Editing Pasteurization

{{short description|Process of preserving foods with heat}}
{{Redirect|Pasteurized|the racehorse|Pasteurized (horse)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}

[[File:Pasteurized milk -Japan.jpg|thumb|Pasteurized milk in Japan]]
[[File:Give The Bottle-Fed Baby a Chance For It&#039;s Life poster.jpg|thumb|A 1912 Chicago Department of Health poster explains household pasteurization to mothers.]]

In food processing, '''pasteurization''' ([[American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization)|also]] '''pasteurisation''') is a process of [[food preservation]] in which packaged foods (e.g., [[milk]] and [[fruit juice]]s) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than {{cvt|100|C|F}}, to eliminate [[pathogen]]s and extend [[shelf life]]. Pasteurization either destroys or deactivates [[microorganism]]s and [[enzyme]]s that contribute to [[food spoilage]] or the risk of disease, including vegetative [[bacteria]], but most [[Endospore|bacterial spores]] survive the process.<ref name="Fellows-2017">{{cite book |title=Food Processing Technology Principles and Practice |last=Fellows |first=P. J. |publisher=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-08-101907-8 |pages=563–578}}</ref><ref name="Tewari-2007">{{cite book |title=Advances in Thermal and Non-Thermal Food Preservation |url=https://archive.org/details/advancesthermaln00tewa |url-access=limited |last1=Tewari |first1=Gaurav |last2=Juneja |first2=Vijay K. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/advancesthermaln00tewa/page/n10 3], 96, 116|isbn=9780813829685 }}</ref>

Pasteurization is named after the French microbiologist [[Louis Pasteur]], whose research in the 1860s demonstrated that thermal processing would deactivate unwanted microorganisms in [[wine]].<ref name="Tewari-2007"/><ref name="Milkfacts" /> Spoilage enzymes are also inactivated during pasteurization. Today, pasteurization is used widely in the [[dairy]] industry and other [[food processing]] industries for [[food preservation]] and [[food safety]].<ref name="Milkfacts">{{Cite web|url=http://milkfacts.info/Milk%20Processing/Heat%20Treatments%20and%20Pasteurization.htm|title=Heat Treatments and Pasteurisation|website=milkfacts.info|access-date=2016-12-12|archive-date=5 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605083217/http://milkfacts.info/Milk%20Processing/Heat%20Treatments%20and%20Pasteurization.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

By the year 1999, most liquid products were heat treated in a continuous system where heat was applied using a [[heat exchanger]] or the direct or indirect use of hot water and steam. Due to the mild heat, there are minor changes to the nutritional quality and sensory characteristics of the treated foods.<ref name="Rahman-1999" /> [[Pascalization]] or high-pressure processing (HPP) and [[Food preservation#Pulsed electric field electroporation|pulsed electric field]] (PEF) are non-thermal processes that are also used to pasteurize foods.<ref name="Fellows-2017" />

==History==

[[File:Louis Pasteur Experiment.svg|thumb|Louis Pasteur's pasteurization experiment illustrates the fact that the spoilage of liquid was caused by particles in the air rather than the air itself. These experiments were important pieces of evidence supporting the idea of the germ theory of disease.]]
[[File:Industry during the First World War- Cheshire Q28329.jpg|thumb|A worker removing beer bottles from a pasteurization tank at a brewery in Cheshire, England (September 1918)]]
Heating wine for preservation has been known in China since AD 1117 and was documented in Japan in the diary ''Tamonin-nikki'' written by a series of monks between 1478 and 1618.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/amit/books/hornsey-2003-history-of-beer.html|title=A History of Beer and Brewing|last=Hornsey |first=Ian Spencer |first2=George |last2=Bacon |publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-85404-630-0|page=30|quote=[…] sake is pasteurized and it is interesting to note that a pasteurization technique was first mentioned in 1568 in the ''Tamonin-nikki'', the diary of a Buddhist monk, indicating that it was practiced in Japan some 300 years before Pasteur. In China, the first country in East Asia to develop a form of pasteurization, the earliest record of the process is said to date from 1117.|access-date=2 January 2011|archive-date=12 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812214517/https://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/amit/books/hornsey-2003-history-of-beer.html/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1768, research performed by the Italian priest and scientist [[Lazzaro Spallanzani]] proved that a product could be made "sterile" after thermal processing. Spallanzani boiled meat broth for one hour, sealed the container immediately after boiling, and noticed that the broth did not spoil and was free from microorganisms.<ref name="Tewari-2007"/><ref name="VR19282">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQ_hjAuH9xEC&pg=PA113|title=Life of Pasteur 1928|last1=Vallery-Radot|first1=René|date=2003-03-01|isbn=978-0-7661-4352-4|pages=113–14|publisher=Kessinger|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=1 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101072908/https://books.google.com/books?id=rQ_hjAuH9xEC&pg=PA113|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1795, a Parisian chef and confectioner named [[Nicolas Appert]] began experimenting with ways to preserve foodstuffs, succeeding with soups, vegetables, juices, dairy products, jellies, jams, and syrups. He placed the food in glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax, and placed them in boiling water.<ref name="biodict23">{{cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415060424|url-access=registration|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|isbn=978-0-415-19399-3|editor=Lance Day, Ian McNeil}}</ref> In that same year, the French military offered a cash prize of 12,000 [[French franc|francs]] for a new method to preserve food. After some 14 or 15 years of experimenting, Appert submitted his invention and won the prize in January 1810.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cFzIphx7CUQC&pg=PA187|title=Food Packaging: Principles End Practice|author1=Gordon L. Robertson|publisher=Marcel Dekker|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8247-0175-8|page=187|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819023857/https://books.google.com/books?id=cFzIphx7CUQC&pg=PA187|url-status=live}}</ref> Later that year, Appert published ''L'Art de conserver les substances animales et végétales'' ("''The Art of Preserving Animal and Vegetable Substances''"). This was the first cookbook on modern food preservation methods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofscience.com/G2I/timeline/index.php?id=2541|title=The First Book on Modern Food Preservation Methods (1810)|date=2009-09-29|publisher=Historyofscience.com|access-date=2014-03-19|archive-date=1 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101210920/http://www.historyofscience.com/G2I/timeline/index.php?id=2541|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dTLjD_irdS4C&pg=PA66|title=Minimally processed refrigerated fruits and vegetables|last1=Wiley|first1=R. C|year=1994|isbn=978-0-412-05571-3|page=66|publisher=Springer |quote=Nicolas Appert in 1810 was probably the first person [...]|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819035226/https://books.google.com/books?id=dTLjD_irdS4C&pg=PA66|url-status=live}}</ref>

