Editing Pharyngealization

{{Short description|Articulation of consonants or vowels}}
{{also|velarization}}
{{Infobox IPA
| above = Pharyngealized
| ipa symbol  = ◌ˤ
| ipa number = 423
| decimal = 740
| xsampa = <nowiki>_?\</nowiki>
| imagefile   = Pharyngealization.svg
| imagesize   = 200px
}}
{{Infobox IPA
| above       = Velarized or pharyngealized
| ipa symbol  = ◌̴
| ipa number = 428
| decimal = 820
}}
'''Pharyngealization''' is a [[secondary articulation]] of [[consonant]]s or [[vowel]]s by which the [[Human pharynx|pharynx]] or [[epiglottis]] is constricted during the articulation of the sound.

==IPA symbols==
In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], pharyngealization can be indicated by one of two methods:
#A [[tilde]] or [[swung dash]] (IPA Number 428) is written through the base letter (typographic overstrike). It is the older and more generic symbol. It indicates [[velarization]], [[uvularization]] or pharyngealization, as in {{IPA|[ᵶ]}}, the guttural equivalent of {{IPA|[z]}}.
#The symbol {{angbr IPA|ˤ}} (IPA Number 423) &ndash; a superscript variant of {{IPA|⟨ʕ⟩}}, the [[voiced pharyngeal approximant]] &ndash; is written after the base letter. It indicates specifically a pharyngealized consonant, as in {{IPA|[tˤ]}}, a pharyngealized {{IPA|[t]}}.

== Computing codes ==
Since [[Unicode]] 1.1, there have been two similar superscript characters: IPA {{angbr IPA|ˤ}} ({{unichar|02E4|modifier letter small reversed glottal stop}}) and Semiticist {{angbr IPA|ˁ}} ({{unichar|02C1|modifier letter reversed glottal stop}}). U+02E4 is formally a superscript {{angbr IPA|ʕ}} ({{unichar|0295|Latin letter pharyngeal voiced fricative}}, = reversed glottal stop), and in the Unicode charts looks like a simple superscript {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, though in some fonts it looks like a superscript reversed lower-case letter [[glottal stop (letter)|glottal stop]] {{angbr IPA|ɂ}}. U+02C1 is a typographic alternative to {{angbr|<big>ʿ</big>}} ({{unichar|02BF|modifier letter left half ring}}); which is used to transliterate the Semitic consonant [[ayin]] and which = reversed {{angbr|<big>ʾ</big>}}, which itself transliterates the glottal Semitic consonants [[aleph]] and [[hamza]]. In the Unicode charts U+02C1 looks like a reversed {{angbr IPA|ˀ}} ({{unichar|02C0|modifier letter glottal stop}}), which is used in the IPA for [[glottalization]]. There is no parallel Unicode distinction for modifier glottal stop. The IPA Handbook<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|International Phonetic Association|1999|pp=172–173}}</ref> lists U+02E4 as the Unicode equivalent of IPA Number 423, the dedicated IPA symbol for pharyngealization.

The superimposed tilde is assigned Unicode character U+0334. This was originally intended to combine with other letters to represent pharyngealization. However, that usage is now deprecated (though still functional), and several precomposed letters have been adopted to replace it. These are the labial consonants {{angbr IPA|ᵱ ᵬ ᵮ ᵯ}} and the [[coronal consonant]]s {{angbr IPA|ᵵ ᵭ ᵴ ᵶ ᵰ ᵲ ᵳ ɫ}}.

{| class=wikitable style=text-align:right
|- align=center
! Character
| colspan=2 | ʕ || colspan=2 | ˤ || colspan=2 | ˁ || colspan=2 | <big>ʿ</big> || colspan=2 | ̴ 
|- align=center
! Unicode name
| colspan=2 | {{allcaps|Latin letter pharyngeal voiced fricative}} || colspan=2 | {{allcaps|modifier letter small reversed glottal stop}} || colspan=2 | {{allcaps|modifier letter reversed glottal stop}} || colspan=2 | {{allcaps|modifier letter left half ring}} || colspan=2 | {{allcaps|combining tilde overlay}}
|-
! rowspan=2| Character encoding
| decimal || hex || decimal || hex || decimal || hex || decimal || hex || decimal || hex
|-
| 661 || 0295 || 740 || 02E4 || 705 || 02C1 || 703 || 02BF || 820 || 0334
|-
! [[Numeric character reference]]
| &amp;#661; || &amp;#x0295; || &amp;#740; || &amp;#x02E4; || &amp;#705; || &amp;#x02C1; || &amp;#703; || &amp;#x02BF; || &amp;#820; || &amp;#x0334;
|}

==Usage==
[[Ubykh language|Ubykh]], an extinct [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian language]] spoken in [[Russia]] and [[Turkey]], used pharyngealization in 14 pharyngealized consonants. [[Chilcotin language|Chilcotin]] has pharyngealized consonants that trigger pharyngealization of vowels. Many languages (such as [[Salishan languages|Salishan]], [[Sahaptian languages|Sahaptian]]) in the Plateau culture area of North America also have pharyngealization processes that are triggered by pharyngeal or pharyngealized consonants, which affect vowels.

