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{{Short description|Communication of additional meaning, nuance, or emotion in speech}} '''Paralanguage''', also known as '''vocalics''', is a component of [[meta-communication]] that may modify meaning, give nuanced meaning, or convey emotion, by using [[suprasegmental]] techniques such as [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], [[Pitch (music)|pitch]], [[loudness|volume]], [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], etc. It is sometimes defined as relating to [[Phoneme|nonphonemic]] properties only. Paralanguage may be expressed [[conscious]]ly or [[Unconscious mind|unconsciously]]. The study of paralanguage is known as '''paralinguistics''' and was invented by [[George L. Trager]] in the 1950s, while he was working at the [[Foreign Service Institute]] of the U.S. [[Department of State]]. His colleagues at the time included Henry Lee Smith, [[Charles F. Hockett]] (working with him on using [[descriptive linguistics]] as a model for paralanguage), [[Edward T. Hall]] developing [[proxemics]], and [[Ray Birdwhistell]] developing [[kinesics]].<ref>Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1990). Notes in the history of intercultural communication: The Foreign Service Institute and the mandate for intercultural training. ''Quarterly Journal of Speech'', 76, 262–281.</ref> Trager published his conclusions in 1958,<ref>Trager, G. L. (1958). Paralanguage: A first approximation. ''Studies in Linguistics'', 13, 1–12.</ref> 1960<ref>Trager, G. L. (1960). Taos III: Paralanguage. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', 2, 24–30.</ref> and 1961.<ref>Trager, G. L. (1961). The typology of paralanguage. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', 3 (1), 17–21.</ref> His work has served as a basis for all later research, especially those investigating the relationship between paralanguage and culture (since paralanguage is learned, it differs by language and culture). A good example is the work of [[John J. Gumperz]] on language and social identity, which specifically describes paralinguistic differences between participants in intercultural interactions.<ref>Gumperz, J. J. (1982). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aUJNgHWl_koC&q=paralinguistic Discourse strategies]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> The film Gumperz made for [[BBC]] in 1982, ''Multiracial Britain: Cross talk'', does a particularly good job of demonstrating cultural differences in paralanguage and their impact on relationships. Paralinguistic information, because it is [[phenomena]]l, belongs to the external speech signal ([[Ferdinand de Saussure]]'s [[langue and parole|''parole'']]) but not to the arbitrary conmodality. Even [[vocal language]] has some paralinguistic as well as linguistic properties that can be ''seen'' ([[lip reading]], [[McGurk effect]]), and even ''felt'', e.g. by the [[Tadoma]] method. ==Aspects of the speech signal== === Perspectival aspects === Speech signals arrive at a listener's ears with acoustic properties that may allow listeners to identify location of the speaker (sensing distance and direction, for example). [[Sound localization]] functions in a similar way also for non-speech sounds. The perspectival aspects of lip reading are more obvious and have more drastic effects when head turning is involved. === Organic aspects === The [[speech organ]]s of different speakers differ in size. As children grow up, their organs of speech become larger, and there are differences between male and female adults. The differences concern not only size, but also proportions. They affect the pitch of the [[human voice|voice]] and to a substantial extent also the [[formant|formant frequencies]], which characterize the different [[Phone (phonetics)|speech sounds]]. The organic quality of speech has a communicative function in a restricted sense, since it is merely informative about the speaker. It will be expressed independently of the speaker's intention. === Expressive aspects === Paralinguistic cues such as loudness, rate, pitch, pitch contour, and to some extent formant frequencies of an utterance, contribute to the emotive or attitudinal quality of an utterance. Typically, attitudes are expressed intentionally and emotions without intention,{{citation needed|date=April 2012}} but attempts to fake or to hide emotions are not unusual.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}} Consequently, paralinguistic cues relating to expression have a moderate effect of semantic marking. That is, a message may be made more or less coherent by adjusting its expressive presentation. For instance, upon hearing an utterance such as "I drink a glass of wine every night before I go to sleep" is coherent when made by a speaker identified as an adult, but registers a small semantic anomaly when made by a speaker identified as a child.