''La Maison Appert'' {{Gloss|The House of Appert}}, in the town of [[Massy, Essonne|Massy]], near Paris, became the first food-bottling factory in the world,<ref name="biodict23"/> preserving a variety of foods in sealed bottles. Appert's filled thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef and fowl to eggs, [[milk]], and prepared dishes. He left air space at the top of the bottle, and the cork would then be sealed firmly in the jar by using a [[vise]]. The bottle was then wrapped in canvas to protect it while it was dunked into boiling water and then boiled for as much time as Appert deemed appropriate for cooking the contents thoroughly. Appert patented his method, sometimes called ''appertisation'' in his honor.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Garcia |last2=Adrian |first1=Rebeca |first2=Jean |date=March 2009|title=Nicolas Appert: Inventor and Manufacturer|journal=Food Reviews International|volume=25|issue=2|pages=115–125|doi=10.1080/87559120802682656|s2cid=83865891}}</ref>

Appert's method was so simple and workable that it quickly became widespread. In 1810, the British inventor and merchant [[Peter Durand]], also of French origin, patented his method, but this time in a [[tin can]], so creating the modern-day process of [[canning]] foods. In 1812, the Englishmen [[Bryan Donkin]] and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing [[preserves]]. A decade later, Appert's canning method had come to America.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Toffler |first=Alvin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVNSEAAAQBAJ&dq=future+shock+appert&pg=PA542 |title=Future Shock |date=2022-01-11 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-593-15976-7 |pages=27 |language=en}}</ref> Tin can production was not common until the beginning of the 20th century, partly because a hammer and chisel were needed to open cans until the invention of a [[can opener]] by Robert Yeates in 1855.<ref name="biodict23"/>

A less aggressive method was developed by French chemist [[Louis Pasteur]] during an 1864 summer holiday in [[Arbois]].<ref name="VR192822">{{cite book |last1=Vallery-Radot |first1=René |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3UTAAAAYAAJ |title=Life of Pasteur 1928 |date=2003-03-01 |isbn=978-0-7661-4352-4 |pages=113–14 |access-date=22 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719140715/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/The_Life_of_Pasteur/k3UTAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |archive-date=19 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> To remedy the frequent acidity of the local aged [[wine]]s, he found out experimentally that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only about {{convert|50|–|60|C|F}} for a short time to kill the microbes, and that the wine could subsequently be [[Aging of wine|aged]] without sacrificing the final quality.<ref name="VR192822" /> In honor of Pasteur, this process is known as pasteurization.<ref name="Tewari-2007"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/pasteur_louis.shtml|title=History – Louis Pasteur|publisher=BBC|access-date=25 December 2019|archive-date=3 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503190420/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/pasteur_louis.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and [[beer]] from souring,<ref>Carlisle, Rodney (2004). ''Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries'', p. 357. John Wiley & Songs, Inc., New Jersey. {{ISBN|0-471-24410-4}}.</ref> and it would be many years before milk was pasteurized.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Lingering Heat over Pasteurized Milk |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/stories/magazine/the-lingering-heat-over-pasteurized-milk/ |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=Science History Institute |language=en-US}}</ref> In the United States in the 1870s, before milk was regulated, it was common for milk to contain substances intended to mask spoilage.<ref name="HwangHuang20092">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbOrQP33U6EC&pg=PA88|title=Ready-to-Eat Foods: Microbial Concerns and Control Measures|last1=Hwang|first1=Andy|last2=Huang|first2=Lihan|date=31 January 2009|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-6862-7|page=88|access-date=19 April 2011|archive-date=2 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602041236/http://books.google.com/books?id=AbOrQP33U6EC&pg=PA88|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Milk===
{{Details|Raw milk}}