The [[Tuu languages|Tuu]]/"[[Khoisan]]" language [[Taa language|Taa]] (or !Xóõ) has pharyngealized vowels that contrast phonemically with voiced, breathy and epiglottalized vowels.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|2005|p=183}}</ref> That feature is represented in the orthography by a tilde under the respective pharyngealized vowel. In [[Tuu languages]], epiglottalized vowels are phonemic.

For many languages, pharyngealization is generally associated with more dental articulations of coronal consonants. [[Dark l]] tends to be dental or denti-alveolar, but clear l tends to be retracted to an alveolar position.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=4}}</ref>

[[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Syriac language|Syriac]] use secondary [[uvularization]], which is generally not distinguished from pharyngealization, for the "[[emphatic consonant|emphatic]]" coronal consonants.

===Examples of pharyngealized consonants===
([[Uvularized consonant]]s are not distinguished.)

====Stops====
*pharyngealized [[voiceless alveolar stop]] {{audio-IPA|Voiceless_pharyngealized_alveolar_stop.ogg|[tˤ]|help=no}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Kurdish language|Kurmanji]], [[Mizrahi Hebrew|Mizrahi]] and [[Classical Hebrew]])
*pharyngealized [[voiced alveolar stop]] {{audio-IPA|Voiced pharyngealized alveolar stop.ogg|[dˤ]|help=no}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Tamazight]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless bilabial stop]] {{IPA|[pˤ]}} (in [[Kurdish language|Kurmanji]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]] and [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]])
*pharyngealized [[voiced bilabial stop]] {{IPA|[bˤ]}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]], [[Siwa language|Siwa]], [[Shihhi Arabic]] and [[Iraqi Arabic]], allophonic in [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] and [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless uvular stop]] {{IPA|[qˤ]}} (in [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]], [[Tsakhur language|Tsakhur]], and [[Archi language|Archi]])
*pharyngealized [[voiced uvular stop]] {{IPA|[ɢˤ]}} (in [[Tsakhur language|Tsakhur]])
*pharyngealized [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔˤ]}} (in [[Shihhi Arabic]]; allophonic in [[Chechen language|Chechen]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless velar plosive]] {{IPA|[kˤ]}} (in [[Kurdish language|Kurmanji]])
*pharyngealized [[voiced velar plosive]] {{IPA|[ɡˤ]}} (in [[Sorani]]{{sfnp|Asadpour|Mohammadi|2014|p=109}})

====Fricatives====
*pharyngealized [[Voiceless alveolar fricative#Voiceless alveolar sibilant|voiceless alveolar sibilant]] {{audio-IPA|Voiceless pharyngealized alveolar sibilant.ogg|[sˤ]|help=no}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Kurdish language|Kurmanji]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Classical Hebrew]] and [[Northern Berber languages|Northern Berber]])
*pharyngealized [[Voiced alveolar fricative#Voiced alveolar sibilant|voiced alveolar sibilant]] {{audio-IPA|Voiced pharyngealized alveolar sibilant.ogg|[zˤ]|help=no}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Kurdish language|Kurmanji]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless postalveolar fricative]] {{IPA|[ʃˤ]}} (in [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] and [[Chechen language|Chechen]])
*pharyngealized [[voiced postalveolar fricative]] {{IPA|[ʒˤ]}} (in [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] and [[Chechen language|Chechen]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless dental fricative]] {{IPA|[θˤ]}} (in [[Zenaga language|Zenaga]], [[Shawiya language|Shawiya]] and [[Shehri language|Shehri]])
*pharyngealized [[voiced dental fricative]] {{audio-IPA|Voiced pharyngealized dental fricative.ogg|[ðˤ]|help=no}} (in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] {{lang|ar|ظ}}, and as {{IPA|[θ̬ˤ]}}, a variant pronunciation in [[Mehri language|Mehri]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative]] {{IPA|[ɬˤ]}}
*pharyngealized [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative]] {{audio-IPA|Voiced pharyngealized alveolar lateral fricative.ogg|[ɮˤ]|help=no}} (in [[Soqotri language|Soqotri]], a variant pronunciation in [[Mehri language|Mehri]], and postulated for [[Classical Arabic]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless labiodental fricative]] {{IPA|[fˤ]}} (in [[Sorani]]{{sfnp|Asadpour|Mohammadi|2014|p=109}})
*pharyngealized [[voiced labiodental fricative]] {{IPA|[vˤ]}} (in [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[χˤ]}} (in [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]], [[Tsakhur language|Tsakhur]], [[Archi language|Archi]] and [[Bzyb dialect|Bzyb Abkhaz]])
*pharyngealized [[voiced uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[ʁˤ]}} (in [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]], [[Tsakhur language|Tsakhur]] and [[Archi language|Archi]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless glottal fricative]] {{IPA|[hˤ]}} (in [[Tsakhur language|Tsakhur]])