<ref>Van Berkum, J. J., Van den Brink, D., Tesink, C. M., Kos, M., & Hagoort, P. (2008). The neural integration of speaker and message. ''Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience'', 20, 580–591.</ref> This anomaly is significant enough to be measured through [[electroencephalography]], as an [[N400 (neuroscience)|N400]]. Autistic individuals have a reduced sensitivity to this and similar effects.<ref>Groen, W. B., Tesink, C., Petersson, K. M., Van Berkum, J., Van der Gaag, R. J., Hagoort, P. and Buitelaar, J. K. (2010). Semantic, factual, and social language comprehension in adolescents with autism: an fMRI study. ''Cerebral Cortex'', 20(8), 1937–1945.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=August 2021|reason=No behavioral difference was detected, relevance of study results to paralinguistics is only speculative.}} [[Emotional tone of voice]], itself paralinguistic information, has been shown to affect the resolution of [[lexical ambiguity]]. Some words have homophonous partners; some of these homophones appear to have an implicit emotive quality, for instance, the sad "die" contrasted with the neutral "dye"; uttering the sound /dai/ in a sad tone of voice can result in a listener writing the former word significantly more often than if the word is uttered in a neutral tone.<ref>Nygaard, L. C., Lunders, E. R. (2002). [https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03194959.pdf Resolution of lexical ambiguity by emotional tone of voice]. ''Memory & Cognition'', 30(4), 583–593.</ref> === Linguistic aspects === Ordinary [[phonetic transcription]]s of utterances reflect only the linguistically informative quality. The problem of how listeners factor out the linguistically informative quality from speech signals is a topic of current research. Some of the linguistic features of speech, in particular of its [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], are paralinguistic or pre-linguistic in origin. A most fundamental and widespread phenomenon of this kind is described by [[John Ohala]] as the "frequency code".<ref>Ohala, J. J. (1984) An ethological perspective on common cross-language utilization of F<sub>0</sub> of voice. ''Phonetica, 41'', 1–16. {{doi|10.1159/000261706}}.</ref> This code works even in communication across species. It has its origin in the fact that the acoustic frequencies in the voice of small vocalizers are high, while they are low in the voice of large vocalizers. This gives rise to secondary meanings such as "harmless", "submissive", "unassertive", which are naturally associated with smallness, while meanings such as "dangerous", "dominant", and "assertive" are associated with largeness. In most languages, the frequency code also serves the purpose of distinguishing questions from statements. It is universally reflected in expressive variation, and it is reasonable to assume that it has [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] given rise to the [[sexual dimorphism]] that lies behind the large difference in pitch between average female and male adults. In text-only communication such as email, chatrooms and [[instant messaging]], paralinguistic elements can be displayed by [[emoticon]]s, font and color choices, capitalization and the use of non-alphabetic or abstract characters. Nonetheless, paralanguage in written communication is limited in comparison with face-to-face conversation, sometimes leading to misunderstandings. ==Specific forms of paralinguistic respiration== ===Gasps=== {{Redirect|Gasp}} A '''gasp''' is a kind of paralinguistic [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] in the form of a sudden and sharp [[inhalation]] of air through the [[mouth]]. A gasp may indicate difficulty breathing and a panicked effort to draw air into the lungs. Gasps also occur from an [[emotion]] of [[surprise (emotion)|surprise]], [[shock (emotion)|shock]] or [[disgust]]. Like a sigh, a [[yawn]], or a [[moan]], a gasp is often an automatic and unintentional act.<ref name="Broncher">Rachel Broncher, ''A labor of love: a complete guide to childbirth for the mind, body, and soul'' (2004), p. 145.</ref> Gasping is closely related to sighing, and the inhalation characterizing a gasp induced by shock or surprise may be released as a sigh if the event causing the initial emotional reaction is determined to be less shocking or surprising than the observer first believed.<ref>Fernando Poyatos, ''Paralanguage: a linguistic and interdisciplinary approach to interactive speech and sounds'' (1993), page 330.