Editing Particle detector

{{Short description|Device used to detect, track, and/or identify ionising particles}}
{{About|detection of ionizing radiation|detection of non-ionizing particles|particle counter}}

In experimental and applied [[particle physics]], [[nuclear physics]], and [[nuclear engineering]], a '''particle detector''', also known as a '''radiation detector''', is a device used to detect, track, and/or identify ionizing [[elementary particle|particle]]s, such as those produced by [[nuclear decay]], [[cosmic radiation]], or reactions in a [[particle accelerator]]. Detectors can measure the particle energy and other attributes such as momentum, spin, charge, particle type, in addition to merely registering the presence of the particle.

== The operating of a nuclear radiation detector ==
The operating principle of a nuclear radiation detector can be summarized as follows:

The detector identifies high-energy particles or photons—such as alpha, beta, gamma radiation, or neutrons—through their interactions with the atoms of the detector material. These interactions generate a primary signal, which may involve ionization of gas, the creation of electron-hole pairs in semiconductors, or the emission of light in scintillating materials. The primary signal is then amplified and processed by electronic systems. Finally, the resulting electrical pulse is analyzed to determine characteristics of the radiation, such as its energy, count rate, or spectral distribution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knoll |first=Glenn F. |title=Radiation detection and measurement |date=2010 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-13148-0 |edition=4th |location=Hoboken, NJ}}</ref>

== Examples and types ==
[[File:Detectors summary 3.png|thumb|400px|Summary of particle detector types]]
Many of the detectors invented and used so far are ionization detectors (of which [[gaseous ionization detector]]s and [[semiconductor detector]]s are most typical) and [[scintillation detector]]s; but other, completely different principles have also been applied, like [[Čerenkov radiation|Čerenkov light]] and transition radiation.

[[File:Alpha radiation in a cloud chamber.jpg|thumb|[[Cloud chamber]]s visualize [[particle]]s by creating a [[supersaturated]] layer of [[vapor]]. [[Particles]] passing through this region create cloud tracks similar to [[condensation trails]] of planes]]
[[File:Recording bubble chamber.jpg|thumb|Recording of a bubble chamber at CERN]]
'''Historical examples'''
*[[Bubble chamber]]
*[[Cloud chamber|Wilson cloud chamber (diffusion chamber)]]
*[[Photographic plate]] ([[Nuclear emulsion]])

;Detectors for radiation protection

The following types of particle detector are widely used for radiation protection, and are commercially produced in large quantities for general use within the nuclear, medical, and environmental fields.
*[[Dosimeter]]
[[Electroscope]] (when used as a portable dosimeter)
*[[Gaseous ionization detector]]
**[[Geiger counter]]
**[[Ionization chamber]]
**[[Proportional counter]]
*[[Scintillation counter]]
*[[Semiconductor detector]]

'''Commonly used detectors for particle and nuclear physics'''

*[[Gaseous ionization detector]]
**[[Ionization chamber]]
**[[Proportional counter]]
***[[Multiwire proportional chamber]]
***[[Drift chamber]]
***[[Time projection chamber]]
***[[Micropattern gaseous detector]]
**[[Geiger–Müller tube]]
**[[Spark chamber]]
*Solid-state detectors:
**[[Semiconductor detector]] and variants including [[charge-coupled device|CCD]]s
***Silicon Vertex Detector
**[[Solid-state nuclear track detector]]
**[[Cherenkov detector]]
***[[Ring-imaging Cherenkov detector]] (RICH)
**[[Scintillation counter]] and associated [[photomultiplier]], [[photodiode]], or [[avalanche photodiode]]
***[[Lucas cell]]
***[[Time-of-flight detector]]
**[[Transition radiation detector]]
*[[Calorimeter (particle physics)|Calorimeter]]
*[[Microchannel plate detector]]
*[[Neutron detection|Neutron detector]]

==Modern detectors==
{{Main|Hermetic detector}}
Modern detectors in particle physics combine several of the above elements in layers much like an [[onion]].