[[File:Milk Vat.jpg|thumb|{{convert|180|kg|lb}} of milk in a cheese vat]]
Milk is an excellent [[Growth medium|medium]] for microbial growth,<ref name="indianabiolab2">{{cite web|url=http://www.disknet.com/indiana_biolab/b028.htm|title=Harold Eddleman, ''Making Milk Media'', Indiana Biolab|publisher=Disknet.com|access-date=2014-03-19|archive-date=13 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513012416/http://www.disknet.com/indiana_biolab/b028.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> and when it is stored at ambient temperature, bacteria and other pathogens soon proliferate.<ref name="ilca2">{{cite web|url=http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/ilca_manual4/Microbiology.htm#P122_10360|title=Frank O'Mahony, ''Rural dairy technology: Experiences in Ethiopia'', International Livestock Centre for Africa|publisher=Ilri.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220042431/http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/ilca_manual4/Microbiology.htm#P122_10360|archive-date=20 February 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=2014-03-19}}</ref> The US [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) says improperly handled raw milk is responsible for nearly three times more hospitalizations than any other food-borne disease source, making it one of the world's most dangerous food products.<ref name="foodsmart2">{{cite web|url=http://www.foodsmart.govt.nz/food-safety/high-risk-foods/raw-milk/rawmilk.htm|title=Food safety of raw milk|publisher=Foodsmart.govt.nz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408141723/http://www.foodsmart.govt.nz/food-safety/high-risk-foods/raw-milk/rawmilk.htm|archive-date=8 April 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=2014-03-19}}</ref><ref name="NonpasteurizedDairyProductsCDC2">{{cite journal|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/18/3/pdfs/11-1370.pdf|title=Nonpasteurized Dairy Products, Disease Outbreaks, and State Laws – United States, 1993–2006|last1=Langer|first1=Adam J.|last2=Ayers|first2=Tracy|access-date=11 February 2015|last3=Grass|first3=Julian|last4=Lynch|first4=Michael|last5=Angulo|first5=Frederick|last6=Mahon|first6=Barbara|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|year=2012|volume=18|issue=3|pages=385–91|doi=10.3201/eid1803.111370|pmid=22377202|pmc=3309640|archive-date=23 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150823063410/http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/18/3/pdfs/11-1370.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Diseases prevented by pasteurization include [[tuberculosis]], [[brucellosis]], [[diphtheria]], [[scarlet fever]], and [[Q-fever]]; it also kills the harmful bacteria ''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Listeria]]'', ''[[Yersinia]]'', ''[[Campylobacter]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'', and ''[[Escherichia coli O157:H7]]'',<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20100620202412/http://www.fcs.msue.msu.edu//ff/pdffiles/foodsafety2.pdf Milk Pasteurization: Guarding against disease]", Michigan State University Extension</ref><ref>Smith, P.W., (August 1981), "Milk Pasteurization" Fact Sheet Number 57, U.S. Department of Agriculture Research Service, Washington, DC</ref> among others.

Before industrialization, dairy cows were kept in urban areas to limit the time between milk production and consumption, hence the risk of disease transmission via raw milk was reduced.<ref name="hotchkiss2">{{Citation|title=Recording and Control C1900 in Pasteurization processes|url=https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|year=2018|access-date=17 May 2018|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517153039/https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> As urban densities increased and supply chains lengthened to the distance from country to city, raw milk (often days old) became recognized as a source of disease. For example, between 1912 and 1937, some 65,000 people died of tuberculosis contracted from consuming milk in England and Wales alone.<ref name="wilson2">{{Citation|last=Wilson|first=G.S.|title=The Pasteurization of Milk|year=1943|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=1|issue=4286|pages=261–62|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.4286.261|pmc=2282302|pmid=20784713}}</ref> Because tuberculosis has a long incubation period in humans, it was difficult to link unpasteurized milk consumption with the disease.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pearce|first=Lindsay|date=2002|title=Bacterial diseases – The impact of milk processing to reduce risks|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=BE2003000067|journal=Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation|language=en|volume=372|pages=20–25|issn=0250-5118|access-date=23 June 2017|archive-date=29 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729132515/http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=BE2003000067|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1892, chemist [[Ernst Lederle]] experimentally inoculated milk from tuberculosis-diseased cows into guinea pigs, which caused them to develop the disease.<ref name="Weinstein-1947">{{Cite journal|last1=Weinstein|first1=I|date=1947|title=Eighty years of public health in New York City|journal=Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine|volume=23|issue=4|pages=221–237|pmc=1871552|pmid=19312527}}</ref> In 1910, Lederle, then in the role of Commissioner of Health, introduced mandatory pasteurization of milk in [[New York City]].<ref name="Weinstein-1947" />

