
* Fishman, J.A. 1967. "Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism." ''Journal of Social Issues'' 23, 29-38.
* Pisani, Vittore. 1964. ''Le lingue dell'Italia antica oltre il Latino.'' Rosenberg & Sellier. {{ISBN|978-88-7011-024-1}}
* Lejeune, Michel. "Phonologie osque et graphie grecque". In: ''Revue des Études Anciennes''. Tome 72, 1970, n°3-4. pp.&nbsp;271–316. {{doi|10.3406/rea.1970.3871}}
* Untermann, J. 2000. ''Wörterbuch des Oskisch-Umbrischen''. Heidelberg: C. Winter.
* McDonald, Katherine. 2015. Oscan in Southern Italy and Sicily: Evaluating Language Contact in a Fragmentary Corpus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{doi|10.1017/CBO9781316218457}}.
* {{cite book|last=Zair |first=Nicholas |date=2016 |title=Oscan In The Greek Alphabet |publication-place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CBO9781107706422|isbn=978-1-107-70642-2 }}
* Machajdíková, Barbora; Martzloff, Vincent. "[http://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/135489 Le pronom indéfini osque pitpit "quicquid" de Paul Diacre à Jacob Balde: morphosyntaxe comparée des paradigmes *kwi- kwi- du latin et du sabellique]". In: ''Graeco-Latina Brunensia''. 2016, vol. 21, iss. 1, pp. 73-118. {{ISSN|2336-4424}}. {{doi|10.5817/GLB2016-1-5}}
* Petrocchi, A., Wallace, R. 2019. ''Grammatica delle Lingue Sabelliche dell’Italia Antica''. München: LINCOM GmbH. [ed. inglese. 2007]

''Texts''
* Janssen, H.H. 1949. ''Oscan and Umbrian Inscriptions'', Leiden.
* Vetter, E. 1953. ''Handbuch der italischen Dialekte'', Heidelberg.
* Rix, H. 2002. ''Sabellische Texte''. Heidelberg: C. Winter.
* Crawford, M. H. et al. 2011. ''Imagines Italicae''. London: Institute of Classical Studies.
* Franchi De Bellis, A. 1988. ''Il cippo abellano''. Universita Degli Studi Di Urbino.
* Del Tutto Palma, Loretta. 1983. ''La Tavola Bantina (sezione osca): Proposte di rilettura''. Vol. 1. Linguistica, epigrafia, filologia italica, Quaderni di lavoro.
* Del Tutto Palma, L. (a cura di) 1996. ''La tavola di Agnone nel contesto italico''. Atti del Convegno di studio (Agnone 13-15 aprile 1994). Firenze: Olschki.
* Franchi De Bellis, Annalisa. 1981. ''Le iovile capuane''. Firenze: L.S. Olschki.
* Murano, Francesca. 2013. ''Le tabellae defixionum osche''. Pisa ; Roma: Serra.
* Decorte, Robrecht. 2016. "Sine dolo malo: The Influence and Impact of Latin Legalese on the Oscan Law of the ''Tabula Bantina''". ''Mnemosyne'' 69 (2): 276–91.

== External links ==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Oscan language
|viaf= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
* "[https://www.prin-italia-antica.unifi.it/index.html?newlang=eng Languages and Cultures of Ancient Italy. Historical Linguistics and Digital Models]", Project funded by the Italian Ministry of University and Research (P.R.I.N. 2017)
* {{cite web |first=JB |last=Hare |title=Oscan |publisher=wordgumbo |year=2005 |access-date=21 August 2010 |url=http://www.wordgumbo.com/ie/cmp/osca.htm}}
* {{cite web |first=Jost |last=Gipert |title=Oscan |publisher=TITUS DIDACTICA |year=2001 |access-date=9 October 2021 | url=https://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/ital/oskinsc.htm}}

{{Italic languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oscan Language}}
[[Category:Osco-Umbrian languages]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 5th century BC]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 1st century]]
[[Category:Osci]]
[[Category:Samnium]]