==Research particle detectors==
Detectors designed for modern accelerators are huge, both in size and in cost. The term ''[[counter (disambiguation)|counter]]'' is often used instead of ''detector'' when the detector counts the particles but does not resolve its energy or ionization. Particle detectors can also usually track ionizing radiation (high energy [[photon]]s or even visible [[light]]). If their main purpose is radiation measurement, they are called ''radiation detectors'', but as photons are also (massless) particles, the term ''particle detector'' is still correct.
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:The CMS Detector, LHC, cms 120918 02.png|thumb|400px|The [[Compact Muon Solenoid]] (CMS) is an example of a large particle detector. Notice the person for scale.]] -->

===At colliders===
*At [[CERN]]
**for the [[Large Hadron Collider|LHC]]
***[[Compact Muon Solenoid|CMS]]
***[[ATLAS experiment|ATLAS]]
***[[ALICE experiment|ALICE]]
***[[LHCb]]
**for the [[Large Electron–Positron Collider|LEP]]
***[[Aleph (CERN)|Aleph]][http://teachers.web.cern.ch/teachers/archiv/HST2001/detectors/trackdata/ALEPH.htm]
***[[DELPHI experiment|Delphi]][http://delphiwww.cern.ch/]
***[[L3 (CERN)|L3]]
***[[Opal (CERN)|Opal]][http://opal.web.cern.ch/Opal]
**for the [[Super Proton Synchrotron|SPS]]
***[[COMPASS experiment|The COMPASS Experiment]]
***[https://web.archive.org/web/20040319021454/http://hepweb.rl.ac.uk/ppUKpics/POW/pr_980624.html Gargamelle]
***[http://shine.web.cern.ch/ NA61/SHINE]
*At [[Fermilab]]
**for the [[Tevatron]]
***[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/fermidet.html CDF]
***[https://www-d0.fnal.gov/ D0]
**[[Mu2e]]
*At [[DESY]]
**for [[HERA (particle accelerator)|HERA]]
***[[H1 (particle detector)|H1]]
***[[HERA-B]]
***[[HERMES experiment|HERMES]]
***[[ZEUS (particle detector)|ZEUS]]
*At [[Brookhaven National Laboratory|BNL]]
**for the [[RHIC]]
***[[PHENIX]]
***[[Phobos (physics)|Phobos]]
***[https://web.archive.org/web/20081108051432/http://www.star.bnl.gov/ STAR]
*At [[SLAC]]
**for the [http://www.slac.stanford.edu/grp/ad/ADPEPII/ADPEPII.html PeP-II]
***[[BaBar experiment|BaBar]]
**for the [http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/experiments/slc.html SLC]
***[http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/detectors.html SLD]
*At [[Cornell University|Cornell]]
**for [[Cornell Electron Storage Ring|CESR]]
***[[CLEO (particle detector)|CLEO]]
***[[CUSB]]
*At [[Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics|BINP]]
**for the [http://www.inp.nsk.su/activity/old/vepp2m/index.ru.shtml VEPP-2M] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20121029223656/http://vepp2k.inp.nsk.su/ VEPP-2000]
***[[ND experiment|ND]]
***[[SND Experiment|SND]]
***CMD
**for the [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716074832/http://v4.inp.nsk.su/index.en.html VEPP-4]
***[http://kedr.inp.nsk.su/index.html KEDR]
*Others
**[https://archive.today/20121215054522/http://meco.ps.uci.edu/ MECO] from [[UC Irvine]]

===Under construction===
*For [[International Linear Collider]] (ILC)
**[[CALICE]] (Calorimeter for Linear Collider Experiment)

===Without colliders===
*[[Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array]] (AMANDA)
*[[Cryogenic Dark Matter Search]] (CDMS)
*[[Super-Kamiokande]]
*[[XENON]]

==On spacecraft==
*[[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] (AMS)
*[[DAMPE]] (DArk Matter Particle Explorer)
*[[Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope]]
*[[JEDI]] (Jupiter Energetic-particle Detector Instrument)