Developed countries adopted milk pasteurization to prevent such disease and loss of life, and as a result, milk is now considered a safer food.<ref name="hotchkiss22">{{Citation |title=Recording and Control C1900 in Pasteurization processes|url=https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|year=2018|access-date=17 May 2018|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517153039/https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> A traditional form of pasteurization by scalding and straining of cream to increase the keeping qualities of [[butter]] was practiced in Great Britain in the 18th century and was introduced to [[Boston]] in the British Colonies by 1773,<ref>Kaden H. 2017. Food Preservation tools and techniques: In Food Industry process and technologies. Library press. pages 129–178</ref> although it was not widely practiced in the United States for the next 20 years. Pasteurization of milk was suggested by [[Franz von Soxhlet]] in 1886.<ref>Franz Soxhlet (1886) "Über Kindermilch und Säuglings-Ernährung" (On milk for babies and infant nutrition), ''Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift'' (Munich Medical Weekly), vol. 33, pp. 253, 276.</ref> In the early 20th century, [[Milton Joseph Rosenau]] established the standards – i.e. low-temperature, slow heating at {{convert|60|C|F}} for 20 minutes – for the pasteurization of milk<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishcurrents.org/january-1-pasteurization-34519|title=January 1: Pasteurization|date=1 January 2015|website=Jewish Currents|access-date=4 January 2015|archive-date=4 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104161822/http://jewishcurrents.org/january-1-pasteurization-34519|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4840b1.htm|title=Milton J. Rosenau, M.D.|website=cdc.gov|access-date=7 September 2017|archive-date=23 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823221008/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4840b1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> while at the United States Marine Hospital Service, notably in his publication of ''The Milk Question'' (1912).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/27504#/summary|title=Details – The milk question |via=biodiversitylibrary.org|publisher=Houghton Mifflin company|year=1912|access-date=14 January 2018|archive-date=2 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602143111/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/27504#/summary|url-status=live}}</ref> States in the U.S. soon began enacting mandatory dairy pasteurization laws, with the first in 1947, and in 1973 the U.S. federal government required pasteurization of milk used in any interstate commerce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncleg.net/DocumentSites/Committees/HSCAR/Meetings/2011-2012/4%20-%20March%207/2012-0307%20B.Riley-%20NCGA%20Research%20-%20Fed%20and%20State%20Regs%20of%20Raw%20Milk%20Presentation.pdf|title=Federal and State Regulation of Raw Milk|access-date=23 July 2016|archive-date=6 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206020946/http://www.ncleg.net/DocumentSites/Committees/HSCAR/Meetings/2011-2012/4%20-%20March%207/2012-0307%20B.Riley-%20NCGA%20Research%20-%20Fed%20and%20State%20Regs%20of%20Raw%20Milk%20Presentation.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The shelf life of refrigerated pasteurized milk is greater than that of [[raw milk]]. For example, high-temperature, short-time ([[HTST]]) pasteurized milk typically has a [[Refrigeration|refrigerated]] [[shelf life]] of two to three weeks, whereas ultra-pasteurized milk can last much longer, sometimes two to three months. When ultra-heat treatment ([[Ultra-high-temperature processing|UHT]]) is combined with sterile handling and container technology (such as [[Aseptic processing|aseptic packaging]]), it can even be stored non-refrigerated for up to 9 months.<ref name="hotchkiss23">{{Citation |title=Recording and Control C1900 in Pasteurization processes|url=https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|year=2018|access-date=17 May 2018|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517153039/https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the [[Centers for Disease Control]], between 1998 and 2011, 79% of dairy-related disease outbreaks in the United States were due to raw milk or cheese products.<ref name="CDC Raw Milk2">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/rawmilk/raw-milk-questions-and-answers.html#related-outbreaks|title=Raw Milk Questions and Answers – Food Safety|date=2014-03-07|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control]]|access-date=2014-03-19|archive-date=30 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730000530/https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/rawmilk/raw-milk-questions-and-answers.html#related-outbreaks|url-status=live}}</ref> They report 148 outbreaks and 2,384 illnesses (with 284 requiring hospitalization), as well as two deaths due to raw milk or cheese products during the same period.<ref name="CDC Raw Milk2" />

===Medical equipment===

Medical equipment, notably respiratory and anesthesia equipment, is often disinfected using hot water, as an alternative to chemical disinfection. The temperature is raised to {{cvt|70|C}} for 30 minutes.<ref name="Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/disinfection/disinfection-methods/miscellaneous.html|title=Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities|year=2008|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control]]|access-date=2018-07-10|archive-date=11 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711020004/https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/disinfection/disinfection-methods/miscellaneous.html|url-status=live}}</ref> More thorough sterilization can be performed at higher temperatures and pressures in an [[autoclave]].

==Pasteurization process==

[[File:Simple Pasteurization.png|thumb|General overview of the pasteurization process. The milk starts at the left and enters the piping with functioning enzymes that, when heat-treated, become denatured and stop functioning. This prevents pathogen growth by stopping the functionality of the cell. The cooling process helps stop the milk from undergoing the [[Maillard reaction]] and caramelization.]]
Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment of liquid foods (both packaged and unpackaged) where products are typically heated to below {{convert|100|C|F}}. The heat treatment and cooling process are designed to inhibit a phase change in the product. The [[acidity]] of the food determines the parameters (time and temperature) of the heat treatment as well as the duration of shelf life. Parameters also take into account nutritional and sensory qualities that are sensitive to heat.

In acidic foods (with [[pH]] of 4.6 or less), such as fruit juice and [[beer]], the heat treatments are designed to inactivate enzymes (pectin [[Protein-glutamate methylesterase|methylesterase]] and [[polygalacturonase]] in fruit juices) and destroy spoilage microbes (yeast and [[lactobacillus]]). Due to the low pH of acidic foods, pathogens cannot grow. The shelf-life is thereby extended by several weeks. In less acidic foods (with pH greater than 4.6), such as milk and liquid eggs, heat treatments are designed to destroy pathogens and spoilage organisms (yeast and molds). Not all spoilage organisms are destroyed under pasteurization parameters, so subsequent refrigeration is necessary.<ref name="Fellows-2017"/>

High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization, such as that used for milk ({{convert|71.5|C|F}} for 15 seconds) ensures the safety of milk and provides a refrigerated shelf life of approximately two weeks. In ultra-high-temperature (UHT) pasteurization, milk is pasteurized at {{convert|135|C|F}} for 1–2 seconds, which provides the same level of safety, but along with the packaging, extends shelf life to three months under refrigeration.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chavan|first1=Rupesh S.|last2=Chavan|first2=Shraddha Rupesh|last3=Khedkar|first3=Chandrashekar D.|last4=Jana|first4=Atanu H.|date=2011-08-22|title=UHT Milk Processing and Effect of Plasmin Activity on Shelf Life: A Review|journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety|language=en|volume=10|issue=5|pages=251–68|doi=10.1111/j.1541-4337.2011.00157.x|issn=1541-4337}}</ref>

===Equipment===

Food can be pasteurized either before or after being packaged into containers. Pasteurization of food in containers generally uses either steam or hot water. When food is packaged in glass, hot water is used to avoid cracking the glass from [[thermal shock]]. When plastic or metal packaging is used, the risk of thermal shock is low, so steam or hot water is used.<ref name="Fellows-2017"/>

Most liquid foods are pasteurized by using a continuous process that passes the food through a heating zone, a hold tube to keep it at the pasteurization temperature for the desired time, and a cooling zone, after which the product is filled into the package. [[Plate heat exchanger]]s are often used for low-[[viscosity]] products such as animal milk, nut milk, and juices. A plate heat exchanger is composed of many thin vertical stainless steel plates that separate the liquid from the heating or cooling medium. 