</ref> As a symptom of physiological problems, [[apneustic respirations]] (a.k.a. apneusis), are gasps related to the brain damage associated with a stroke or other trauma. ===Sighs=== {{Redirect|Sigh}} A '''sigh''' is a kind of paralinguistic respiration in the form of a deep and especially audible, single [[exhalation]] of air out of the mouth or nose, that humans use to communicate emotion. It is a voiced [[pharyngeal fricative]], sometimes associated with a guttural glottal breath exuded in a low tone. It often arises from a [[negative affectivity|negative emotion]], such as dismay, dissatisfaction, boredom, or futility.<ref name="Broncher"/> A sigh can also arise from positive emotions such as [[Relief (emotion)|relief]],<ref>Paul Ekman, ''Emotions revealed: recognizing faces and feelings to improve communication'' (2007), p. 193.</ref> particularly in response to some negative situation ending or being avoided. Like a gasp, a [[yawn]], or a [[moan]], a sigh is often an automatic and unintentional act.<ref name="Broncher"/> Scientific studies show that babies sigh after 50 to 100 breaths. This serves to improve the mechanical properties of lung tissue, and it also helps babies to develop a regular breathing rhythm. Behaviors equivalent to sighing have also been observed in animals such as [[dog]]s, [[monkey]]s, and [[horse]]s. In text messages and internet chat rooms, or in comic books, a sigh is usually represented with the word itself, 'sigh', possibly within [[asterisk]]s, *sigh*. Sighing is also a reflex, governed by a few [[neuron]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/ucla-and-stanford-researchers-pinpoint-origin-of-sighing-reflex-in-the-brain|title=UCLA and Stanford researchers pinpoint origin of sighing reflex in the brain|last=Schmidt|first=Elaine|website=UCLA Newsroom|language=en|access-date=2019-02-01}}</ref> ===Moans and groans=== {{redirect-multi|2|Moan|Groan}} {{See also|Female copulatory vocalizations}} Moaning and groaning both refer to an extended sound emanating from the throat, which is typically made by engaging in sexual activity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://time.com/5370374/sex-sounds-noises-faked-mara-altman-gross-anatomy/|title=What Our Sex Sounds Say About Us|first=Mara|last=Altman|publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=August 21, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/in-the-name-love/201904/why-we-moan-and-scream-during-sex|title=Why We Moan and Scream During Sex|first=Aaron|last=Ben-Zeév|publisher=[[Psychology Today]]|date=April 16, 2019}}</ref> Moans and groans are also noises traditionally associated with [[ghost]]s, and their supposed experience of suffering in the afterlife. Moans and groans are also used to indicate pain, and are sometimes used to indicate displeasure. ===Throat clearing=== [[Throat clearing]] is a metamessaging [[nonverbal]] form of [[communication]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nonverbal-dictionary.org/2013/01/throat-clear.html?m=1 |title=Throat-Clear |website=www.nonverbal-dictionary.org |access-date=2016-09-10 |archive-date=2016-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917141022/http://www.nonverbal-dictionary.org/2013/01/throat-clear.html?m=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> used in announcing one's presence upon entering the room or approaching a group. It is done by individuals who perceive themselves to be of higher rank than the group they are approaching and utilize the throat-clear as a form of communicating this perception to others.<ref>Question Authority: Think for Yourself, Estren & Potter, 2012:122.</ref> It can convey nonverbalized [[disapproval]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.onomatopoeiaList.com/ahem/ |title=ahem – Onomatopoeia List |date=10 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/verbal |title=the definition of verbal |website=Dictionary.com}}</ref> In [[chimpanzee]] [[social hierarchy]], this utterance is a sign of rank, directed by [[alpha males]] and higher-ranking chimps to lower-ranking ones and signals a mild warning or a slight annoyance.<ref>Primatology, Delmar 1984:46.</ref> As a form of [[metacommunication]], the throat-clear is acceptable only to signal that a formal business meeting is about to start. It is not acceptable [[business etiquette]] to clear one's throat when approaching a group on an informal basis; the basis of one's authority has already been established and requires no further reiteration by this ancillary [[nonverbal communication]].<ref>Book of Etiquette and Manners, Chapter 3, by Nimeran Sahukar & Prem P. Bhalla.