Editing Parent

{{Short description|Caregiver of offspring in their own species}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Parents and their baby.jpg|thumb|Parents and child]]
A '''parent''' is either the [[progenitor]] of a [[child]] or, in [[human]]s, it can refer to a caregiver or [[legal guardian]], generally called an '''adoptive parent''' or '''step-parent'''.  Parents who are progenitors are [[First-degree relative|first-degree relatives]] and have 50% genetic meet. A [[female]] can also become a parent through [[surrogacy]]. Some parents may be [[Adoption|adoptive]] parents, who nurture and raise an offspring, but are not related to the child. [[Orphan]]s without adoptive parents can be raised by their [[grandparent]]s or other [[family member]]s.

A parent can also be elaborated as an [[ancestor]] removed one [[generation]]. With recent medical advances, it is possible to have more than two biological parents.<ref>{{Cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-23079276 | title = UK government backs three-person IVF | access-date = 30 June 2013| work = BBC News | date = 2013-06-28 | last1 = Gallagher | first1 = James }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=[[Nadine Taub]]|title=The Law of Sex Discrimination|author2=Beth Anne Wolfson|author3=Carla M. Palumbo|page=374}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author = Browne C. Lewis | date = 2012 | title = Papa's Baby: Paternity and Artificial Insemination | page = 136}}</ref> Examples of [[Third-party reproduction|third biological parents]] include instances involving surrogacy or a third person who has provided DNA samples during an assisted reproductive procedure that has altered the recipients' genetic material.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Reproductive Technologies | page =25 | author = Louise I. Gerdes |date = 2009}}</ref>

The most common types of parents are [[mothers]], [[fathers]], [[step-parents]], and [[grandparents]]. A mother is "a woman in relation to a child or children to whom she has given birth."<ref>{{cite web|title=mother definition|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010013824/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 10, 2012|website=www.oxforddictionaries.com|publisher=Oxford Dictionaries}}</ref> The extent to which it is socially acceptable for a parent to be involved in their offspring's life varies from culture to culture, however one that exhibits too little involvement is sometimes said to exhibit [[child neglect]],<ref>{{Cite book | title = Racial Disproportionality in Child Welfare | page =2 | author = Marian S Harris | date =2014}}</ref> while one that is too involved is sometimes said to be [[overprotective]], cosseting, [[:wikt:nosy|nosey]], or [[intrusiveness|intrusive]].<ref>{{Cite book | title = Evidence in the Psychological Therapies: A Critical Guidance for Practitioners | author = Bernard Roberts | date = 2005 | page = 149}}</ref>

== Types ==

===Biological ===
[[File: Barack Obama family portrait 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Obama family]] portrait, 2011]]

A person's biological parents are the persons from whom the individual inherits their [[gene]]s. The term is generally only used if there is a need to distinguish an individual's foster parents from their biological parents,  For example, an individual whose father has remarried may call the father's new wife their [[stepmother]] and continue to refer to their mother normally, though someone who has had little or no contact with their biological mother may address their [[foster parent]] as their mother, and their biological mother as such, or perhaps by her first name. {{citation needed|date=December 2019}}

=== Mother ===
[[File:Postpartum baby2.jpg|thumb|Newborn baby]]

A mother is a female who has a maternal connection with another individual, whether arising from [[Pregnancy|conception]], by giving [[Childbirth|birth]] to, or [[Parenting|raising]] the individual in the role of a parent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allwords.com/word-mother.html |title=Definition from |publisher=Allwords.com |date=2007-09-14 |access-date=2011-11-04}}</ref> More than one female may have such connections with an individual. Because of the complexity and differences of a mother's social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The utilization of a surrogate mother may result in explication of there being two biological mothers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bromham|first1=David|title=Philosophical Ethics in Reproductive Medicine|date=1990|page=57}}</ref>

=== Father ===
[[File:Timothy L. Pesto and Kaitlyn E. Pesto play football as their father watches, Tuscaloosa, Alabama LCCN2010638252.jpg|thumb|Timothy L. Pesto and Kaitlyn E. Pesto play football as their father watches, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.]]