[[Shell and tube heat exchanger|Shell and tube heat exchangers]] are often used for the pasteurization of foods that are [[non-Newtonian fluid]]s, such as dairy products, tomato [[ketchup]], and baby foods. A tube heat exchanger is made up of concentric stainless steel tubes. Food passes through the inner tube or tubes, while the heating/cooling medium is circulated through the outer tube.

Scraped-surface heat exchangers are a type of shell and tube that contain an inner rotating shaft having spring-loaded blades that serve to scrape away any highly viscous material that accumulates on the wall of the tube.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Food Process Engineering|last=Smith|first=P. G|publisher=Food Science Text Series|year=2003|pages=152–54, 259–50}}</ref>

The benefits of using a [[heat exchanger]] to pasteurize foods before packaging, versus pasteurizing foods in containers are:
* Higher uniformity of treatment
* Greater flexibility with regard to the products that can be pasteurized
* Higher heat transfer-efficiency<ref name="Fellows-2017"/>
* Greater throughput with many other processes of using the milk 


After being heated in a heat exchanger, the product flows through a hold tube for a set period to achieve the required treatment. If pasteurization temperature or time is not achieved, a flow diversion valve is used to divert the under-processed product back to the raw product tank.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2005-06-01|title=HACCP with multivariate process monitoring and fault diagnosis techniques: application to a food pasteurization process|journal=Food Control|language=en|volume=16|issue=5|pages=411–422|doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2004.04.008|issn=0956-7135|last1=(Kosebalaban) Tokatli|first1=Figen|last2=Cinar|first2=Ali|last3=Schlesser|first3=Joseph E.|hdl=11147/1960|hdl-access=free}}</ref> If the product is adequately processed, it is cooled in a heat exchanger, then filled.

===Verification===

Direct microbiological techniques are the ultimate measurement of pathogen contamination, but these are costly and time-consuming, which means that products have a reduced shelf-life by the time pasteurization is verified.

As a result of the unsuitability of microbiological techniques, milk pasteurization efficacy is typically monitored by checking for the presence of [[alkaline phosphatase]], which is denatured by pasteurization. Destruction of alkaline phosphatase ensures the destruction of common milk pathogens. Therefore, the presence of alkaline phosphatase is an ideal indicator of pasteurization efficacy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kay|first1=H.|year=1935|title=Some Results of the Application of a Simple Test for Efficiency of Pasteurization|journal=The Lancet|volume=225|issue=5835|pages=1516–18|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)12532-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hoy|first1=W.A.|last2=Neave|first2=F.K.|year=1937|title=The Phosphatase Test for Efficient Pasteurization|journal=The Lancet|volume=230|issue=5949|pages=595|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)83378-4}}</ref> For [[Breaker eggs|liquid eggs]], the effectiveness of the heat treatment is measured by the residual activity of [[Alpha-amylase|α-amylase]].<ref name="Fellows-2017"/>

====Efficacy against pathogenic bacteria====

During the early 20th century, there was no robust knowledge of what time and temperature combinations would inactivate pathogenic bacteria in milk, so several different pasteurization standards were in use. By 1943, both HTST pasteurization conditions of {{convert|72|C|F}} for 15 seconds, as well as batch pasteurization conditions of {{convert|63|C|F}} for 30 minutes, were confirmed by studies of the complete thermal death (as best as could be measured at that time) for a range of pathogenic bacteria in milk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ball|first=C. Olin|date=1943-01-01|title=Short-Time Pasteurization of Milk|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|volume=35|issue=1|pages=71–84|doi=10.1021/ie50397a017|issn=0019-7866}}</ref> Complete inactivation of ''[[Coxiella burnetii]]'' (which was thought at the time to cause [[Q fever]] by oral ingestion of infected milk)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Enright|first1=J.B.|last2=Sadler|first2=W.W.|last3=Thomas|first3=R.C.|date=1957|title=Thermal inactivation of Coxiella burnetii and its relation to pasteurization of milk|journal=Public Health Monograph|volume=47|pages=1–30|issn=0079-7596|pmid=13465932}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cerf|first1=O.|last2=Condron|first2=R.|date=2006|title=Coxiella burnetii and milk pasteurization: an early application of the precautionary principle?|journal=Epidemiology & Infection|volume=134|issue=5|pages=946–51|doi=10.1017/S0950268806005978|issn=1469-4409|pmc=2870484|pmid=16492321}}</ref> as well as of ''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' (which causes [[tuberculosis]])<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kells|first1=H.R.|last2=Lear|first2=S.A.|date=1960-07-01|title=Thermal Death Time Curve of Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. bovis in Artificially Infected Milk|url= |journal=Applied Microbiology|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=234–236|doi=10.1128/am.8.4.234-236.1960|issn=0099-2240|pmc=1057612|pmid=14405283}}</ref> were later demonstrated. For all practical purposes, these conditions were adequate for destroying almost all [[yeast]]s, [[Mold (fungus)|mold]]s, and common [[Food spoilage|spoilage]] bacteria and also for ensuring adequate destruction of common pathogenic, heat-resistant organisms. However, the microbiological techniques used until the 1960s did not allow for the actual reduction of bacteria to be enumerated. Demonstration of the extent of inactivation of pathogenic bacteria by milk pasteurization came from a study of surviving bacteria in milk that was heat-treated after being deliberately spiked with high levels of the most heat-resistant strains of the most significant milk-borne pathogens.<ref name="Pearce-2012">{{Cite journal|last1=Pearce|first1=L.E.|last2=Smythe|first2=B.W.|last3=Crawford|first3=R.A.|last4=Oakley|first4=E.|last5=Hathaway|first5=S.C.|last6=Shepherd|first6=J.M.|date=2012|title=Pasteurization of milk: The heat inactivation kinetics of milk-borne dairy pathogens under commercial-type conditions of turbulent flow|url=http://www.journalofdairyscience.org/article/S0022-0302(11)00673-4/abstract|journal=Journal of Dairy Science|language=en|volume=95|issue=1|pages=20–35|doi=10.3168/jds.2011-4556|issn=0022-0302|pmid=22192181|doi-access=free|access-date=15 June 2017|archive-date=19 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719140721/https://www.journalofdairyscience.org/article/S0022-0302%2811%2900673-4/fulltext|url-status=live}}</ref>