</ref> ===Mhm=== {{Wikt-lang|en|mhm|Mhm}} is between a literal language and movement, by making a noise "hmm" or "mhm", to make a pause for the conversation or as a chance to stop and think. The "mhm" utterance is often used in narrative interviews, such as an interview with a disaster survivor or sexual violence victim. In this kind of interview, it is better for the interviewers or counselors not to intervene too much when an interviewee is talking. The "mhm" assures the interviewee that they are being heard and can continue their story. Observing emotional differences and taking care of an interviewee's mental status is an important way to find slight changes during conversation.<ref>The healing effect of storytelling, Gabriele Rosenthal 2003</ref> ===Huh?=== "Huh?", meaning "what?" (that is, used when an utterance by another is not fully heard or requires clarification), is an essentially universal expression, but may be a normal word (learned like other words) and not paralanguage. ''Huh'' is claimed to be a [[Psychological nativism|universal syllable]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Dingemanse |first1=Marse |last2=Torreira |first2=Francisco |last3=Enfield |first3=N. J. |date=November 8, 2013 |title=Is 'Huh?' a Universal Word? Conversational Infrastructure and the Convergent Evolution of Linguistic Items |journal=PLOS ONE |publisher=PLOS |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=<!--THIS JOURNAL DOES NOT APPEAR TO HAVE PAGE NUMBERS--> |bibcode=2013PLoSO...878273D |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0078273 |pmc=3832628 |pmid=24260108 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2013 study suggested that the word/syllable ''huh'' is perhaps the most recognized syllable throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/11/-em-huh-em-means-the-same-thing-in-every-language/281359/ |url-access=subscription |title=Huh Means the Same Thing in Every Language |author=Olga Khazan |date=November 12, 2013 |work=The Atlantic |accessdate=December 29, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Schuessler |first1=Jennifer |date=November 9, 2013 |title=The Syllable that Everyone Understands |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/09/arts/that-syllable-everyone-recognizes.html?smid=pl-share |accessdate=November 9, 2013 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> It is an [[interrogative]] which crosses geography, language, cultures and nationalities.<ref name=":0" />{{better source needed|date=December 2021|reason=According to the article [[PLOS]], "The publications are primarily funded by payments from the authors", so take that as you will.}} ==Physiology of paralinguistic comprehension== === fMRI studies === Several studies have used the [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] paradigm to observe brain states brought about by adjustments of paralinguistic information. One such study investigated the effect of [[interjection]]s that differed along the criteria of lexical index (more or less "wordy") as well as neutral or emotional pronunciation; a higher hemodynamic response in auditory cortical gyri was found when more robust paralinguistic data was available. Some activation was found in lower brain structures such as the pons, perhaps indicating an emotional response.<ref>Dietrich, S., Hertrich, I., Kai, A., Ischebeck, A., Ackermann, H. (2008). Understanding the emotional expression of verbal interjections: a functional MRI study. ''Brain Imaging'', 19(18), 1751–1755.</ref> ==See also== * [[Business communication]] * [[Intercultural competence]] * [[Kinesics]] * [[Meta message]] * [[Meta-communication]] * [[Metacommunicative competence]] * [[Prosody (linguistics)]] * [[Proxemics]] ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ==Further reading== * Cook, Guy (2001) The Discourse of Advertising. (second edition) London: Routledge. (chapter 4 on paralanguage and semiotics). * Robbins, S. and Langton, N. (2001) ''Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications'' (2nd Canadian ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. * Traunmüller, H. (2005) "Paralinguale Phänomene" (Paralinguistic phenomena), chapter 76 in: ''SOCIOLINGUISTICS An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society'', 2nd ed., U. Ammon, N. Dittmar, K. Mattheier, P. Trudgill (eds.), Vol. 1, pp. 653–665. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York. * Matthew McKay, Martha Davis, Patrick Fanning [1983] (1995) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bUDNZkqUt0AC Messages: The Communication Skills Book]'', Second Edition, New Harbinger Publications, {{ISBN|1-57224-592-1}}, {{ISBN|978-1-57224-592-1}}, pp. 63–67. {{Nonverbal communication}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Human communication]] [[Category:Nonverbal communication]] [[Category:Sociological terminology]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Online chat]]
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