A father is a male parent of any type of offspring.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/father |title=TheFreeDictionary |access-date=2014-10-07}}</ref> It may be the person who shares in the raising of a child or who has provided the biological material, the [[sperm]], which results in the birth of the child.

=== Grandparent ===
Grandparents are the parents of a person's own parent, whether that be a father or a mother. Every sexually reproducing creature who is not a [[genetic chimera]] has a maximum of four [[gene]]tic grandparents, eight genetic [[Great grandparents|great-grandparents]], sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents and so on. Rarely, such as in the case of sibling or half-sibling [[incest]], these [[pedigree collapse|numbers are lower]].

== Paternity issues ==
{{Main article|DNA paternity testing}}
A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a male is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of [[Fathers' rights movement|rights]] and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during [[childbirth]] and [[pregnancy]], except in the case of a pregnancy involving [[embryo transfer]] or [[egg donation]], it is obvious who the [[mother]] is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified.

Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several [[List of Mendelian traits in humans|congenital traits]] such as attached [[earlobe]]s, a [[widow's peak]], or the [[cleft chin]], may serve as tentative indicators of (non-) parenthood as they are readily observable and inherited via [[Dominance relationship|autosomal-dominant]] genes.

A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as [[genetic fingerprinting]] of individuals), although older methods have included [[blood type|ABO blood group typing]], analysis of various other [[protein]]s and [[enzyme]]s, or using [[human leukocyte antigen]]s. The current techniques for paternity testing use [[polymerase chain reaction]] and [[restriction fragment length polymorphism]]. For the most part, however, genetic fingerprinting has all but taken over all the other forms of testing.

== Roles and responsibilities ==

=== Guardianship ===
A legal guardian is a person who has the legal authority (and the corresponding duty) to care for the personal and property interests of another person, called a ward. Guardians are typically used in three situations: guardianship for an incapacitated senior (due to old age or infirmity), guardianship for a minor, and guardianship for [[Developmental disability|developmentally disabled]] adults.

Most countries and states have laws that provide that the parents of a minor child are the legal guardians of that child, and that the parents can designate who shall become the child's legal guardian in the event of death, subject to the approval of the court. Some jurisdictions allow a parent of a child to exercise the authority of a legal guardian without a formal court appointment. In such circumstances the parent acting in that capacity is called the natural guardian of that parent's child.

=== Parenting ===
{{Main article|Parenting}}

[[Parenting]] or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the [[physical fitness|physical]], [[Emotional development|emotional]], social, financial, and [[intellectual development]] of a [[child]] from [[infant|infancy]] to [[adult]]hood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship.<ref name="Davies">{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Martin|title=The Blackwell encyclopedia of social work|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8iQAy9lZy9YC&pg=PA245|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2000|page=245|isbn=978-0-631-21451-9}}</ref>

== Gender and gender mix ==
A child has at least one biological [[father]] and at least one biological [[mother]], but not every [[family]] is a traditional [[nuclear family]]. There are many variants, such as [[adoption]], [[shared parenting]], [[Stepfamily|stepfamilies]], and [[LGBT parenting]], over which there has been controversy.

The social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents or that children and adolescents with [[LGBT parenting|same-sex parents]] suffer any developmental disadvantages compared with those with two opposite-sex parents.<ref>Lamb, Michael (2009). [http://www.glad.org/uploads/docs/cases/2009-11-17-doma-aff-lamb.pdf#page=13 Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts]{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=apsp>{{cite web |author1=Short, Elizabeth |author2=Riggs, Damien W. |author3=Perlesz, Amaryll |author4=Brown, Rhonda |author5=Kane, Graeme |name-list-style=amp |url=http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf#page=8 |title=Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society |access-date=2011-11-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304014530/http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf#page=8 |archive-date=2011-03-04 }}</ref> The professionals and the major associations now agree there is a well-established and accepted consensus in the field that there is no optimal gender combination of parents.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.lambdalegal.org/in-court/downloads/varnum_ia_20090403_supreme-court-decision.pdf#page=10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229034140/http://data.lambdalegal.org/in-court/downloads/varnum_ia_20090403_supreme-court-decision.pdf#page=10 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-12-29 |title=In The Supreme Court of Iowa No. 07–1499 |access-date=2011-11-04 }}</ref> The family studies literature indicates that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting and relationships within the family) that contribute to determining children's well-being and "outcomes", rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and co-habitation status of parents.<ref name="apsp"/>