The mean log<sub>10</sub> reductions and temperatures of inactivation of the major milk-borne pathogens during a 15-second treatment are:
* ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' >&nbsp;6.7 at {{convert|66.5|C|F}}
* ''[[Yersinia enterocolitica]]'' >&nbsp;6.8 at {{convert|62.5|C|F}}
* Pathogenic ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' >&nbsp;6.8 at {{convert|65|C|F}}
* ''[[Cronobacter sakazakii]]'' >&nbsp;6.7 at {{convert|67.5|C|F}}
* ''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]'' >&nbsp;6.9 at {{convert|65.5|C|F}}
* [[Salmonella]] ser. Typhimurium >&nbsp;6.9 at {{convert|61.5|C|F}}<ref name="Pearce-2012"/>
(A log<sub>10</sub> reduction between 6 and 7 means that 1 bacterium out of 1 million (10<sup>6</sup>) to 10 million (10<sup>7</sup>) bacteria survive the treatment.)

The [[Codex Alimentarius]] ''Code of Hygienic Practice for Milk'' notes that milk pasteurization is designed to achieve at least a 5&nbsp;log<sub>10</sub> reduction of ''Coxiella burnetii''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/sh-proxy/en/?lnk=1&url=https%253A%252F%252Fworkspace.fao.org%252Fsites%252Fcodex%252FStandards%252FCAC%2BRCP%2B57-2004%252FCXP_057e.pdf|title=Code of Hygienic Practice for Milk and Milk Products|website=Codex Alimentarius|access-date=15 June 2017|archive-date=23 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170523130120/http://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/sh-proxy/en/?lnk=1&url=https%3A%2F%2Fworkspace.fao.org%2Fsites%2Fcodex%2FStandards%2FCAC+RCP+57-2004%2FCXP_057e.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The Code also notes that: "The minimum pasteurization conditions are those having bactericidal effects equivalent to heating every particle of the milk to {{convert|72|C|F}} for 15 seconds (continuous flow pasteurization) or {{convert|63|C|F}} for 30 minutes (batch pasteurization)” and that "To ensure that each particle is sufficiently heated, the milk flow in heat exchangers should be turbulent, ''i.e''. the [[Reynolds number]] should be sufficiently high". The point about turbulent flow is important because simplistic laboratory studies of heat inactivation that use test tubes, without flow, will have less bacterial inactivation than larger-scale experiments that seek to replicate conditions of commercial pasteurization.<ref name="Pearce-2001">{{Cite journal|last1=Pearce|first1=Lindsay E.|last2=Truong|first2=H. Tuan|last3=Crawford|first3=Robert A.|last4=Yates|first4=Gary F.|last5=Cavaignac|first5=Sonia|last6=Lisle|first6=Geoffrey W. de|date=2001-09-01|title=Effect of Turbulent-Flow Pasteurization on Survival of Mycobacterium avium subsp.paratuberculosis Added to Raw Milk|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|language=en|volume=67|issue=9|pages=3964–69|doi=10.1128/AEM.67.9.3964-3969.2001|issn=0099-2240|pmc=93116|pmid=11525992|bibcode=2001ApEnM..67.3964P}}</ref>

As a precaution, modern HTST pasteurization processes must be designed with flow-rate restriction as well as divert valves which ensure that the milk is heated evenly and that no part of the milk is subject to a shorter time or a lower temperature. It is common for the temperatures to exceed {{convert|72|C|F}} by {{convert|1.5|-|2|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name="Pearce-2001" />

=== Double pasteurization ===
Pasteurization is not sterilization and does not kill spores. "Double" pasteurization, which involves a secondary heating process, can extend shelf life by killing spores that have germinated.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://nikas.gr/en/faqs/what-double-pasteurization| title = What is double pasteurization?| access-date = 25 January 2021| archive-date = 23 April 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210423101324/http://nikas.gr/en/faqs/what-double-pasteurization| url-status = dead}}</ref>