====Affricates====
*pharyngealized [[voiceless alveolar affricate]] {{IPA|[tsˤ]}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]])
*pharyngealized [[voiced alveolar affricate]] {{IPA|[dzˤ]}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]])
*pharyngealized [[voiceless postalveolar affricate]] {{IPA|[tʃˤ]}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]] and [[Kurdish language|Kurmanji]])
*pharyngealized [[voiced postalveolar affricate]] {{IPA|[dʒˤ]}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]])

====Trills====
*pharyngealized [[voiced alveolar trill]] {{IPA|[rˁ]}} (in [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]] and [[Siwa language|Siwa]])

====Nasals====
*pharyngealized [[bilabial nasal]] {{IPA|[mˤ]}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]], [[Moroccan Arabic|Moroccan Darija]], and [[Iraqi Arabic]])
*pharyngealized [[alveolar nasal]] {{IPA|[nˤ]}} (in [[Chechen language|Chechen]])

====Approximants====
*pharyngealized [[labio-velar approximant|labialized velar approximant]] {{IPA|[wˤ]}} (in [[Shihhi Arabic]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]] and [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]])
*pharyngealized [[alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[lˤ]}} (in [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]], English, and Northern Standard [[Dutch language|Dutch]])
*pharyngealized labialized [[postalveolar approximant]] {{audio-IPA|Postalveolar approximant.ogg|[ɹ̠ˤʷ]}} (an {{IPAc-en|r}} variant in [[American English]])
*pharyngealized [[velar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɹ̈ˤ]}}, with the body of the tongue bunched up at the velum (in some dialects of American English and Dutch)

===Examples of pharyngealized vowels===
*pharyngealized [[open-mid back rounded vowel]] {{IPA|[ɔˤ]}} in Northern Standard [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
*pharyngealized vowels {{IPA|[ɪˤ ɜˤ ʊˤ ɛˤ ~ æˤ ɐˤ ~ aˤ ɔˤ aˤ ~ ɑˤ]}} in the [[Air Tamajeq language]]
*pharyngealized vowels {{IPA|[iˤ uˤ oˤ ɑˤ]}} in [[Even language|Even]]
*pharyngealized vowels {{IPA|[iˤ uˤ eˤ əˤ oˤ aˤ]}} in [[Tsakhur language|Tsakhur]]
*pharyngealized vowels {{IPA|[iˤ uˤ ɛˤ ɔˤ ɑˤ]}} in [[Udi language|Udi]]
*pharyngealized vowels {{IPA|[ĩˤ ũˤ ãˤ iˀˤ uˀˤ ɛˀˤ ɔˀˤ aˀˤ]}} in [[Mangbai language|Mambay (Mangbai)]]
*pharyngealized vowels {{IPA|[iˤ uˤ eˤ oˤ aˤ]}} in [[Taa language|ǃXóõ]]

==See also==
*[[Velarization]]
*[[Creaky voice]] (laryngealization)
*[[Pharyngeal consonant]]
*[[Epiglottal consonant]]
*[[Pharynx]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book
|last=Ladefoged
|first=Peter
|year=2005
|title=Vowels and Consonants
|edition=Second
|publisher=Blackwell
|author-link=Peter Ladefoged
}}
*{{Cite journal
| last1 = Recasens
| first1 = Daniel
| last2 =Espinosa
| first2 = Aina
| year= 2005
| title= Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects
| journal= Journal of the International Phonetic Association
|volume= 35
| issue= 1
|pages=1–25
| doi = 10.1017/S0025100305001878
| s2cid = 14140079
}}
*{{cite book
|editor=International Phonetic Association
|year=1999
|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|editor-link=International Phonetic Association
}}

==Further reading==
*[[Ian Maddieson]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20110617064432/http://www.ncl.ac.uk/linguistics/assets/documents/PharyngealsMaddieson.pdf Typology and occurrence of pharyngeals and pharyngealization around the world.]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Pharyngeal consonants]]
[[Category:Secondary articulation]]