== Genetics ==

=== Parent–offspring conflict ===
{{Main article|Parent–offspring conflict}}

An offspring who hates their father is called a misopater, one that hates their mother is a misomater, while a parent that hates their offspring is a misopedist.<ref>Francis, Darryl. "Iatrologs and Iatronyms." Word Ways 4.2 (1971): 8.</ref><ref>Davies, Jon. "Imagining intergenerationality: Representation and rhetoric in the pedophile movie." GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 13.2 (2007): 369-385.</ref> Parent–offspring conflict describes the [[evolutionary conflict]] arising from differences in optimal [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of parents and their [[offspring]]. While parents tend to maximize the number of offspring, the offspring can increase their fitness by getting a greater share of [[parental investment]] often by competing with their [[sibling]]s. The theory was proposed by [[Robert Trivers]] in 1974 and extends the more general [[Gene-centered view of evolution|selfish gene theory]] and has been used to explain many observed biological phenomena.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Trivers, R.L.|title=Parent–offspring conflict|doi=10.1093/icb/14.1.249 |jstor=3881986 |year=1974 |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=14 |issue=1|pages=249–264|doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, in some [[bird]] species, although parents often lay two eggs and attempt to raise two or more young, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of the food brought by parents and will often kill the weaker sibling, an act known as [[siblicide]].

===Empathy===
David Haig has argued that human [[fetus|fetal]] genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, a hypothesis that has received empirical support. The [[placenta]], for example, secretes allocrine [[hormone]]s that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to [[insulin]] and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading [[enzyme]]s which counteract this effect.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Haig, D. |title=Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy |pmid=8115596 |jstor=3037249 |url=http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/publications_files/93genetic%20conflicts%20in%20human%20pregnancy.pdf |year=1993 |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=495–532 |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |doi=10.1086/418300 |s2cid=38641716 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719154120/http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/publications_files/93genetic%20conflicts%20in%20human%20pregnancy.pdf |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref>

==Happiness index==
[[File:Sinatra family 1949.jpg|thumb|Sinatra family 1949]]
In Europe, parents are generally happier than non-parents. In women, happiness increases after the first child, but having higher-order children is not associated with further increased well-being. Happiness seems to increase most in the year before and after the first childbirth.<ref name=balbo2013>{{cite journal|title=Fertility in Advanced Societies: A Review of Research|author1=Nicoletta Balbo |author2=Francesco C. Billari |author3=Melinda Mills |journal=European Journal of Population|year=2013|volume=29|issue=1|pages=1–38|doi=10.1007/s10680-012-9277-y|pmid=23440941 |pmc=3576563}}</ref>

==See also==
<!--Please order alphabetically-->
{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* [[Adoption]]
* [[Bateman's principle]]
* [[Child abuse]]
* [[Cinderella effect]]
* [[Egg donation|Egg]] and [[sperm donation]]
* [[Foster care]]
* [[Infant]]
* [[Infanticide]]
* [[Narcissistic parent]]
* [[Non-paternity event]]
* [[Parental abuse by children]]
* [[Parental age (disambiguation)]]<!--intentional link to DAB page-->
* [[Parental bullying of children]]
* [[Parental investment]]
* [[Parental narcissistic abuse]]
* [[Parents bullying teachers]]
* [[Paternal bond]]
* [[Paternity (law)]]
* [[Reciprocal socialization]]
* [[Stepparent]]
* [[Surrogate mother]]
* [[Teachers bullying parents]]
* [[Honour thy father and thy mother]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Parents}}
{{wiktionary|parent}}
* [http://www.neni.us National Educational Network, Inc. (NENI)] – free online resources for parent education, curriculum. They also have a parent blog with information about child care, after-school, trends in education, tutoring, college, grants, etc.
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Parents}} – A [[Roman Catholic]] view of the position of parents.

{{Family}}
{{Parenting}}
{{Infants and their care}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Family]]
[[Category:Motherhood]]
[[Category:Fatherhood]]
[[Category:Infancy]]
[[Category:Parenting| ]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]