The acceptance of double pasteurization varies by jurisdiction. In places where it is allowed, milk is initially pasteurized when it is collected from the farm so it does not spoil before processing. Many countries prohibit the labelling of such milk as "pasteurized" but allow it to be marked "thermized", which refers to a lower-temperature process.<ref>[https://dairyprocessinghandbook.tetrapak.com/chapter/heat-exchangers Heat Exchangers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118013909/https://dairyprocessinghandbook.tetrapak.com/chapter/heat-exchangers |date=18 January 2021 }}, Tetrapak Dairy Processing Handbook</ref>

==Effects on nutritional and sensory characteristics of foods==

Because of its mild heat treatment, pasteurization increases the shelf-life by a few days or weeks.<ref name="Fellows-2017"/> However, this mild heat also means there are only minor changes to heat-labile vitamins in the foods.<ref name="Rahman-1999">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vus1aZ1-sCkC&pg=PA102|title=Handbook of Food Preservation|last=Rahman|first=M. Shafiur|date=1999-01-21|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8247-0209-0|language=en|access-date=30 March 2021|archive-date=19 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719140715/https://books.google.com/books?id=vus1aZ1-sCkC&pg=PA102|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Milk===
According to a systematic review and meta-analysis,<ref name="Macdonald-2011">{{Cite journal|last1=Macdonald|first1=Lauren E.|last2=Brett|first2=James|last3=Kelton|first3=David|last4=Majowicz|first4=Shannon E.|last5=Snedeker|first5=Kate|last6=Sargeant|first6=Jan M.|date=2011-11-01|title=A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of pasteurization on milk vitamins, and evidence for raw milk consumption and other health-related outcomes|journal=Journal of Food Protection|volume=74|issue=11|pages=1814–32|doi=10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-10-269|issn=1944-9097|pmid=22054181|doi-access=free}}</ref> it was found that pasteurization appeared to reduce concentrations of vitamins [[vitamin B12|B12]] and [[vitamin E|E]], but it also increased concentrations of [[vitamin A]]. However, in the review, there was only limited research regarding how much pasteurization affects A, B12, and E levels.<ref name="Macdonald-2011"/> Milk is not considered an important source of vitamins B12 or E in the North American diet, so the effects of pasteurization on the adult daily intake of these vitamins is negligible.<ref name="USDA-2001">U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2001. Dietary reference intakes-recommended intakes for individuals. National Academy of Sciences. Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Available at: [http://fnic.nal.usda.gov/nal_display/index.phpinfo_center~4&tax_level~3&tax_subject~256&topic_id~1342&level3_id~5140]{{dead link|date=August 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}.</ref><ref name="USDA-2009">U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2009. "What's in the foods you eat" search tool. Available at: "https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/beltsville-md/beltsville-human-nutrition-research-center/food-surveys-research-group/docs/whats-in-the-foods-you-eat-emsearch-toolem/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425133424/https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/beltsville-md/beltsville-human-nutrition-research-center/food-surveys-research-group/docs/whats-in-the-foods-you-eat-emsearch-toolem/ |date=25 April 2017 }}</ref> However, milk is considered an important source of vitamin A,<ref name="Haug-2007">{{Cite journal|last1=Haug|first1=Anna|last2=Høstmark|first2=Arne T|last3=Harstad|first3=Odd M|date=2007-09-25|title=Bovine milk in human nutrition – a review|journal=Lipids in Health and Disease|volume=6|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1476-511X-6-25|issn=1476-511X|pmc=2039733|pmid=17894873 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and because pasteurization appears to increase vitamin A concentrations in milk, the effect of milk heat treatment on this vitamin is a not a major public health concern.<ref name="Macdonald-2011"/> Results of meta-analyses reveal that pasteurization of milk leads to a significant decrease in [[vitamin C]] and [[folate]], but milk is also not an important source of these vitamins.<ref name="Haug-2007"/><ref name="USDA-2009"/> A significant decrease in [[vitamin B2]] concentrations was found after pasteurization. Vitamin B2 is typically found in bovine milk at concentrations of 1.83&nbsp;mg/liter. Because the recommended daily intake for adults is 1.1&nbsp;mg/day,<ref name="USDA-2001"/> milk consumption greatly contributes to the recommended daily intake of this vitamin. Except for B2, pasteurization does not appear to be a concern in diminishing the [[nutritional value|nutritive value]] of milk because milk is often not a primary source of these studied vitamins in the North American diet.

===Sensory effects===

Pasteurization also has a small but measurable effect on the sensory attributes of the foods that are processed.<ref name="Fellows-2017" /> In fruit juices, pasteurization may result in loss of volatile aroma compounds.<ref name="Rahman-1999" /> Fruit juice products undergo a [[Deaerator|deaeration]] process before pasteurization that may be responsible for this loss. Deaeration also minimizes the loss of nutrients like vitamin C and [[carotene]].<ref name="Fellows-2017" /> To prevent the decrease in quality resulting from the loss in volatile compounds, volatile recovery, though costly, can be utilized to produce higher-quality juice products.<ref name="Rahman-1999" />

Regarding color, the pasteurization process does not have much effect on pigments such as [[chlorophyll]]s, anthocyanins, and [[carotenoid]]s in plants and animal tissues. In fruit juices, [[polyphenol oxidase]] (PPO) is the main enzyme responsible for causing browning and color changes. However, this enzyme is deactivated in the deaeration step before pasteurization with the removal of oxygen.<ref name="Rahman-1999" />