== Theoretical Models of Particle Detectors ==
Beyond their experimental implementations, theoretical models of particle detectors are also of great importance to theoretical physics. These models consider localized non-relativistic quantum systems coupled to a quantum field.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martín-Martínez |first1=Eduardo |last2=Montero |first2=Miguel |last3=del Rey |first3=Marco |date=2013-03-25 |title=Wavepacket detection with the Unruh-DeWitt model |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevD.87.064038 |journal=Physical Review D |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=064038 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.87.064038|arxiv=1207.3248 |bibcode=2013PhRvD..87f4038M |s2cid=19334396 }}</ref> They receive the name of particle detectors because when the non-relativistic quantum system is measured in an excited state, one can claim to have detected a particle.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Unruh |first=W. G. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Notes on black-hole evaporation |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870 |journal=Physical Review D |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=870–892 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870|bibcode=1976PhRvD..14..870U |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Unruh |first1=William G. |last2=Wald |first2=Robert M. |date=1984-03-15 |title=What happens when an accelerating observer detects a Rindler particle |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevD.29.1047 |journal=Physical Review D |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=1047–1056 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.29.1047|bibcode=1984PhRvD..29.1047U |url-access=subscription }}</ref>  The first instance of particle detector models in the literature dates from the 80's, where a particle in a box was introduced by [[W. G. Unruh]] in order to probe a quantum field around a black hole.<ref name=":0" /> Shortly after, [[Bryce DeWitt]] proposed a simplification of the model,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Irvine |first=J M |date=May 1980 |title=General Relativity – An Einstein Centenary Survey |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9112/31/4/029 |journal=Physics Bulletin |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=140 |doi=10.1088/0031-9112/31/4/029 |issn=0031-9112|url-access=subscription }}</ref> giving rise to the [[Unruh-DeWitt detector]] model.

Beyond their applications to theoretical physics, particle detector models are related to experimental fields such as [[quantum optics]], where atoms can be used as detectors for the quantum electromagnetic field via the light-matter interaction. From a conceptual side, particle detectors also allow one to formally define the concept of particles without relying on asymptotic states, or representations of a quantum field theory. As [[Marlan Scully|M. Scully]] puts it, from an operational viewpoint one can state that "a particle is what a particle detector detects",<ref>{{Citation |last=Scully |first=Marlan O. |title=The Time-Dependent Schrödinger Equation Revisited: Quantum Optical and Classical Maxwell Routes to Schrödinger's Wave Equation |date=2009 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03174-8_2 |work=Time in Quantum Mechanics - Vol. 2 |series=Lecture Notes in Physics |volume=789 |pages=15–24 |editor-last=Muga |editor-first=Gonzalo |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-03174-8_2 |isbn=978-3-642-03174-8 |access-date=2022-08-19 |editor2-last=Ruschhaupt |editor2-first=Andreas |editor3-last=del Campo |editor3-first=Adolfo|url-access=subscription }}</ref> which in essence defines a particle as the detection of excitations of a quantum field.

==See also==
*[[Counting efficiency]]
*[[List of particles]]
*[[Tail-pulse generator]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite journal
|first1=R. Clark
|last1=Jones
|author-link=Robert Clark Jones
|title=A New Classification System for Radiation Detectors
|journal=Journal of the Optical Society of America
|volume=39
|issue=5
|pages=327–341
|doi=10.1364/JOSA.39.000327
|year=1949|pmid=18131432
|bibcode=1949JOSA...39..327J
}}
*{{cite journal
|first1=R. Clark
|last1=Jones
|title=Erratum: The Ultimate Sensitivity of Radiation Detectors
|journal=Journal of the Optical Society of America
|volume=39
|issue=5
|page=343
|doi=10.1364/JOSA.39.000343
|year=1949|bibcode=1949JOSA...39..343J
}}
*{{cite journal
|first1=R. Clark
|last1=Jones
|title=Factors of Merit for Radiation Detectors
|journal=Journal of the Optical Society of America
|volume=39
|issue=5
|pages=344–356
|doi=10.1364/JOSA.39.000344
|year=1949|pmid=18144695
|bibcode=1949JOSA...39..344J
}}

==Further reading==
;Filmstrips
*"''Radiation detectors''". H. M. Stone Productions, Schloat. Tarrytown, N.Y., Prentice-Hall Media, 1972.

;General Information
*{{cite conference
| last=Grupen |first=C.
| title=Physics of Particle Detection
| book-title=AIP Conference Proceedings, Instrumentation in Elementary Particle Physics, VIII
| pages=3&ndash;34 |volume=536
| publisher=Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co.
| date=June 28 – July 10, 1999 |location=Istanbul
| doi=10.1063/1.1361756 |arxiv=physics/9906063}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Particle detectors| ]]
[[Category:Ionising radiation detectors]]