In milk, the color difference between pasteurized and raw milk is related to the [[homogenization (chemistry)|homogenization]] step that takes place before pasteurization. Before pasteurization milk is homogenized to emulsify its fat and water-soluble components, which results in the pasteurized milk having a whiter appearance compared to raw milk.<ref name="Fellows-2017"/> For vegetable products, color degradation is dependent on the temperature conditions and the duration of heating.<ref name="Peng-2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Peng|first1=Jing|last2=Tang|first2=Juming|last3=Barrett|first3=Diane M.|last4=Sablani|first4=Shyam S.|last5=Anderson|first5=Nathan|last6=Powers|first6=Joseph R.|date=2017-09-22|title=Thermal pasteurization of ready-to-eat foods and vegetables: Critical factors for process design and effects on quality|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=57|issue=14|pages=2970–95|doi=10.1080/10408398.2015.1082126|issn=1549-7852|pmid=26529500|s2cid=22614039}}</ref>

Pasteurization may result in some textural loss as a result of enzymatic and non-enzymatic transformations in the structure of [[pectin]] if the processing temperatures are too high as a result. However, with mild heat treatment pasteurization, tissue softening in the vegetables that causes textural loss is not of concern as long as the temperature does not get above {{convert|80|C|F}}.<ref name="Peng-2017" />

==Novel pasteurization methods==

"Pasteurizing" in the broad sense refers to any method that reduces microbes by an amount ([[log reduction]]) equivalent to Pasteur's process. Novel processes, thermal and non-thermal, have been developed to pasteurize foods as a way of reducing the effects on nutritional and sensory characteristics of foods and preventing the degradation of heat-labile nutrients. Pascalization or high pressure processing (HPP),<ref name="Fellows-2017"/><ref name="Jan-et-al-2017">{{cite journal | last1=Jan | first1=Awsi | first2=Monika | last2=Sood | first3=S. A. | last3=Sofi | first4=Tsering | last4=Norzom | title=Non-thermal processing in food applications: A review | journal=[[International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition]] | volume=2 | number=6 | date=2017 | pages=171–180}}</ref><ref name="Sui-et-al-2021">{{cite journal | last1=Sui | first1=Xiaonan | last2=Zhang | first2=Tianyi | last3=Jiang | first3=Lianzhou | title=Soy Protein: Molecular Structure Revisited and Recent Advances in Processing Technologies | journal=[[Annual Review of Food Science and Technology]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=12 | issue=1 | date=2021-03-25 | issn=1941-1413 | doi=10.1146/annurev-food-062220-104405 | pages=119–147| pmid=33317319 | s2cid=229178367 | doi-access=free }}</ref> pulsed electric field (PEF),<ref name="Fellows-2017"/><ref name="Jan-et-al-2017" /><ref name="Sui-et-al-2021" /> [[ionising radiation]], [[high pressure homogenisation]], [[UV decontamination]], [[pulsed high intensity light]], [[high intensity laser]], [[pulsed white light]], [[high power ultrasound]], [[oscillating magnetic fields]], [[high voltage arc discharge]], and [[streamer plasma]]<ref name="Jan-et-al-2017" /><ref name="Sui-et-al-2021" /> are examples of these non-thermal pasteurization methods that are currently commercially utilized.

[[Microwave volumetric heating]] (MVH) is the newest available pasteurization technology. It uses [[microwave]]s to heat liquids, suspensions, or semi-solids in a continuous flow. Because MVH delivers energy evenly and deeply into the whole body of a flowing product, it allows for gentler and shorter heating, so that almost all heat-sensitive substances in the milk are preserved.<ref name="micromilk2">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/11/131115104614.htm|title=Gentle pasteurization of milk – with microwaves|work=ScienceDaily|access-date=9 March 2018|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517152846/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/11/131115104614.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Products that are commonly pasteurized==
* [[Beer]]
* [[Canned food]]
* [[Dairy Products|Dairy products]]
* [[Pasteurized eggs|Eggs]]
* [[Milk]]
* [[Juice]]s
* [[Low Alcoholic Beverages|Low alcoholic beverages]]
* [[Syrup]]s
* [[Vinegar]]
* [[Water]]
* [[Wine]]s

==See also==

{{portal|Food|Technology}}
* [[Food irradiation]]
* [[Flash pasteurization]]
* [[Pascalization]]
* [[Homogenization (chemistry)|Homogenization]]
* [[Pasteurized eggs]]
* [[Solar water disinfection]]
* [[Thermoduric bacteria]]
* [[Food preservation]]
* [[Food storage]]
* [[Food microbiology]]
* [[Sterilization (microbiology)|Sterilization]]
* [[Thermization]]
* [[Tyndallization]]
* [[Ultra-high-temperature processing]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120503232553/http://realmilk.com/documents/expert-testimony-0508.pdf Raw milk expert testimony dated: April 25, 2008 Case: Organic Dairy Company, LLC, and Claravale Farm, Inc., Plaintiffs, vs.  No. CU-07-00204 State of California and A.G. Kawamura, Secretary of California Department of Food and Agriculture, – Expert Witnesses: Dr. Theodore Beals & Dr. Ronald Hull]
* An alternate view on the alleged safety of pasteurized vs. natural milk from Johns Hopkins University: {{cite web|website=Realmilk.com|title=The Johns Hopkins Raw Milk Study – A Campaign for Real Milk|url=http://www.realmilk.com/safety/the-johns-hopkins-raw-milk-study/|date=12 August 2015}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141227032153/http://www.innovatewithdairy.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/Unraveling%20the%20Mysteries%20of%20Shelf%20Lifepdf.pdf Unraveling the mysteries of extended shelf life]
* {{Cite book|title=Changing our world: true stories of women engineers|last=Hatch|first=Sybil E|date=2006-01-01|publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers|isbn=978-0-7844-0841-4|location=Reston, Va.|language=en|oclc=62330858|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/changingourworld00hatc}}
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